01/09/2023

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Generalized Cell. This generalized cell shows the major organelles contained
in cells. However, no single cell contains all of these organelle
types. Furthermore, one kind of cell may contain many organelles of
one type, whereas another kind of cell may contain very few.
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Functions of the Cell:

• Cell metabolism and energy use - chemical
reactions that occur within cells ; energy released
during metabolism is used for cell activities
• Synthesis of molecules – proteins, nucleic acids,
lipids determined the structure and functional
characteristics of cell
• Communication - through chemical and electrical
signals
• Reproduction and inheritance - genetic
information are transmitted to the next generation

Cell Structure
Organelles:
• specialized structures in cells that perform specific functions
• Example: nucleus, mitochondria, ribosomes

Cytoplasm:
• jelly-like substance that holds organelles

Cell membrane:
• also termed the plasma membrane
• a structure that encloses the cytoplasm

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Cell Membrane Structure

• outermost component; encloses the cytoplasm and forms
a boundary between material inside the cell and
material outside
extracellular substances - substances outside the cell
intracellular substances – substances inside the cell
• supports the cell contents, acts as a selective barrier that
determines what moves into and out of the cell, and
plays a role in communication between cells

• made up of two major types of molecules: phospholipids

and proteins
• also contains other molecules, such as cholesterol and
carbohydrates.

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Cell Membrane Structure

Fluid-mosaic model of the cell membrane

The membrane is composed of a bilayer of phospholipids and
cholesterol with proteins “floating” in the membrane. The nonpolar
hydrophobic region of each phospholipid molecule is directed toward
the center of the membrane, and the polar hydrophilic region is
directed toward the fluid environment either outside or inside the cell.
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Phospholipid Structure

• double layer of phospholipids forms a lipid barrier

between the inside and outside of the cell

• polar head region - hydrophilic faces the extracellular and

intracellular fluids of the cell; exposed to water around
the membrane
• nonpolar, fatty acid region – hydrophobic, faces the interior
of the membrane

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Movement through the Cell Membrane

• cell membrane has selective permeability, which allows
only certain substances to pass in and out of the cell.
• substances such as enzymes, glycogen, and K+ are found
in higher concentrations inside the cell
• substances such as Na+, Ca2+ and Cl− are found in higher
concentrations outside the cell
• movement through the cell membrane may be passive or
active
• passive membrane transport does not require the cell to
expend energy
• active membrane transport does require the cell to
expend energy, usually in the form of ATP
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Movement through the Cell Membrane

Passive membrane transport mechanisms - diffusion,

osmosis, and facilitated diffusion

Active membrane transport mechanisms - active

transport, secondary active transport,
endocytosis, and exocytosis

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Diffusion

• solution - composed of solutes and solvent

• solutes - substances dissolved in a predominant liquid or

gas, which is called the solvent

• solutes (ex., ions or molecules), tend to move from an

area of higher concentration of a solute to an area of
lower concentration of that same solute in solution;

• this movement from high concentration to a low

concentration is called diffusion

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Diffusion

Illustration of diffusion of a salt (green) in a beaker of water

- diffusion is the gradual spread of salt throughout a beaker of still water

• involves movement of substances in a solution down a

concentration gradient - difference in the
concentration of a solute in a solvent between two
points divided by the distance between the two points
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Cell Membrane Passage

• some substances, like O2 and CO2, can pass directly through the cell
membrane’s phospholipid bilayer

• some substances must pass through transmembrane protein

channels, such as Na+ through its channels
• route of transport through the membrane depends on the size, shape,
and charge of the substance.

Diffusion Through the Cell

Membrane.

Non-lipid-soluble molecules (red) diffuse

through membrane channels. Lipid-
soluble molecules (orange) diffuse
directly through the cell membrane.

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Leak and Gated Channels

• with two classes of cell

membrane channels
• Leak channels
constantly allow ions to
pass through
• Gated channels limit the
movement of ions Leak and Gated Membrane Channels
across the membrane In this example, the K+ leak channel
(purple) is always open, allowing K+ to
by opening and closing diffuse across the cell membrane. The
gated Na+ channel (pink) regulates the
movement of Na+ across the membrane
by opening and closing.

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Osmosis
• diffusion of water (a solvent) across a
selectively permeable membrane from
a region of higher water concentration
to one of lower water concentration

• exerts a pressure, termed osmotic

pressure, which is the force required
to prevent movement of water across
cell membrane
• important to cells because large
volume changes caused by water
movement can disrupt normal cell
functions

Osmosis.
Water moves from the beaker
across the selectively permeable
membrane into a tube containing a
solution with a higher salt
concentration
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Osmotic Pressure and the Cell

• Osmotic pressure depends on the difference of solution

concentrations inside a cell relative to outside the
cell
• A cell may be placed in solutions that are either
hypotonic, isotonic, or hypertonic compared to
the cell cytoplasm

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Hypotonic

• solution has a lower concentration of

solutes and a higher concentration
of water relative to the cytoplasm of
the cell
• solution has less tone, or osmotic
pressure, than the cell
• water moves by osmosis into the
cell, causing it to swell
• if the cell swells enough, it can
rupture, a process called lysis

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Red Blood Cell Changes in Differing Solutions

David M. Phillips/Science Source

Figure 3.5
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Isotonic

• A cell immersed in an isotonic

solution has the same solute
concentrations inside and
outside the cell
• The cell will neither shrink nor
swell

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Hypertonic

• When a cell is immersed in a

hypertonic solution, the solution has
a higher concentration of solutes
and a lower concentration of water
relative to the cytoplasm of the cell

• Water moves by osmosis from the

cell into the hypertonic solution

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Carrier-Mediated Transport Mechanisms

• many nutrient molecules (amino acids and glucose), cannot
enter the cell by diffusion; many polar molecules produced
in cells cannot leave the cell by diffusion

• carrier molecules, which are proteins within the cell membrane,

are involved in carrier-mediated transport mechanisms,
which move large, water-soluble molecules or electrically
charged ions across the cell membrane;
- exhibit specificity; only specific molecules are
transported by the carriers

• three kinds of carrier mediated transport:

facilitated diffusion, active transport, and
secondary active transport

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Facilitated Diffusion

• a carrier-mediated transport
process that moves
substances across the cell
membrane from an area of
higher concentration to an
area of lower concentration
of that substance

• because movement is with

the concentration gradient, Facilitated Diffusion.
metabolic energy in the form A carrier molecule transports glucose
of ATP is not required across the cell membrane from an area
of higher glucose concentration (outside
the cell) to an area of lower glucose
concentration (inside the cell).

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Active Transport

• a carrier-mediated process, requiring ATP, that move

substances across the cell membrane from regions
of lower concentration to those of higher
concentration against a concentration gradient
• accumulate necessary substances on one side of the
cell membrane at concentrations many times
greater than those on the other side

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Active Transport: Sodium-Potassium

Pump.

The sodium-potassium pump

requires ATP to move a higher
concentration of Na+ out of the cell
and a higher concentration of K+
into the cell.

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Secondary Active Transport

1. A Na+–K+ pump maintains a

concentration of Na+ that is
higher outside the cell than
inside.

2. Na+ move back into the cell by a

carrier molecule that also moves
glucose. The concentration
Secondary Active Transport gradient for Na+ provides the
energy required to move glucose,
by cotransport, against its
The active transport of Na+ out of concentration gradient.
the cell (step 1) maintains a Na+
concentration gradient, which
provides the energy for moving
glucose against its concentration
gradient (step 2)

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Endocytosis
• uptake of material through the cell membrane by the
formation of a vesicle
• the cell membrane invaginates (folds inward) to form a
vesicle containing the material to be taken into the
cell
• the vesicle then moves into the cytoplasm
• exhibits specificity

• requires energy in the form of ATP for the formation

and movement of vesicles

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Endocytosis

• Receptor-mediated endocytosis
- occurs when a specific substance
binds to the receptor molecule and
is transported into the cell
• Phagocytosis - used for
endocytosis when solid particles
are ingested
Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis.
• Pinocytosis has much smaller
vesicles formed, and they contain Molecules bind to receptors on
the cell membrane, and a vesicle
liquid rather than solid particles forms to transport the molecules
into the cell.

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Exocytosis
• involves the use of membrane-
bound sacs called secretory
vesicles that accumulate
materials for release from the
cell

• the vesicles move to the cell

membrane and fuse, ultimately
releasing the material by
exocytosis.

• examples of exocytosis are the

secretion of digestive enzymes Diagram of exocytosis

• allows the release of materials from cell;

requires energy in the form of ATP for the
formation and movement of vesicles

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Organelles
• the interior of a cell is
composed of the
cytoplasm, which a jelly-like
fluid that surrounds the
organelles.

• specialized structures that

perform certain functions
• includes the nucleus,
ribosomes, endoplasmic
reticulum, Golgi apparatus,
lysosomes, peroxisomes,
mitochondria, cytoskeleton,
centrioles, cilia, flagella, and
microvilli

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Cell Nucleus

• a large organelle usually

located near the center of
the cell

• bounded by a nuclear
envelope, which consists of
outer and inner membranes
with a narrow space
between them
• nuclear membrane contains
nuclear pores, through
which materials can pass
into or out of the nucleus

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Nucleus

(a) The nuclear envelope consists of inner and outer membranes, which become fused
at the nuclear pores. The nucleolus is a condensed region of the nucleus not bounded
by a membrane and consisting mostly of RNA and protein. (b) Transmission electron
micrograph of the nucleus. (c) Scanning electron micrograph showing the membranes of
the nuclear envelope and the nuclear pores. (b,c)
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Cell Nucleus
• nuclei of human cells contain
23 pairs of chromosomes
which consist of DNA and
proteins

• during most of a cell’s life, the

chromosomes are loosely
coiled and collectively called Transmission electron micrograph of the nucleus
chromatin
• when a cell prepares to divide,
the chromosomes become
tightly coiled and are visible
when viewed with a
Structure of a Chromosome.
microscope
Chromosomes consist of DNA and proteins.
When loosely coiled, chromosomes are
collectively referred to as chromatin. During
cell division, chromosomes become tightly
coiled and visible as individual structures.

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Cell Nucleus

• within the nucleus are nucleoli,

which are diffuse bodies with no
surrounding membrane that are
found within the nucleus

• there are usually one to several

nucleoli within the nucleus

• the subunits of ribosomes, a type

of cytoplasmic organelle, are
produced within a nucleolus • ribosomes may be attached to
other organelles, such as the
• ribosomes are the organelles where endoplasmic reticulum.
proteins are produced
• ribosomes that are not attached
• these ribosomal components exit to any other organelle are
the nucleus through nuclear pores called free ribosomes

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Ribosome Production

Production of Ribosomes.

Ribosomal subunits are produced in the

nucleus and then move into the cytoplasm,
where they form ribosomes during protein
synthesis

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Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

• a series of membranes forming
sacs and tubules that extends
from the outer nuclear
membrane into the cytoplasm
• rough ER - involved in protein
synthesis and is rough due to
attached ribosomes
The endoplasmic reticulum is
• smooth ER has no attached continuous with the nuclear
envelope and can exist as either
ribosomes and is a site for lipid rough endoplasmic reticulum
synthesis, cellular (with ribosomes) or smooth
detoxification, and it stores endoplasmic reticulum (without
ribosomes).
calcium ions in skeletal muscle
cells.

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Golgi Apparatus
• also called the Golgi complex, consists of closely packed stacks of
curved, membrane-bound sacs

• collects, modifies, packages, and distributes proteins and lipids

manufactured by the ER

• forms vesicles, some of which are secretory vesicles, lysosomes, and

other vesicles

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Lysosomes

• membrane-bound vesicles formed from the Golgi apparatus

• contain a variety of enzymes that function as intracellular digestive systems

• vesicles formed by endocytosis may fuse with lysosomes in order to breakdown

materials in the endocytotic vesicles.

• one example is white blood cells phagocytizing bacteria; then enzymes within
lysosomes destroy the phagocytized bacteria

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Peroxisomes

• small, membrane-bound vesicles containing enzymes

that break down fatty acids, amino acids, and
hydrogen peroxide (H2O2)
• H2O2 is a by-product of fatty acid and amino acid
breakdown and can be toxic to a cell
• enzymes in peroxisomes break down hydrogen
• cells active in detoxification, such as liver and kidney
cells, have many peroxisomes

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Mitochondrion/Mitochondria
• small organelles responsible for producing considerable amounts
of ATP by aerobic (with O2) metabolism

• with inner and outer membranes separated by a space

• outer membranes have a smooth contour;

• inner membranes have numerous folds, called cristae,

which project into the interior of the mitochondria

(a) Typical mitochondrion structure. (b) Transmission electron micrograph

of mitochondria in longitudinal and cross sections.
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Mitochondria
• material within the inner membrane is the mitochondrial
matrix and contains enzymes and mitochondrial
DNA (mtDNA)
• major sites of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) production
within cells
• carry out aerobic respiration, a series of chemical
reactions that require O2 to break down food
molecules to produce ATP
• ATP is the main energy source for most chemical
reactions within the cell, and cells
• cells with a large energy requirement have more
mitochondria than cells that require less energy

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Cytoskeleton
• gives internal framework to the cell

• consists of protein structures that support the cell, hold organelles

in place, and enable the cell to change shape

• protein structures are microtubules, microfilaments, and

intermediate filaments

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Microtubules
• hollow structures formed from protein subunits

• perform a variety of roles, including helping to support the cytoplasm of

cells, assisting in cell division, and forming essential components
of certain organelles, such as cilia and flagella

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Microfilaments

• small fibrils formed from

protein subunits that
structurally support the
cytoplasm, determining
cell shape

• some are involved with

cell movement
• in muscle cells enable
the cells to shorten, or
contract

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Intermediate Filaments

• formed from protein subunits

that are smaller in diameter
than microtubules but larger
in diameter than
microfilaments

• provides mechanical support

to the cell

• keratin - a specific type of

intermediate filament, a
protein associated with skin
cells

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Centrioles
• a specialized area of cytoplasm close to the nucleus where
microtubule formation occurs

• contain two centrioles, which are normally oriented perpendicular to

each other

• each centriole is a small, cylindrical organelle composed of

microtubules

• involved in the process of mitosis

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Cilium / Cilia

• cilium – an eyelash

• project from the surface of

certain cells
• cylindrical structures that
extend from the cell and are
composed of microtubules

• numerous on surface cells

that line the respiratory tract

• responsible for the

movement of materials over
the top of cells, such as
mucus

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Flagella

• similar structure to that of cilia but are much longer,

and they usually occur only one per cell
• sperm cells each have one flagellum, which propels
the sperm cell

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Microvilli

• specialized extensions of
the cell membrane that are
supported by microfilaments

• do not actively move as cilia

and flagella do
• numerous on cells that have
them and they increase the
surface area of those cells

• abundant on the surface of

cells that line the intestine,
kidney, and other areas in
which absorption is an
important function

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Whole Cell Activity

• a cell’s characteristics are determined by the type of
proteins it produces

• proteins produced are in turn determined by the genetic

information in the nucleus

• in order to understand how a cell functions, we must

consider the relationship between genes and
proteins

• information in DNA provides the cell with a code for its

cellular processes

• whole-cell activities determine the characteristics of a

functioning cell and the growth and maintenance
of the human body

• understanding how genetic information is used in the

cell and distributed to daughter cells is important
for understanding basic cellular activity
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DNA
• contains the information that directs
protein synthesis; a process called
gene expression

• a DNA molecule consists of

nucleotides joined together to form
two nucleotide strands

• the two strands are connected and

resemble a ladder that is twisted
around its long axis

• each nucleotide consists of a 5-

carbon sugar, a phosphate group,
and a nitrogenous base

• each nucleotide on one DNA strand

has a specific bonding pattern to • a gene is a sequence of nucleotides
another nucleotide on the opposite that provides a chemical set of
strand instructions for making a specific
protein
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DNA
• serve as structural components
inside the cell, proteins secreted
to the outside of the cell, and
enzymes that regulate chemical
reactions in the cell

• influences the structural and

functional characteristics of the
entire organism because it
directs protein synthesis
1. The strands of the DNA molecule separate from each
• whether an individual has blue other. One DNA strand serves as a template for mRNA
synthesis.
eyes, brown hair, or other 2. Nucleotides that will form mRNA pair with DNA
inherited traits is determined nucleotides according to the base-pair combinations
shown in the key at the top of the figure. Thus, the
ultimately by DNA sequence of nucleotides in the template DNA strand
(purple) determines the sequence of nucleotides in
mRNA (gray). An enzyme (not shown) joins the
nucleotides of mRNA together.
3. As nucleotides are added, an mRNA molecule is formed

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Gene Expression

• Gene expression, which is protein synthesis, involves

transcription and translation

• Transcription involves copying DNA into messenger

RNA (mRNA); takes place in the nucleus of the
cell

• Translation involves mRNA being used to produce a

protein; occurs in the cell cytoplasm after mRNA
has exited the nucleus through the nuclear pores;
mRNA attaches to a ribosome

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Overview of Gene Expression

1. DNA contains the information
necessary to produce proteins.
2. Transcription of one DNA strand
results in mRNA, which is a
complementary copy of the
information in the DNA strand
needed to make a protein.

3. The mRNA leaves the nucleus and

goes to a ribosome.

4. Amino acids, the building blocks of

proteins, are carried to the
ribosome by transfer RNAs
(tRNAs).

5. In the process of translation, the

information contained in mRNA is
used to determine the number,
kinds, and arrangement of amino
acids in the polypeptide chain
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1.To start protein synthesis, a ribosome binds to mRNA.

The ribosome also has two binding sites for tRNA, one of
which is occupied by a tRNA with its amino acid. Note that
the codon of mRNA and the anticodon of tRNA are aligned
and joined. The other tRNA binding site is open.

2. By occupying the open tRNA binding site, the next tRNA

is properly aligned with mRNA and with the other tRN.

3. An enzyme within the ribosome catalyzes a synthesis

reaction to form a peptide bond between the amino acids.
Note that the amino acids are now associated with only one
of the tRNAs.

4. The ribosome shifts position by three nucleotides. The

tRNA without the amino acid is released from the ribosome,
and the tRNA with the amino acids takes its position. A
tRNA binding site is left open by the shift. Additional amino
acids can be added by repeating steps 2 through 4.
Eventually, a stop codon in the mRNA ends the addition of
amino acids to the protein (polypeptide), which is released
from the ribosome.

Translation of mRNA to Produce a Protein

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The Cell Cycle

• during growth and development, cell division

occurs to increase the number of cells or
replace damaged or dying ones
• this cell division involves a cell cycle
• includes two major phases: a non-dividing
phase, called interphase, and a cell
dividing phase, termed mitosis

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1. Interphase is the time between cell divisions. DNA is found

as thin threads of chromatin in the nucleus. DNA replication
occurs during interphase.

2. In prophase, the chromatin condenses into chromosomes.

Each chromosome consists of two chromatids joined at the
centromere.

3, In metaphase, the chromosomes align in the center of the cell

4. In anaphase, the chromatids separate at the centromere and

migrate to opposite poles

5. In telophase, the chromosomes disperse, the nuclear envelopes

and the nucleoli form, and the cytoplasm continues to divide to
form two daughter cells.

6. Mitosis is complete, and a new interphase begins. The

chromosomes have unraveled to become chromatin. Cell
division has produced two daughter cells, each with DNA
that is identical to the DNA of the parent cell.

The Cell Cycle

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Differentiation
• a sperm cell and an oocyte unite to form a single cell,
then a great number of mitotic divisions occur to
give the trillions of cells of the body
• the process by which cells develop with specialized
structures and functions is called differentiation
• during differentiation of a cell, some portions of DNA
are active, but others are inactive
• active and inactive sections of DNA differ with each
cell type
• results from the selective activation and inactivation of
segments of DNA

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Apoptosis

• Apoptosis, termed programmed cell death, is a normal

process by which cell numbers within various tissues
are adjusted and controlled
• in the developing fetus, apoptosis removes extra tissue,
such as cells between the developing fingers and
toes
• in some adult tissues, apoptosis eliminates excess cells
to maintain a constant number of cells within the
tissue
• damaged or potentially dangerous cells, virus-infected
cells, and potential cancer cells are also eliminated
by apoptosis
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