Hardware Engineer's Guide

SENSORS

By Shimi Cohen
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INTRODUCTION TO SENSORS
Core Definitions
A sensor converts physical phenomena into measurable electrical signals. The transducer performs the
actual energy conversion. Every sensing system requires both components to function effectively.
Modern electronics depend on accurate sensing for control, monitoring, and feedback systems. Board-
level integration demands understanding sensor characteristics, interface requirements, and system
constraints. The sensor element responds to stimulation. The transducer converts response into electrical
output. Modern ICs often integrate both functions in single packages.
Sensor vs Transducer Distinction:
Component Function Example
Sensor Detects physical change Thermocouple junction
Transducer Converts energy forms Voltage output circuit
Complete System Detection + Conversion Temperature Measurement IC

ENERGY CONVERSION MECHANISMS

Common conversion mechanisms:
Resistive Changes: Temperature affects material resistance. Strain alters conductor geometry. Chemical
exposure modifies surface properties.

Capacitive Changes: Distance variations alter plate spacing. Dielectric property changes modify
capacitance. Humidity affects dielectric constant.

Inductive Changes: Magnetic field variations induce voltage. Position changes affect coupling. Eddy
currents provide proximity detection.

Piezoelectric Effects: Mechanical Stress generates voltage. Crystal deformation produces charge
separation. Acceleration creates measurable signals.

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Physical vs Virtual Sensing

VIRTUAL SENSING IMPLEMENTATION
Virtual sensors calculate unmeasured parameters from available data.
Software algorithms process multiple sensor inputs.
.
Applications include:
• Engine torque estimation
• Battery state-of-charge
• Tire pressure
• Structural Health Monitoring

PHYSICAL SENSING CHARACTERISTICS

Physical sensors directly interact with measured phenomena. Direct contact often provides highest
accuracy. Environmental exposure affects reliability and lifespan.
Temperature sensors require thermal coupling. Pressure sensors need mechanical contact. Chemical
sensors depend on material interaction.
Design considerations include:
• Environmental Protection Requirements
• Calibration stability over time
• Mechanical mounting constraints
• Electrical isolation needs

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Active vs Passive Sensor Classification

PASSIVE SENSOR CHARACTERISTICS
Passive sensors require external excitation energy. Bridge circuits provide stable excitation. Constant
current sources eliminate resistance effects.
Sensor Type Excitation Method Output Signal
RTD Constant current Voltage drop
Thermistor Voltage divider Voltage ratio
Strain gauge Bridge circuit Differential voltage
Potentiometer Reference voltage Voltage division

Passive sensors offer excellent stability. Temperature coefficients remain predictable. Aging effects
develop slowly.
Power consumption stays low. No internal active components fail. Environmental sensitivity affects only
sensing element.

ACTIVE SENSOR OPERATION

Active sensors generate output signals directly. Internal circuits amplify and condition signals. Power
supply requirements increase system complexity.
Modern active sensors integrate:
• Signal conditioning amplifiers
• Temperature compensation circuits
• Digital processing capabilities
• Communication interfaces
Advantages:
• High output signal levels
• Built-in signal conditioning
• Reduced External Circuitry
• Digital output options
Disadvantages:
• Higher power consumption
• Supply voltage sensitivity
• Electronic component aging
• EMI susceptibility

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FUNDAMENTAL MEASUREMENT
Units and Measurement Standards
SI BASE UNITS FOR SENSORS
Engineering measurements require consistent unit systems. SI base units provide universal reference
standards. Derived units combine base units for complex measurements.
Quantity SI Unit Symbol Sensor Applications
Length meter m Position, displacement
Mass kilogram kg Force, acceleration
Time second s Frequency, velocity
Current ampere A Magnetic field, power
Temperature kelvin K Thermal measurements
Amount mole mol Chemical concentration
Luminous candela cd Light measurements

Measurement traceability links sensor readings to national standards. Calibration chains maintain
accuracy across measurement systems.

ENGINEERING UNIT CONVERSIONS

Board design requires practical engineering units. Conversion factors ensure system compatibility.
Microcontroller calculations need consistent units.

Common conversions for sensor applications:

• 𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒: °𝐶 = 𝐾 − 273.15
• 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒: 1 𝑏𝑎𝑟 = 100 𝑘𝑃𝑎 = 14.5 𝑝𝑠𝑖
• 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒: 1𝑁 = 0.225 𝑙𝑏𝑓
• 𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 1 𝑔 = 9.81 𝑚/𝑠²

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Range and Resolution Specifications

MEASUREMENT RANGE DEFINITION
Full-scale range defines maximum measurable values. Operating range specifies normal working
conditions. Extended range allows temporary overload operation.
Range selection affects:
• ADC bit allocation
• Amplifier gain settings
• Power supply requirements
• Physical sensor sizing

RESOLUTION CHARACTERISTICS
Resolution determines smallest detectable change. Digital systems quantize analog signals. Bit depth
limits resolution capabilities.
ADC Bits Resolution Steps Typical Application
8 256 Basic control
10 1024 General purpose
12 4096 Precision measurement
16 65536 High accuracy
24 16.7M Laboratory instruments

Effective resolution differs from ADC resolution. Noise limits practical resolution. Oversampling improves
effective bits.

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Sensitivity and Accuracy Parameters

SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS
Sensitivity measures output change per input change. Units match output/input quantity ratio.
Higher sensitivity improves measurement precision.
Mathematical expression:

𝑆 = 𝛥𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡/𝛥𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡
Temperature sensor example:
• Thermocouple: 40 μV/°C
• RTD: 0.385 Ω/°C per Ω
• Thermistor: -4%/°C
Sensitivity affects signal conditioning requirements. Low sensitivity needs high-gain amplification. High
sensitivity requires careful noise management.

ACCURACY SPECIFICATIONS
Accuracy describes measurement correctness relative to true values. Systematic errors create offset
problems. Random errors affect repeatability.
Error sources include:
• Calibration uncertainties
• Temperature coefficient effects
• Aging and drift phenomena
• Non-linearity deviations
Accuracy specifications typically include:
• ±0.1% full scale (high precision)
• ±0.5% full scale (standard industrial)
• ±1.0% full scale (general purpose)
• ±2.0% full scale (basic applications)

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Drift and Stability Considerations

TEMPERATURE DRIFT EFFECTS
Temperature changes affect all sensor components. Compensation circuits reduce drift errors. Digital
correction algorithms improve performance.
Common drift mechanisms:
• Resistor temperature coefficients
• Semiconductor junction variations
• Mechanical expansion effects
• Chemical reaction rate changes

LONG-TERM STABILITY
Aging processes gradually change sensor characteristics. Material degradation affects accuracy over
time. Periodic recalibration maintains performance.
Stability factors include:
• Component material properties
• Operating stress levels
• Environmental exposure conditions
• Manufacturing quality control

Signal-to-Noise Ratio Fundamentals

NOISE SOURCE IDENTIFICATION
Electronic noise limits measurement precision. Thermal noise affects all resistive elements. Flicker noise
dominates at low frequencies.
Noise Type Frequency Range Characteristics
Thermal All frequencies White spectrum
Flicker DC to 1 kHz 1/f spectrum
Shot High frequency Poisson statistics
Interference Specific bands External sources

Signal conditioning improves SNR performance. Filtering removes out-of-band noise. Differential
signaling reduces common-mode interference.

Design strategies:
• Maximize signal levels within safe limits
• Minimize noise bandwidth through filtering
• Use differential signal paths
• Implement proper grounding techniques
• Shield sensitive circuits from interference

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Bandwidth and Frequency Response

DYNAMIC RESPONSE CHARACTERISTICS
Sensor bandwidth limits measurement speed. First-order systems show exponential responses. Second-
order systems can exhibit resonance.
Response speed affects:
• Control system stability
• Data acquisition rates
• Anti-aliasing filter requirements
• Real-time processing capabilities

FREQUENCY DOMAIN ANALYSIS

Transfer functions describe sensor frequency response. Magnitude plots show gain versus frequency.
Phase plots indicate timing relationships.
Bode plot analysis reveals:
• System stability margins
• Resonant frequency locations
• Roll-off characteristics
• Compensation requirements

Linearity and Calibration

LINEARITY SPECIFICATIONS
Linear sensors produce proportional outputs. Non-linearity creates calibration complexity. Piecewise
linearization corrects systematic errors.
Linearity metrics:
• Best-fit straight line (BFSL)
• End-point linearity
• Independent linearity
• Least-squares fit

CALIBRATION STRATEGIES
Single-point calibration corrects offset errors. Two-point calibration adjusts gain and offset. Multi-point
calibration handles non-linearity.
Calibration approaches:
• Factory calibration with stored coefficients
• Field calibration using known references
• Self-calibration with internal references
• Continuous calibration during operation

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TEMP & HEAT SENSORS

Thermocouple Sensor
SEEBECK EFFECT PRINCIPLES
Thermocouple operation relies on the Seebeck effect. Dissimilar metals create voltage when
temperature differs between junctions. Cold junction compensation ensures accurate readings.

𝑉 = 𝛼(𝑇₁ − 𝑇₂)
Where α represents the Seebeck coefficient and T₁, T₂ are junction temperatures.
Type Materials Range (°C) Sensitivity (μV/°C)
K Chrom-Alum -200 to 1200 41
J Iron-Const -40 to 750 52
T Copper-Const -200 to 350 43
E Chrom-Const -200 to 900 68
R/S Pt-PtRh 0 to 1600 6-10

COMMON THERMOCOUPLE TYPES

Type K thermocouples dominate industrial applications. Wide temperature range and good linearity
make them versatile. Magnetic properties can affect readings near Curie point (354°C).

COLD JUNCTION COMPENSATION

Thermocouple circuits require reference temperature measurement. Ice bath reference provides 0°C
baseline. Electronic compensation uses semiconductor temperature sensors.
Modern approaches include:
• Dedicated cold junction compensator ICs
• Microcontroller internal temperature sensors
• Thermistor-based reference measurement
• Software polynomial correction

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RTD - Resistance Temperature Detectors

RTD CONSTRUCTION AND MATERIALS
RTDs exploit predictable resistance changes with temperature. Platinum offers excellent stability and
repeatability. Wire-wound construction provides highest accuracy.
Standard RTD configurations:
• Pt100: 100Ω at 0°C (most common)
• Pt1000: 1000Ω at 0°C (higher sensitivity)
• Pt500: 500Ω at 0°C (compromise option)

RTD RESISTANCE CHARACTERISTICS

Callendar-Van Dusen equation describes RTD behavior:

𝑅(𝑇) = 𝑅₀[1 + 𝐴𝑇 + 𝐵𝑇² + 𝐶(𝑇 − 100)𝑇³]

For temperatures above 0°C, C = 0, simplifying calculations.

Standard coefficients for Pt100:
• 𝐴 = 3.9083 × 10⁻³ /°𝐶
• 𝐵 = −5.775 × 10⁻⁷ /°𝐶²

RTD Circuit Topologies:

Configuration Wires Lead Resistance Effect Accuracy
2-wire 2 Adds to measurement ±2°C
3-wire 3 Partially compensated ±0.5°C
4-wire 4 Fully compensated ±0.1°C

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NTC Thermistor
NTC THERMISTOR BEHAVIOR
Negative Temperature Coefficient (NTC) thermistors show decreasing resistance with increasing
temperature. Exponential relationship provides high sensitivity.
Steinhart-Hart equation: 1/T = A + B(ln R) + C(ln R)³
Where T is absolute temperature (K) and R is resistance (Ω).

THERMISTOR SELECTION CRITERIA

Prime Parameters:
Parameter Typical Range Selection Impact
Resistance at 25C 1kΩ to 100kΩ Sets bias current

Beta value 3000K to 4500K Determines sensitivity

Tolerance ±1% to ±20% Affects calibration needs
Time constant 1s to 30s Limits response speed

Higher resistance values reduce self-heating effects.

Beta value determines temperature coefficient. Interchangeability grades affect replacement costs.

SELF-HEATING CONSIDERATIONS
Measurement current causes internal heating. Power dissipation must remain below thermal limits.
Dissipation constant relates power to temperature rise.
Maximum measurement current:

𝐼_𝑚𝑎𝑥 = √(𝑃_𝑚𝑎𝑥/𝑅)

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Semiconductor Temperature Sensors

REMOTE TEMPERATURE SENSING
Dedicated remote temperature sensor ICs monitor external diode-connected transistors.
Substrate PNP transistors in processors provide temperature feedback.
Kelvin connections eliminate lead resistance errors.

Applications include:
• CPU thermal management
• Power MOSFET monitoring
• Multi-point temperature sensing
• Thermal gradient measurement

PN JUNCTION TEMPERATURE DEPENDENCE

Forward-biased diode voltage decreases linearly with temperature. Silicon junctions show -2mV/°C
temperature coefficient. Bandgap references provide stable voltage references.
Modern ICs integrate signal conditioning, calibration, and digital interfaces.
Factory calibration eliminates user calibration requirements.

Integrated Temperature Sensor Types:

Output Type Resolution Range (°C) Interface Applications
Analog voltage 10mV/°C -40 to 125 Single wire Simple monitoring
Digital PWM 12-bit -55 to 125 Single wire Microcontroller
I²C/SPI 16-bit -55 to 150 2-3 wires Multi-sensor
1-Wire 12-bit -55 to 125 Single wire Distributed sensing

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PRESSURE & FORCE SENSORS

PIEZORESISTIVE EFFECT
Mechanical stress changes material resistivity. Gauge factor relates resistance change to strain. Silicon
piezo-resistors offer higher sensitivity than metal foil.
Gauge factor equation:

𝐺𝐹 = (𝛥𝑅/𝑅)/(𝛥𝐿/𝐿)
Typical gauge factors:
• Metal foil: 2.0 to 2.5
• Silicon: 50 to 200
• Polysilicon: 10 to 40

STRAIN GAUGE CONFIGURATIONS

Wheatstone bridge circuits convert resistance changes to voltage signals. Quarter-bridge uses single
active gauge. Half-bridge uses two active gauges. Full-bridge uses four active gauges.
Configuration Active Gauges Temp Compensation Output Sensitivity
Quarter-bridge 1 External required Low
Half-bridge 2 Partial Medium
Full-bridge 4 Complete High

Full-bridge configuration provides maximum sensitivity and natural temperature compensation.

FORCE MEASUREMENT APPLICATIONS

Load cells convert applied force to electrical signals. Compression, tension, and shear configurations suit
different applications. Beam bending creates predictable strain patterns.
Design considerations:
• Maximum load capacity
• Overload protection requirements
• Environmental sealing needs
• Mounting and alignment constraints

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Piezoelectric Pressure Sensors

PIEZOELECTRIC MATERIALS
Quartz crystals generate charge when mechanically stressed.
Ceramic materials offer higher sensitivity. Polymer films provide flexibility.

Material Charge (pC/N) Applications

Quartz 2.3 High temperature
PZT ceramic 150-400 General purpose
PVDF polymer 20-30 Flexible sensors

CHARGE AMPLIFIER CIRCUITS

Piezoelectric sensors generate charge, not voltage. High-impedance charge amplifiers convert charge to
voltage. Cable capacitance affects sensitivity.
Output voltage:

𝑉 = 𝑄/𝐶_𝑓𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑏𝑎𝑐𝑘
Where Q is generated charge and C_feedback is amplifier feedback capacitance.

DYNAMIC PRESSURE MEASUREMENT

Piezoelectric sensors excel at dynamic measurements. AC coupling eliminates static pressure effects.
Frequency response extends from mHz to MHz.
Applications include:
• Engine knock detection
• Acoustic pressure monitoring
• Vibration analysis
• Impact force measurement

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Capacitive Pressure Sensors

VARIABLE CAPACITANCE PRINCIPLES
Diaphragm deflection changes electrode spacing. Capacitance varies inversely with gap distance.
Differential structures improve linearity.
Parallel plate capacitance:

𝐶 = 𝜀₀𝜀ᵣ𝐴/𝑑
Where A is electrode area and d is gap spacing.

MEMS CAPACITIVE IMPLEMENTATION

Silicon micromachining creates precise structures. Sealed reference cavities enable absolute pressure
measurement. Differential pressure measurement compares two pressures.
Pressure Type Reference Applications
Absolute Vacuum cavity Altitude, weather
Gauge Atmospheric Tire pressure, HVAC
Differential Second port Flow, filter monitoring

CAPACITANCE-TO-DIGITAL CONVERSION
Switched-capacitor circuits measure capacitance changes. Charge redistribution methods provide high
resolution. Sigma-delta ADCs offer excellent noise performance.
Modern pressure sensor ICs integrate:
• MEMS sensing element
• Capacitance measurement circuit
• Temperature compensation
• Digital signal processing
• Calibrated output interface

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POSITION SENSORS
Linear and Rotary Encoders
OPTICAL ENCODER TECHNOLOGY
Optical encoders use light interruption to detect motion. Code disks contain alternating transparent and
opaque segments. Photodetectors convert light patterns to electrical pulses.
Resolution calculation: PPR = 2ⁿ for n-bit absolute encoders
Incremental encoders provide:
• A channel: position pulses
• B channel: direction indication (90° phase shift)
• Z channel: once-per-revolution index

ABSOLUTE VS INCREMENTAL ENCODING

Type Output Power Loss Recovery Wiring
Incremental Pulse train Requires homing 3-5 wires
Absolute Position code Immediate 8+ wires
Multi-turn Position + turns Complete recovery Serial bus
absolute

Incremental encoders suit continuous motion applications. Absolute encoders eliminate homing
sequences. Multi-turn encoders track complete position history.

MAGNETIC ENCODER IMPLEMENTATION

Magnetic encoders detect magnetic field variations. Hall effect sensors respond to field strength
changes. Magneto-resistive sensors detect field direction changes.
Advantages over optical:
• No optical alignment required
• Immune to contamination
• Operates in harsh environments
• Lower power consumption

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Hall Effect Position Sensors

HALL EFFECT PHYSICS
Moving charges in magnetic fields experience Lorentz force. Hall voltage develops perpendicular to
current and field. Voltage magnitude indicates field strength.
Hall voltage:

𝑉_𝐻 = (𝐾_𝐻 × 𝐼 × 𝐵)/𝑡

Where K_H is Hall coefficient, I is current, B is magnetic field, and t is thickness.

HALL SENSOR APPLICATIONS

Hall Sensors Types:
Sensor Type Output Magnetic Field Applications
Digital switch On/off 10-100 gauss Proximity detection
Linear analog Proportional voltage 0-1000 gauss Position measurement
Programmable User-defined Variable range Custom applications

Digital Hall switches provide clean switching action. Linear Hall sensors enable continuous position
measurement. Programmable versions offer application-specific optimization.

POSITION SENSING CONFIGURATIONS

Linear position measurement uses sliding magnet arrangements. Rotary position detection employs
rotating magnetic assemblies. Multi-pole magnets increase resolution.
Design considerations:
• Magnet selection and placement
• Temperature coefficient matching
• Mechanical tolerance sensitivity
• EMI immunity requirements

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Magnetoresistive Sensors
AMR TECHNOLOGY
Anisotropic Magnetoresistance (AMR) sensors detect magnetic field direction. Resistance changes with
field orientation. Barber pole biasing improves linearity.
AMR sensors offer:
• High sensitivity (1 mV/V/gauss)
• Low power operation
• Wide frequency response
• Excellent temperature stability

TMR AND GMR TECHNOLOGIES

Tunneling Magnetoresistance (TMR) provides highest sensitivity. Giant Magnetoresistance (GMR) offers
good performance at lower cost.

Technology Sensitivity Power Applications

AMR Good Low Compass, position
GMR Better Medium Hard disk heads
TMR Best High Precision measurement

ANGULAR POSITION MEASUREMENT

Magnetic encoders using magneto-resistive sensors achieve high resolution. Sin/cos output enables
interpolation between poles. Arctangent calculation provides absolute angle.
Resolution enhancement techniques:
• Electronic interpolation
• Multi-pole magnet rings
• Differential sensing arrangements
• Temperature compensation algorithms

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MOTION SENSORS
MEMS Accelerometer Technology
CAPACITIVE MEMS PRINCIPLES
MEMS accelerometers use suspended proof masses.
Acceleration causes mass displacement.
Capacitance change indicates acceleration magnitude.
Basic equation:

𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 = 𝑘𝑥
Where k is spring constant and x is displacement.

Accelerometer Specifications:
Parameter Typical Range Selection Impact
Full scale range ±2g to ±400g Application requirements
Sensitivity 16 to 16384 LSB/g Resolution needs
Bandwidth 1 Hz to 5 kHz Dynamic response
Noise density 25 to 400 μg/√Hz Precision applications

Consumer applications use ±2g to ±16g ranges. Industrial applications may require ±100g or higher.
Shock sensors need ±1000g capability.

MULTI-AXIS INTEGRATION
Single-chip solutions integrate X, Y, and Z sensing. Orthogonal placement ensures axis alignment.
Factory calibration corrects sensitivity and offset errors.
Tri-axis accelerometers provide:
• Complete motion vector measurement
• Tilt angle calculation capability
• Vibration analysis in all directions
• Compact PCB footprint

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Gyroscope Technology
CORIOLIS EFFECT SENSING
MEMS gyroscopes detect Coriolis forces. Vibrating proof masses experience perpendicular forces during
rotation. Capacitive sensing measures Coriolis-induced motion.
Coriolis force:

𝐹_𝑐 = 2𝑚(𝛺 × 𝑣)
Where m is mass, Ω is angular velocity, and v is velocity vector.

GYROSCOPE PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS

Angular rate measurement accuracy depends on:
• Scale factor stability
• Bias drift characteristics
• Noise performance
• Temperature coefficient
Grade Stability (°/hr) Applications
Consumer 10-100 Gaming, phones
Industrial 1-10 Robotics, drones
Tactical 0.1-1 Navigation aids
Navigation <0.01 Inertial navigation

IMU INTEGRATION
Inertial Measurement Units combine accelerometers and gyroscopes. Six degrees of freedom provide
complete motion sensing. Nine-axis IMUs add magnetometers for heading reference.
Sensor fusion algorithms combine measurements:
• Complementary filters for basic fusion
• Kalman filters for optimal estimation
• Quaternion mathematics for rotation
• Dead reckoning for position tracking

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PROXIMIT Y SENSORS
Ultrasonic Distance Measurement
TIME-OF-FLIGHT PRINCIPLES
Ultrasonic sensors emit high-frequency sound pulses. Echo return time indicates target distance. Speed
of sound varies depending on temperature and humidity.
Distance calculation:

𝑑 = (𝑐 × 𝑡)/2
Where c is sound speed and t is round-trip time.

ULTRASONIC TRANSDUCER
Transducer types:
Frequency Range Resolution Applications
40 kHz 2 cm to 4 m ±1 cm General ranging
200 kHz 2 cm to 1 m ±2 mm Precision measurement
1 MHz 1 mm to 10 cm ±0.1 mm Thickness gauging

Lower frequencies penetrate farther but offer less resolution. Higher frequencies provide better
resolution but limited range.

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Infrared Proximity Sensors

ACTIVE IR DISTANCE MEASUREMENT
IR LED emits modulated light. Photodiode receives reflected signal.
Triangulation or time-of-flight methods determine distance.
Triangulation advantages:
• Independent of target reflectivity
• Fast response time
• No ambient light interference
• Compact sensor design

PASSIVE IR DETECTION
PIR sensors detect thermal radiation changes. Fresnel lenses focus IR energy. Differential pyroelectric
elements cancel common signals.
PIR sensor characteristics:
• Detection range: 3-12m
• Field of view: 90° to 120°
• Response time: 100-1000ms
• Power consumption: <100μA

OPTICAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

Lens selection affects detection pattern. Multi-element lenses create multiple zones. Sensitivity varies
with target temperature difference.
Design factors include:
• Fresnel lens focal length
• Pyroelectric element size
• Amplifier gain settings
• Environmental housing design

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Capacitive Proximity Sensing

ELECTRIC FIELD SENSING
Capacitive sensors detect dielectric constant changes. Oscillator frequency changes with target
proximity. Metal and non-metal targets both detectable.
Sensing range depends on:
• Target dielectric constant
• Target size and shape
• Environmental conditions
• Sensor design parameters

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TOUCH SENSING APPLICATIONS

Capacitive touch sensors detect finger proximity. Self-capacitance measures electrode-to-ground
capacitance. Mutual capacitance measures electrode-to-electrode coupling.
Method Advantages Disadvantages
Self-capacitance Simple design Ghost touches
Mutual capacitance True multi-touch Complex routing
Projected capacitance Through glass Expensive

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OP TICAL SENSORS
Photodiode Technology
Photodiodes convert light energy to electrical current. Photons generate electron-hole pairs in
semiconductor junctions. Current magnitude proportional to incident light intensity.
Photocurrent equation:

𝐼_𝑝ℎ = 𝑅 × 𝛷
Where R is responsivity (A/W) and Φ is optical power (W).

PHOTODIODE CHARACTERISTICS
Photodiode types:
Type Spectral Range (nm) Responsivity (A/W) Applications
Silicon 400-1100 0.4-0.6 Visible light
InGaAs 900-1700 0.8-1.0 Near infrared
Germanium 800-1800 0.5-0.7 IR communication
GaAsP 300-650 0.15-0.25 UV detection

Silicon photodiodes dominate visible applications. InGaAs sensors suit fiber optic communications.
Germanium offers extended IR response.

OPERATING MODES
Photovoltaic mode generates voltage without bias. Photoconductive mode requires reverse bias for
faster response. Dark current increases with reverse voltage.
Mode Bias Response Speed Noise Applications
Photovoltaic 0V Slow (μs) Low Solar cells, meters

Photoconductive Reverse Fast (ns) Higher Communications

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Phototransistor Applications
CURRENT AMPLIFICATION
Phototransistors provide internal current gain. Base photocurrent controls collector current.
Gain typically 100-1000× photodiode current.
Collector current:

𝐼_𝑐 = 𝛽 × 𝐼_𝑝ℎ
Where β is current gain and I_ph is photocurrent.

OPTOCOUPLER INTEGRATION
Optocouplers isolate electrical circuits. LED illuminates phototransistor across isolation barrier. Common-
mode rejection exceeds 10kV.
Applications include:
• Power supply feedback isolation
• Digital signal isolation
• Motor drive protection
• Medical equipment safety

PERFORMANCE LIMITATIONS
Phototransistors exhibit slower response than photodiodes. Bandwidth typically limited to 100kHz.
Temperature affects gain characteristics significantly.
Design considerations:
• Load resistor selection affects speed
• Temperature compensation requirements
• Optical coupling efficiency
• Package light transmission

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CCD and CMOS Image Sensors

PIXEL ARCHITECTURE
Image sensors contain arrays of photo detectors. Each pixel accumulates charge proportional to light
intensity. Readout circuits convert charge to voltage.
Pixel specifications:
• Size: 1.4μm to 10μm pitch
• Full well capacity: 10,000 to 100,000 electrons
• Dark current: 1-100 electrons/second
• Quantum efficiency: 30-90%

CCD VS CMOS
Comparison:
Parameter CCD CMOS Selection Criteria
Image quality Excellent Good Scientific vs consumer
Power consumption High Low Battery applications
Speed Medium High Video frame rates
Cost High Low Volume production
Integration Limited High System-on-chip

CMOS sensors dominate consumer applications. CCDs remain preferred for scientific imaging.
Specialized applications may require either technology.

INTERFACE CONSIDERATIONS
Parallel interfaces provide maximum bandwidth. Serial interfaces reduce pin count. MIPI CSI-2 standard
dominates mobile applications.
Common interfaces:
• 8/10/12-bit parallel
• I²C control + data
• SPI with separate data
• MIPI CSI-2 differential serial

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Ambient Light Sensors

HUMAN EYE RESPONSE MATCHING
Ambient light sensors approximate human vision sensitivity. Photopic response peaks at 555nm (green).
Scotopic response peaks at 507nm (blue-green).
Standard illuminants define measurement references:
• CIE Illuminant A: Tungsten (2856K)
• CIE Illuminant D65: Daylight (6504K)
• CIE Illuminant F2: Fluorescent (4230K)

LUX MEASUREMENT
Lux quantifies illumination intensity. One lux equals one lumen per square meter. Sensors convert optical
power to lux-equivalent output.

Environment Typical Lux Sensor Range

Starlight 0.0001 0.01-100
Moonlight 0.25 0.1-1000
Indoor office 320-500 1-10000
Bright sunlight 100000 1000-100000

DISPLAY BACKLIGHT CONTROL

Automatic brightness control saves battery power. Light sensor feedback adjusts display intensity.
Hysteresis prevents oscillation.
Implementation considerations:
• Sensor placement relative to display
• IR rejection filter requirements
• Response time for user comfort
• Power management integration

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CURRENT SENSORS
Hall Effect Current Sensing
MAGNETIC FIELD CONCENTRATION
Current-carrying conductors generate magnetic fields. Ferromagnetic cores concentrate fields for
measurement. Air gaps allow Hall sensor insertion.
Ampere's law:

∮ 𝐵 · 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇₀𝐼
Core design concentrates field at sensor location while minimizing reluctance variations.

CURRENT SENSOR TOPOLOGIES

Type Isolation Bandwidth Accuracy
Open loop Yes DC-100kHz ±1-3%
Closed loop Yes DC-200kHz ±0.2-1%
Coreless Yes DC-1MHz ±1-5%

Closed-loop sensors use feedback windings for improved accuracy. Open-loop designs offer lower cost.
Coreless sensors integrate easily on PCBs.

CURRENT SENSOR SELECTION

Primary current rating determines core size. Bandwidth requirements affect sensor choice. Isolation
voltage rating impacts safety compliance.
Design parameters:
• Primary current range
• Secondary circuit isolation
• Frequency response requirements
• Temperature coefficient limits
• Physical size constraints

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Sensors

Current Transformer Technology

TRANSFORMER PRINCIPLES
Current transformers operate on electromagnetic induction. Primary current creates magnetic flux.
Secondary winding generates proportional current.
Turns ratio:

𝐼_𝑝/𝐼_𝑠 = 𝑁_𝑠/𝑁_𝑝

Where I_p, I_s are primary/secondary currents and N_p, N_s are turns.

BURDEN RESISTOR SELECTION

Secondary current flows through burden resistor. Voltage drop must not saturate core. Burden resistance
affects accuracy and phase angle.
Burden power:

𝑃 = 𝐼_𝑠² × 𝑅_𝑏𝑢𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑛

Standard burden resistances: 2.5Ω, 5Ω, 15Ω, 30Ω for different current ranges.

ACCURACY CLASSES
Current transformer accuracy depends on burden and frequency. IEEE and IEC standards define
accuracy classes. Metering applications require higher accuracy than protection.
Accuracy Class Error Limit Applications
0.1 ±0.1% Revenue metering
0.2 ±0.2% Precision measurement
0.5 ±0.5% General metering
1.0 ±1.0% Industrial monitoring

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Sensors

Fluxgate Magnetometer
MAGNETIC SATURATION PRINCIPLES
Fluxgate sensors use periodic core saturation. Drive coil alternately saturates ferromagnetic core.
External fields shift saturation timing.
Output signal contains second harmonic component proportional to measured field. Synchronous
detection extracts field information.

SENSOR CONSTRUCTION
Ring core construction provides high sensitivity. Toroidal geometry minimizes external field effects. Drive
and sense windings must maintain orthogonality.
Performance characteristics:
• Resolution: 0.1nT typical
• Range: ±100μT standard
• Bandwidth: DC to 1kHz
• Temperature stability: 0.1nT/°C

COMPASS APPLICATIONS
Three-axis fluxgate arrays measure Earth's magnetic field. Digital signal processing calculates heading
angle. Tilt compensation corrects for sensor orientation.
Compass accuracy factors:
• Local magnetic declination
• Hard iron calibration
• Soft iron compensation
• Temperature coefficient correction
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