Chapter 8

X-Rays
Specific Objectives
By the end of this topic, the learner should be able to:
a) Explain the production of X-rays
b) State the properties of X-rays
c) State the dangers of X-rays
d) Explain the uses of X-rays
e) Solve numerical problems involving X-rays
Contents
 Production of X-rays X-ray tube
 Energy changes in an X-ray tube
 Properties of X-rays, soft X-rays and hard X-rays
 Dangers of X-rays and precautions
 Uses of x-rays
 Problems on x-rays
 X-Rays
X- rays were discovered by W. Roentgen in 1895
when he was conducting a research of cathode rays.
He called them X-rays because their nature was
unknown at the time of discovery. X-rays are
produced when fast moving electrons are suddenly
stopped by matter.
Production of X-Rays
 Production of X-Rays
 When a Cathode is heated, it produces electrons by thermionic
emission. Emitted electrons are accelerated to the anode (target)
by high potential difference i.e. 100kv between cathode and anode.
 When first moving electrons are stopped by the anode (target)
part of their kinetic energy is converted to x-rays.
 An x-ray tube is really a high voltage diode valve.
 Cathode is concave so as to focus electron beam to the tungsten
target.
 The cathode is coated with oxides of low work function so that
electrons are easily emitted from its surface when it is heated.
 The anode target has a high melting point to withstand a lot of
heat generated e.g. tungsten or molybdenum
 Most of kinetic energy of electrons is converted to heat energy but
 Production of X-Rays
 Anode is made of good conductor of heat i.e. copper for efficient
(fast) dissipation of heat energy. However, oil circulation and fins
enhances cooling process.
 Lead shielding has high density so as to prevent x-rays from
penetrating into undesirable targets.
 Modern x-rays have a rotating target during operation to
change the point of impact thereby reducing the wear and
tear on it.
 The target is set at an angle (450) to direct x-rays out of
the tube through a window on the lead shield. See the
figure below:
Modern X-ray Model with Rotating Anode
 Properties of X-Rays
1. Travel in straight line at a speed of light in a vacuum.
2. X-rays are dangerous, they can cause cancer.
3. X-rays penetrate substances but are absorbed by dense solids e.
g. bones or lead.
4. X-rays affect photographic films.
5. X-rays ionise gases, so that the gases become conductors.
6. X-rays can cause photo electric emission.
7. X-rays cause fluorescence in certain substances.
8. X-rays are not deflected by a magnetic or electric fields.
9. X-rays can be diffracted and plane polarised so they are waves.
10. X-rays are electromagnetic waves of very short wave lengths
and hence obey the wave equation c= λf and energy equation E =
hf
 Types of X-Rays
Hard X-rays
Have high frequency (short wave length) hence high penetrating
power. This is achieved by increasing the anode voltage, in order to
give the cathode rays more kinetic energy.
These x-rays penetrates the flesh but are absorbed by the bones.
 Types of X-Rays
Soft x-rays
 The soft x-rays are produced by electrons moving at a lower
velocity compared to those producing hard x-rays. This is
achieved by lowering the accelerating voltage.
 These x-rays are used to show malignant growth in tissues
because they only penetrate the soft tissues.
 Quality and type of x-rays produced is determined by the
accelerating potential.
 Intensity (Quantity) of x-rays
 The Intensity of x-rays is controlled by amount of heating current.
 The greater the heating current, the greater the number of
electrons produced hence more x-rays.
 To give a more intense beam of x-rays, the cathode is made hotter,
to give more electrons leading to more x-rays.

NOTE: The strength of the X-rays depends on the accelerating

potential difference between the anode and the cathode.
 Applications of x-rays (uses)
(i) In medicine (Radiography and Radiotherapy).
Due to the penetrating property of x-rays, fractured bones and
dislocated joints can be seen from x-ray photograph called
radiograph. Foreign objects like swallowed coins or pins can also be
located.
Hard X-rays can treat cancer, tumours and other skin diseases by
destroying the infected cells.

(ii)Science/Crystallography
Study of crystal structure which explains the arrangement of atoms
in different materials. In case there are fractures in the structure of
the material, they can easily be revealed by the X-rays
 Applications of x-rays (uses)
(iii) In Industry
 Inspect cracks/flaws in metal casting.
 Sterilize surgical equipment before packaging.

(iv) Security e.g. in Airports.

To inspect luggage for any weapon hidden in them.
 Dangers of X–rays
 Because of their ionizing property, X-rays can cause serious
damage to the body cells. Excess exposure of living tissue to X-ray
can lead to damage or killing of the cells.
 The penetrating property can also cause genetic changes and
even produce serious diseases like cancer if one is exposes to
them for a long time.
 Precautions when using x-ray machine
(i) X-ray machines have lead shield to protect theoperator from stray
X-rays.
(ii) The rooms of operation have concrete walls to absorb any
leaking radiations (X-rays).
(iii) Reduce exposure time.
 Energy of x-rays
•
 Calculations
1. Calculate the wave length of x-rays whose frequency is given by
2.0 × 1020 Hz.
2. Find the energy of x-rays whose wave length is 10-10 m in a vacuum.
(c =3.0 × 108 m/s, h= 6.63 × 10-34 Js).
3. An x-ray tube is operated with anode potential of 50kV and current of
15mA, calculate;
(i) The rate at which energy is converted at the target of the x-ray
tube.
(ii) Kinetic energy of the emitted electrons before hitting the target.
(iii) The maximum velocity of the electrons.
(iv) The frequency of the x-rays produced if 0.5% of the energy is
converted into x-rays.
 Calculations
4. An x-ray tube operates at a potential of 80 kV. Only 0.5% of electron
energy is converted to X-rays at the anode at a rate of 100 J/s.
Determine;
(i) The tube current.
(ii) The average velocity of electron shitting the target.
(iii) The minimum wave length of x-rays
5. An x-ray tube operating at 50 kV has a tube current of 20mA.
(Take me
=
9.
1
×1
0-
3
1k
g,
e=
1.
6
×1
0-
1
9C
,c
=3
.
0
×1
08
)
How many electrons are hitting target per second.
(i) If 0.5% of energy of electron is converted to x-rays, estimate the
quantity of heat energy produced per second.
(ii) Find x-ray power output.
 Calculations
More
1. State one agricultural use of x-rays.
2. Name the property of x-rays that determines the type of x-rays
produced.
3. An x-ray tube is operated at 125kV potential and 10mA. If only 1% of
the electrical power is converted to x-rays, at what rate is the target
being heated? If the target has 0.3 kg and is made of a material
whose specific heat capacity is 150 Jkg-1K-1, at what average rate
would the temperature rise if there were no thermal loses?
 Calculations
4. The figure below shows the essential components of an X–ray tube;
a) (i) Briefly explain electrons
are produced by the cathode
(ii) How are the electrons
produced accelerated
towards the anode?
(iii) Why is the target made of
tungsten?
(iv) How is cooling achieved in
this kind of X-rays machine.
(v) Why would it be necessary for
the target to rotate during
operation of this machine?
 Calculations
(vi) Why is the tube evacuated?
(vii) Why is the machine surrounded by a lead shield?
(b) If the accelerating voltage is 100 kV calculate;
(i) Kinetic energy of the electrons arriving at the target (e=1.6 x
10-19C).
(ii) If 0.5% of the electron energy is converted into X-rays
determine the minimum wave length of the emitted X-rays
(h=6.63 x 10-34 JS, and
C = 3.0 x 108 ms-1)
 Reference
Oliver Minish etal, Secondary Physics, Students Book Four, 4th
edition, KLB, Nairobi, 2017 Page 144 - 150