Lanka Language Studies Open Institute

Faculty of Behavioral Science and Skill Development

Psychology Department

Diploma in Psychology and Counselling

Subject code -LLSOI/BSSD/DIP/PSY/001

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WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY
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  Any knowledge discipline is hard to
define. Firstly, because it evolves continuously. Secondly, because the range of
phenomena it studies cannot be captured by any one definition. This is even more true of
psychology. Long time back, students like your self were told that the term psychology is
derived from two Greek words psyche meaning soul and logos meaning science or study
of a subject. Thus,

 psychology was a study of the soul or mind. But since then, it has moved away
considerably from this focus and established itself as a scientific discipline which deals
with processes underlying human experience and behavior. The range of phenomena it
studies, some of which we mentioned above, are spread over several levels, viz.
individual, dyadic (two person) group, and organizational. They also have biological as
well as social bases. Naturally, therefore, the methods required to Psychology study them
also vary greatly depending on the phenomenon one wants to study. A discipline is
defined both in terms of what it studies and how it studies. In fact, more in terms of how
or method/s it uses. Keeping this in view, psychology is defined formally as a science

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 which studies mental processes, experiences and behavior in different contexts. In doing
so, it uses methods of biological and social sciences to obtain data systematically. It
makes sense of these data so that they can be organized as knowledge. Let us try to
understand the three terms used in the definition, namely, mental processes, experience,
and behavior.

 When we say experiences are internal to the experiencing person, then we refer to states
of consciousness or awareness or mental processes. We use our mental processes when
we think or try to solve a problem, to know or remember something. One level at which
these mental processes are reflected is the brain activity. As we think or solve a
mathematical problem, our brain activities can be observed using different techniques of
brain imaging. However, we cannot say that brain activities and mental processes are the
same, although they are interdependent. Mental activities and neural activities are
mutually overlapping processes but, they are not identical. Unlike the brain, the mind
does not have a physical structure or has a location. Mind emerges and evolves as our
interactions and experiences in this world get dynamically organized in the form of a
system which is responsible for the occurrence of various mental processes. Brain
activities provide important clues as to how our mind functions. But the consciousness of
our own experiences and mental processes are much more than the neural or brain
activities. Even when we are asleep some mental activities go on. We dream, and receive
some information such as a knock on the door while we are asleep. Some psychologists
have shown that we also learn and remember in our sleep. Mental processes, such as
remembering, learning, knowing, perceiving, feeling is of interest to psychologists. They
study these processes to try to understand how the mind works and to help us improve the
uses and applications of these mental capacities. Psychologists also study experiences of
people. Experiences are subjective in nature. We cannot directly observe or know
someone else’s experience. Only the experiencing person can be aware or be conscious of
her or his experiences. Thus, experiences are embedded in our awareness or
consciousness. Psychologists have focused on experiences of pain being experienced by
terminally ill patients or of psychological pain felt in bereavement, besides experiences

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 which lead to positive feelings, such as in romantic encounters. There are some esoteric
experiences also which attract the attention of psychologists, such as when a Yogi
meditates to enter a different level of consciousness and creates a new kind of experience
or when a drug addict takes a particular kind of drug to get a high, even though such
drugs are extremely harmful. Experiences are influenced by internal and the external
conditions of the experiencer.

1.1. Explain the importance of psychology in understanding human

behavior and mental processes.

Psychology is the scientific study of human behavior and mental processes. It’s existed
since the ancient civilizations of Egypt and Greece, mostly as a branch of philosophy, but
broke out as an independent branch of scientific study in the 1870s. The effects of
psychological studies are more relevant and respected than any period in the past, and
new discoveries and applications for psychology are always being uncovered by top
researchers.

For example, consider the initial reaction to World War I veterans by the psychological
and medical professionals of the early 20th Century. An initial theory written by physician
Charles Myers in 1915 posited soldiers were experiencing “shell shock” due to exposure

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 to repeated concussive blasts, resulting in brain damage. When this theory was disproven,
the prevailing wisdom at the time was the people suffering from “shell shock” were
simply weak or cowardly, despite the fact that some estimates suggest nearly 20 percent
of surviving WWI veterans developed the condition. There is near unanimous agreement
among modern psychologists that shell shock was in fact what we commonly refer to
today as post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).1

Many of the primary modern applications for psychology revolve around protecting
people from emotional and physical harm while providing them with the necessary
mental bandwidth to handle the psychological perils many people face daily. Issues like
relationships, workplace stress and financial difficulties all can be affected by
psychological symptoms that require diagnosing and managing, which is where modern
psychology comes into play and why it’s so important.

Despite the popular stereotype of the private practice therapist popularized by the media,
psychology professionals actually have access to a wide variety of industries and fields,
from education and criminal justice to marketing and politics.

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 Why Is It Important to Study
Psychology?

Psychology sheds light on human behavior and helps us understand why we act the way we do.
The field offers insights into our human experiences, helps us connect with others, and can mean
the difference between a life well-lived and a life of challenges.

A psychology degree can lead to a rewarding career in social science. Let's explore why
psychology is an essential part of your studies and how you can transition to a career if you find
out it's right for you.

What is psychology and why is

psychology important?

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  Psychology is the study of human behavior. It has roots in healthcare and the
scientific method, helping uncover the processes of the mind. Through research
and observation, psychologists can help answer questions about the brain's
mysteries and improve mental health standards for communities.

 Psychology studies offer new perspectives on human development, and it's not all
about the physical process. Students in the field explore:

How the physical development of the body and brain work together.
The role of environmental influences on human development and behavior.
Causes and treatments of mental illness

The field is important because it offers answers to the question, “What makes humans tick?”
Studying psychology can mean walking away with a greater understanding of how humans
handle everyday life.

What are the fields of psychology?

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Psychology studies fall into a few different subcategories:

• Counseling psychology: A focus on the developmental, interpersonal, and personal

functions across the lifespan.

• Clinical psychology: Integration of psychology and medical treatment methods for mental
health issues.

• Educational psychology: Integration of psychology and the learning process.

• Forensic psychology: Supports the judicial system and criminal recovery.

• Social psychology: The application of psychology to understand how humans perceive

themselves within larger society.

• Developmental psychology: A focus on the development of human beings and human

behavior across the lifespan.

• Quantitative psychology: The integration of psychology with quantitative research

methods.

• Organizational psychology: The study of human behavior in the workplace, including

critical thinking and decision making as an organization.

While not an exhaustive list, these subfields offer insight into different aspects of the psychology
discipline. Students can align their unique interests with a particular specialization.

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 Why study psychology?

 There is so much we don't know about human behavior and the brain that powers it. The
more we understand human brains, the more we can unlock the inner lives of other
animals and even plant life.

 Psychology is also helping in other fields as well-for instance, artificial intelligence and
cognitive science Learning about how brains process data, respond to stimuli, and take in
information can help us build efficient machines with human-like characteristics. We
may even crack the final barrier between humans and machines.

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 Some psychology specializations offer insight into human well-being in
communities:

• Social work

• Workplace wellness

• Individual mental health

• Education

Many specializations help individual psychological health via medical interventions, counseling
and coaching other specializations involve engaging in psychological research to answer
questions and find solutions to challenges.

Why do so many students study

psychology?

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People love to learn about themselves and the people around them. Many students are drawn to
psychology because of the opportunity to learn about others while discovering more about their
own lives. The field’s many subfields and specializations are also designed to match a student’s
unique strengths and interests.

With the right education and training, whether that means an online certification or a graduate
degree, students become equipped with the knowledge and skills to:

• Help themselves and others overcome challenges in mental processes.

• Aid in psychology research.

• Make a difference in everyday life.

Is psychology right for me?

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Psychology may be a fascinating subject, but depending on your goals, many positions require
graduate degrees, certifications, and even some time in residency:

• Clinical psychologists, for example, must complete a doctorate level degree or a medical
degree to practice.

• A counseling psychologist may need a master's degree to find a suitable position.

• A researcher may need a bachelor’s degree to contribute to the field.

If higher education doesn't intimidate you, psychology may be a suitable career. In addition, a
love of continuous learning helps because psychologists have professional development
requirements to maintain certification.

There are other options for students who don't want to complete graduate work to practice in
psychology. Subject matter expertise or an undergraduate degree in psychology can help
students:

• Develop communication and empathy skills needed in a variety of fields ranging from
education to marketing.

• Engage in research, applying data science or computer programming principles to create data-
driven research tools.

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 Where can I learn psychology
online?

Psychology is a common online major for undergraduate students. They may also have online
options for graduate degrees in the field.

edX offers online psychology courses Learners can explore different specializations in the field
of psychology for free or take official credit. Courses take place online, and students can begin
their studies for free or pay a fee to earn verified certificates.

Other options include Xserve’s pathways and a Micro Master’s program in Organizational
Psychology. These are designed and delivered in partnership with leaders in the field of
psychology and education.

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 Explain the understanding human
behavior

Introduction Studying psychology is crucial for understanding human behavior and mental
processes. It provides insights into the complexities of the human mind and offers explanations
for various behavioral patterns. By examining psychological theories, conducting research, and
analyzing case studies, psychologists gain a deeper understanding of how individuals think, feel,
and behave in different situations. Understanding Behavior Psychology allows us to understand
why individuals behave in certain ways. Through studying various psychological theories, such
as behaviorism, cognitive psychology, and psychoanalysis, we can explore the underlying factors
that influence human behavior. For example, behaviorism emphasizes the role of environmental
stimuli in shaping behavior, while cognitive psychology focuses on mental processes such as
perception, memory, and problem-solving. Exploring Mental Processes Psychology helps us
explore the intricate workings of the human mind. By studying mental processes such as
perception, attention, memory, and thinking, psychologists gain insights into how individuals
process information and make decisions. This knowledge is essential for understanding why
people perceive the world differently and how they interpret and respond to various stimuli.
Identifying Mental Disorders Psychology plays a crucial role in identifying and understanding
mental disorders. By studying abnormal psychology, psychologists can identify the signs,
symptoms, and causes of psychological disorders such as depression, anxiety, schizophrenia, and
personality disorders. This knowledge is essential for developing effective treatments and
interventions to help individuals suffering from these conditions. Enhancing Communication and
Relationships Studying psychology can improve our communication skills and enhance our
relationships. By understanding different personality types, communication styles, and emotional
intelligence, we can better navigate interpersonal interactions. This knowledge allows us to
empathize with others, resolve conflicts, and build stronger relationships. Influencing Public
Policy and Social Issues Psychology contributes to our understanding of social issues and can

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influence public policy. For example, research on prejudice and discrimination has led to the
development of interventions aimed at reducing these societal problems. Additionally,
psychological research on topics such as addiction, violence, and mental health informs policies
and initiatives focused on prevention and treatment.

How do you perceive the role of psychology in understanding human behavior

and mental processes?

Some of the ways that psychology contributes to individuals and society include: Improving our
understanding of why people behave as they do. Understanding the different factors that can
impact the human mind and behavior. Understanding issues that impact health, daily life, and
well-being.

What is psychology human behavior and mental processes?

Psychology is the Scientific study of behavior and mental processes. It seeks to describe, explain,
predict, and control behavior and mental processes. The word psychology is derived from two
Greek roots: psyche, meaning “mind,” and logos, meaning “study” or “knowledge.”

How did psychology as a study of behavior and mental processes develop?

Physiology also contributed to psychology's eventual emergence as a scientific discipline. Early

physiological research on the brain and behavior had a dramatic impact on psychology,
ultimately contributing to applying scientific methodologies to the study of human thought and
behavior.

How do mental processes affect human behavior?

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Thoughts create an emotional response which result in an action. Thoughts: What we think
affects how we act and feel. Emotions: What we feel affects what we think and do. Behavior:
What we do affects how we think and feel.

What psychology studies mental processes?

Cognitive psychologists, sometimes called brain scientists, study how the human brain works
how we think, remember and learn. They apply psychological science to understand how we
perceive events and make decisions.

What are the 4 types of behavior in psychology?

A study on human behavior has revealed that 90% of the population can be classified into four
basic personality types:

Optimistic

Pessimistic

Trusting and Envious.

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 What is an example of behavior and mental processes?

Psychology - Behavior & Mental processes

It includes activities such as walking, talking, blinking, trembling, eating, crying etc. All these
activities involve 'actions' that can be seen as they occur.

What are the main psychological processes?

In conventional Western psychology, and among Westerners more generally, people may take it
for granted that human functioning consists of varied processes, such as perception, cognition,
emotion, learning, attitudes, social interaction, motivation, and self/identity.

What are the three mental processes?

The distinctions, predictably, are not always clear. But the three kinds of mental processes have
to do with

(1) information processing

(2) symbol manipulation

(3) knowledge construction.

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 How Does Psychology Help People?

Essentially, psychology helps people in large part because it can explain why people act the way
they do. With this kind of professional insight, a psychologist can help people improve their
decision making, stress management and behavior based on understanding past behavior to better
predict future behavior. All of this can help people have a more successful career, better
relationships, more self-confidence and overall better communication.

Sub-Disciplines of Psychology

The study of psychologically is so widespread today, different sub-disciplines or branches of

psychology are widely recognized and frequently leveraged in an array of industries. Some
psychology sub-disciplines include:

 Family – Family psychology, sometimes known as family therapy, focuses on the

interpersonal systems found with the family.

 Sports – Sports psychology focuses on how psychology factors can affect an athlete’s
performance.

 Business – Business psychology focuses on the effectiveness of a workplace or

organization through the study of people and overall behavior in the workplace.
 Media – Media psychology focuses on the complex relationship between media and its
effect on human behavior.
 Forensic – Forensic psychology is the practice of studying individuals who are involved
in the legal system, such as expert witnesses or those under criminal investigation.

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Now let's talk about how to do a social experiment and how to know
about this

1. You Learn About Social Experiments Done in the Past

Many scientific studies that have happened throughout history wouldn't be allowed to happen in
today's world. Still, it's interesting to read about and learn from them.

One of the most well-known social tests is known as the Stanford prison experiment, which set
out to study the psychological effects of the power dynamic between prisoners and guards. Those
conducting the study asked for volunteers and then brought them into a simulated prison where
they were fingerprinted and read their Miranda rights. It almost goes without saying that the
experiment was a psychological nightmare. It became such a famous experiment that it was
made into a film , which is disturbing in itself.

Or the experiment of Little Albert, a boy who was taught to fear a little rat. Little Albert ended
up being afraid of fluffy white animals for the rest of his life. The video below explains the
research in six minutes. Like the prison experiment, it's both fascinating and outrageous.

2. You Learn to Do Research

Studying at a university is important for many reasons. Of course, you will probably make more
money in your career when equipped with a degree, but there are many other benefits, like
learning how to do research. As a result of conducting and analyzing research in an academic
setting, you will have a more critical attitude/mindset where you can look at or hear things
people say and question the claim's legitimacy.

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When studying psychology, you'll likely have to conduct thorough research on a topic of
personal interest. At the University of Minnesota, in order to receive your degree, students must
complete a 15–20 page capstone paper that synthesizes their work within the major. Their
syllabus notes that for some, it entails working in an active research lab, while others may work
in community service or have to design a study of their own.

3. You Learn About Mental Disorders and Treatment Options

Many psychologists deal with mental disorders and options for treatment. Mental disorders are
widespread and can have a debilitating effect on people's lives. Fortunately, psychological
treatments have been developed for many mental issues through studies and research. The
prospect of being able to help others through their struggles is appealing to many people. In the
last three years, the world has been forced to deal with the COVID-19 pandemic and talk about
an event ripe for a psychologist's analysis. I will get into more detail when I talk about careers,
but with the mental, social, and economic ramifications of the pandemic, understanding mental
disorders is more important than ever.

4. You Gain Insight into People's

Behavior

Doing, thinking, feeling, and acting-as a psychology student, you get to study all aspects of
human behavior. You will learn not only about the general characteristics of human behavior but
also about the differences.

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What drives people? And how can you influence human behavior? These two questions are
central to the practice. Examples of questions psychologists address include:

 How do people react to stress?

 Do athletes perform better after mental training?
 What is love?
 Why does one child perform better in school than the other?
 How is it that some of us are friendly and relaxed while others are often tense or stressed
out?
 What is the bystander effect? Why are you more likely to be helped when a single person
sees or hears you in need than when a large group is watching?

I chose to study clinical psychology because I suffered from panic attacks, and over time, my
condition only worsened. When I hit rock bottom, I decided to take matters into my own hands. I
set out to learn more about psychology. In particular, I wanted to learn about anxiety disorders
and find the best treatment options.

For me, this turned out to be a smart choice that I never regretted. Ultimately, I feel like I got my
life back.

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1.2. Discuss how psychological theories and concepts contribute to
our understanding of individual and group behavior.

 how psychological theories and concepts contribute.

Theories provide a framework for understanding human behavior, thought, and development. By
having a broad base of understanding about the how’s and whys of human behavior, we can
better understand ourselves and others. Each theory provides a context for understanding a
specific aspect of the human experience.

What are psychological theories?

Psychological theories are systems of ideas that can explain certain aspects of human thoughts,
behaviors and emotions. Psychology researchers create these theories to make predictions for
future human behaviors or events that may take place if certain behaviors exist. in the workplace,
these theories are useful while drafting plans to develop employee behaviors, increase motivation
and promote productivity.

Why are psychological theories important?

There are many uses for psychological theories. In the workplace, they can assist with
identifying what behaviors and habits can increase an organization’s success. Here are a few
important to consider:

 Theories can help with identifying information useful in creating new strategies

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  They can assist with understanding what practices promote specific behaviors or habits.
 They can explain specific behaviors and what motivates employee to be successful in the
workplace.

Forms of psychological theories

Psychological theories can be helpful while implementing shifts and evaluating the need
for improvements in a work environment. For instance, organizational leaders can be use
psychological theories to inform recruitment and onboarding, employee stratification and
productivity. Here are some common types of psychological theories.

Grand theories

Grand theories address a basic model of understanding human behavior. They provide a board
range of information regarding human development. Many smaller theories use grand theories as
a set of guidelines or a why a specific behavior or development occurs. Psychologists often refer
to these smaller theories as mini theories

Grand psychological theories provide information on wide-ranging topics, including:

 Socio-cultural psychology
 Psychoanalysis
 Biological psychology
 Developmental psychology
 Evolutionary psychology
 Cognitive psychology
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 Humanistic psychology
 Mini theories

This type of theory is primarily useful to describe a specific behavior or outcome. They draw
conclusions based on previous research and the bases outlined by grand theories. Some topics
mini theories can provide information on may include:

• Personality

• Persuasion

• Motivations

• Satisfaction

Emergent theories

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Emergent theories often integrate mini-theories to develop research and ideas. These theories
refer to the phenomenon of an entity only possessing certain characteristics when interacting
with others. In psychology, emergent theories explore human behaviors in group settings or in
crowds. For example, sociocultural theory concludes that group social interactions may lead to
social conformity.

Types of psychological theories

There are many types of

psychological theories that you may apply to evaluate progress, measure employee performance
levels and gain insight into employee satisfaction. Here are some more psychological theories
you might use in the workplace:

Cognitive theories

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Cognitive theories focus on what and how humans think, in addition to how these processes may
cause certain outcomes or emotions. These thoughts and emotions can promote healthy beliefs,
habits and behaviors depending on the situation.

Cognitive theories are often useful in a workplace since they can give you an understanding of
what situations may help an employee produce high-quality work, feel motivated and experience
job satisfaction. Some cognitive theories are:

• Information processing theory

• Piaget's cognitive development theory
• Vygotsky's sociocultural theory

Behavioral theories

 Behavioral theories explain observable behaviors and their associations with specific
environments and events. These theories also can give insight on why individuals learn
certain behaviors, how to condition an individual to adapt to environments and strategies
to produce helpful behaviors. These theories can be helpful to a manager in creating new
motivational strategies for employees. Some examples of behavioral theories are:

• Behavioral leadership

• Behavioral learning

• Operant conditioning

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 • Classical conditioning

• Drive reduction theory

Personality theories

 These theories study human personality, how specific personality traits may assist with
developing human behavior and how personalities vary between humans. Personality
theory also involves the factors that cause human behaviors.
 Managers may use personality tests to understand employee habits and preferences in the
workplace. Some personality theories may reveal which employees place more value on
certain skills and traits such as organizational skills, interpersonal communication,
creativity or adaptability. Some examples of personality theory include:

• Eysenck's three-dimension personality theory

• Eysenck's big five-factor personality theory

• Allport's trait theory

• Freud's psychoanalytic theory

Social psychology theories

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In order to understand how emotions, thoughts or behaviors of individuals influence other human
beings, a manager may use social psychological theory. Social psychology helps with identifying
how each individual may work with others in groups and how effective employees are at
working together. Some social psychology theories also can identify if an employee's behavior is
motivating others. Here are some examples of social psychology theories:

• Attribution theory

• Cognitive dissonance

• Observational learning theory

• Social comparison theory

Developmental theories

Developmental theories primarily describe phases of human development and predict

habits that may occur due to specific developments of human growth, morals,
perspectives and values. Developmental theories can give you a general understanding of
why particular human qualities exist and insight into employee motivation in the
workplace. Some types of developmental theories can include:

• Cognitive development

• Child development

• Behavioral development

• Psychosocial development

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 • Social learning theory

• Sociocultural theory

• Attachment theory

understanding of individual and group behavior

Individual and group behavior is a central focus for social psychologists. Social psychologists

examine individual and group behavior in several settings. They ask questions such as:

• What influences individual behavior?

• What influences group behavior?

• How do individual and group behavior interact?

• How does personality affect individual and group behavior?

• Does a person's individual behavior change while in a group?

Differences Between Individual Behavior and Group Behavior

 Individual or interpersonal behavior refers to the behaviors of an individual, which may

be internally or externally motivated. Individual behavior can range from mundane tasks
such as brushing your teeth to more complex tasks such as decision-making. Several
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 factors can influence individual behavior as well including genetics, environment, past
experiences, trauma, personality, or mental health.

 Group or intrapersonal behaviors refer to the collective behavior of two or more people
either towards one other or those outside of the group. Social psychologists might look at
how a group is formed, what makes a group a group, or how a group accomplishes its
goals.

Individual Behavior and Group Behavior Examples

Before we explore more about principles and theories, let's first introduce a few
individual behavior and group behavior examples. Individual behavior may include:

• how you treat your friends or family.

• your motivation in school.

• what you do for work.

• what you choose to eat or not eat.

• what your hobbies are.

The list can go on. Individual behavior is what you do of your own will, separate from
others. Group behavior, however, may include:

• how two or more people achieve the same goal.

• how individuals with shared characteristics treat each other and those outside of the
group.

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 • how a group changes individual behavior.

• social norms and expectations.

• leadership between two or more individuals.

Principles of Individual and Group Behavior

One of the primary areas of study for psychologists is behavior. They seek to understand
how individual behavior reflects personality and mental state. If someone's individual
behavior is abnormal, the next step is usually to evaluate their mental health. When
psychologists study group behavior, they examine how a group thinks, functions,
completes tasks, achieves goals, and interacts with outsiders.

Individual and Group Behavior Theory

As we mentioned earlier, behavior is a primary area of study for psychologists. So, it

should come as no surprise that several individual and group behavior theories have
formed. Many of these theories observe how a person's individual behavior is influenced
by being in a group. We are going to take a look at three including facilitation, social
loafing, and deindividuation.

I. Social Facilitation

 Say you have practiced your standup comedy routine a million times alone in the mirror.
When it comes time to perform, you can feel your mind getting even sharper as more
people entered the room. This phenomenon is called social facilitation.

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  There are, however, other layers to this. Your performance usually only improves in front
of others if it is an easy task for you and you feel competent in completing it. If it is too
difficult of a task, your performance may actually weaken in the presence of others.

II. Social Loafing

 When you are driving on the road and everyone around you is speeding, you might pay
less attention to your speedometer and claim you're going along with the "speed of
traffic." However, if you are on the road alone, you pay a bit more attention to the
speedometer. Why is that? Social loafing may play a role.

There are several reasons why social loafing occurs. A person may:

• believe what they have to offer is dispensable.

• feel less accountable or responsible.

• be overestimating their contributions and underestimating others' actions.

• want to ride on others' efforts rather than putting in their own.

III. Deindividuation

 Finally, deindividuation is arguably one of the more severe ways that individual behavior
can change in the presence of others.

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  How do you know if you've fallen victim to deindividuation? Well, ask yourself this:
would you have done that severe thing if you were by yourself? If the answer is no,
deindividuation could be at play. Deindividuation can quickly get out of hand. When
masked by a group, a person may find the courage to behave in a way they otherwise
would not if they were alone and exposed.

Individual Behavior and Group Behavior - Key takeaways

• Individual and group behavior is a central focus for social psychologists. Social psychologists
examine individual and group behavior in several settings.

• Individual or interpersonal behavior refers to the behaviors of an individual that may be

internally or externally motivated. Group or intrapersonal behaviors refer to the collective
behavior of two or more people either towards one other or those outside of the group.

• Sometimes, individual and group behavior can look similar. For example, discrimination can
come from one person or a group of people.

• To some degree, we all either consciously or unconsciously engage in social comparison. Our
behavior may conform in the presence of others, or we may engage in other principles to
determine our individual behavior.

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• Many of theories of individual and group theories observe how a person's individual behavior
is influenced by being in a group. Three examples include social facilitation, social loafing, and
deindividuation.

4. 4.1. Describe the principles of developmental psychology.

What is the principal of developmental psychology?

Developmental psychology is concerned with the scientific understanding of age-related

changes in experience and behavior, not only in children but throughout the lifespan. The
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 task is to discover, describe, and explain how development occurs, from its earliest
origins, into childhood, adulthood, and old age. To understand human development
requires one not only to make contact with human nature but also to consider the diverse
effects of culture on the developing child. Development is as much a process of acquiring
culture as it is of biological growth. This book reviews the history of developmental
psychology with respect to both its nature and the effects of transmission of culture. The
major theorists of the late 19th and early 20th century, Piaget, Vygotsky and Bowlby are
introduced to provide a background to contemporary research and the modern synthesis
of nature and nurture. This brief textbook is suitable as an introduction to developmental
psychology, both at A level and for beginning undergraduate students. It aims to be of
interest to psychologists, educationalists, social workers and others with an interest in a
contemporary understanding of factors involved in human development.

4.2. Analyze the factors that influence physical, cognitive, and

socioemotional development across the lifespan.

1. Introduction

 Humans are the only animals that continue to develop and change throughout their entire
lifetime, and when we look back on our lives, we are reminded of the many ways in
which we have evolved. In contrast to her older sister Shivani, who is learning to cope
with stress, Riya is just starting to speak and walk. What this implies is that a kid
undergoes change in many various areas of his or her life, all of which contribute to the
child's growth. Whether the shift is physical, mental, emotional, moral, or psychological,
it happens simultaneously with every other shift. This means that these factors represent
the many elements of progress. As a result, these dimensions of development represent
those facets of a person's life that evolve throughout the course of their lifetime. Let's

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 start with the evolution of the body to have a handle on this idea. Let's go back before the
idea of physical growth entered our minds and picture a procedure. Think about a baby
that has just been born. The child has no motor control at the moment, Nonetheless, in 18
months, she or he will be able to walk, and in another year, he or she will be able to run
and in the following years, leaping, throwing, and kicking. A child's physical
development accelerates throughout the first two years of life. Such a maturation of the
body provides a solid foundation for the growth of the mind and the emotions. From the
time of conception until the time of death, a human being undergoes a process of physical
growth and development that results in both internal and outward changes to his or her
body and physiological state. While we won't be going into great length on newborn
physical development here, it's important to note that it lays the groundwork for a child's
subsequent growth in all areas, not just physical. Let's start with a discussion of the
bodily changes that occur between childhood and adolescence. A child's body develops
throughout childhood, with variations in size and shape. This development is fastest
between the ages of 7 and 12, rather than younger (3-6 years). There is a dramatic gain in
both height and leg length. Later on, they tire easily from physical exercise, but also show
a keen interest in competitive sports that call for a high level of ability, which are all
hallmarks of the child's physical development from infancy forward. We all know that
between the ages of 13 and 18, people experience dramatic growth and development in a
wide variety of ways, including but not limited to: height, weight, body proportions,
voice, and motor performance and sexual changes, thus this stage of childhood is about to
be turned into the adolescent stage. Hormonal changes produce a growth spurt in both
males and girls. The puberty period for boys often lags behind that of females. During
puberty, adolescent girls and boys reach a physically and sexually mature state. While
puberty typically begins around age 11 for girls, it often begins a little later for guys.
Girls at this age continue to grow taller, but at a more gradual rate than they did before.
The pelvic bone and wrists get broader, while the limbs lengthen and thin out. A sugary,
piercing quality is added to the voice. The female genitalia develop and mature into fully
functional sex organs during puberty. Important characteristics of adolescence in females
include the development of breasts, the appearance of pubic and armpit hair, and a shift in
stride. Besides this, females enter their menstrual periods (The median age is between 13

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 and 17 years old.). Girls, according to studies, seem to reach full physical maturity before
males do. For males, the teenage years are marked by fast physical development,
including a rise in muscular mass and strength that typically peaks around the ages of 18
and 19. Rounded shoulders, a wider chest, and well-developed muscles are some of the
outward signs of these changes in body composition. A cracked and lowered voice
indicates a fully developed larynx. Also, guys' genitalia tend to enlarge with time. Pubic,
armpit, and facial hair development are further defining characteristics of teenage guys.
By puberty, boys and girls grow and mature internally at the same rate, with similar heart
rates and brain sizes. Problems with oily skin include increased likelihood of acne and
perspiration. Clumsiness and a lack of coordination are possible side effects of rapid
development. They seem to have an insatiable appetite and persistent feelings of hunger.
There is an upsurge in boys' and girls' sexual fantasies and desires. Some variables, others
genetic and some environmental, impact the physical changes taking place in a child's
body. Some variables, others genetic and some environmental, impact the physical
changes taking place in a child's body. All three of these emotions—love, hate, and fear—
have longlasting effects on children, beginning in infancy. Feelings and complexes begin
to take shape. They learn independence, aggression, uncertainty, and guilt. That is, people
feel good about themselves if they achieve success and feel bad about themselves if they
don't. Children's emotional behavior alters significantly when they approach the
adolescent years. Adolescents often ponder who they are and how they fit into the world.
Moodiness, rage, despair, anxiety, and a sense of being in a precarious situation are
among behaviors often seen at this period. This causes them to place more weight on the
advice of their peers and friends. People are reported to be sexually attracted to those who
they have a “crush” on, such as actors, models, pop singers, etc. Is it just academic
success that defines a child's intelligence? Is there evidence that cognitive development
contributes to a child's flourishing in other areas of character? Language, social, moral,
and emotional development, among others, are built upon the basis of a child's cognitive
growth. But then the question comes, what really is this cognitive growth? The mental
processes of seeing, paying attention, comprehending, and retaining information, as well
as organizing and making meaning of this data, are all part of cognitive development. The
term "cognition" is used to describe the mental processes involved. This aspect of

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 cognitive development may be better understood by looking at it alongside other
characteristics and Piaget's theory of cognitive development.

2. data analysis

PRIMARY DATA

 In retrospect, we can see the many ways in which our personalities and circumstances
have evolved throughout the years. In contrast to her older sister Shivani, who is learning
to cope with stress, Riya is just starting to speak and walk. All of this has to do with a kid
growing up, and because of the multifaceted nature of development, it entails changes in
a wide range of characteristics. In addition to a shift in one's physical appearance, a shift
in one's mental, emotional, moral, or social makeup is also occurring simultaneously. It
follows that these factors represent the many elements of progress. Because of this, the
dimensions of development are the components of a person's life that evolve with time.
Let's start with the evolution of the body to have a better grasp on this idea.

Evolution of the Body

Let's picture a procedure that occurred before the idea of physical growth entered our
minds. Take a brand-new infant, for instance. Currently, she/he has no command over
her/his limbs, but in another 18 months, she/he will be able to walk, and another year
after that, he/she will be able to run, leap, toss, and kick. The first two years of a child's
life are crucial to their physical growth and development since it is during this period that
they gain the most muscle mass and learn to walk and talk. These changes in the body

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 provide a crucial groundwork for the maturation of thought and feeling. From the
moment of conception until the moment of death, a human being undergoes a series of
internal and outward changes to his or her body and physiological state known as
"physical growth and development" (Fig 6.1). While we won't be going into great length
on newborn physical development here, it's important to note that it lays the groundwork
for a child's subsequent growth in all areas, not just physical. First, we'll look at how the
body changes and grows from infancy through young adulthood.

Physical maturation across the ages

Physiological Features of Growing Up

A child's body develops during their formative years, undergoing changes in size and
shape. A greater proportion of this development takes place between the ages of seven
and twelve than it did in the first three years of life (3-6 years). Lengthening of the limbs
occurs suddenly, leading to a noticeable increase in stature. Later on, they tire easily from
physical exertion, but also show a keen interest in competitive sports that call for a high

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 level of skill, a development that mirrors their earlier, progressive growth in speed,
stability of movement, and accuracy. After passing through this transitional phase,
children will enter the adolescent years, a time of explosive growth and development.
Now, let's make an effort to learn more about the features of the adolescent years. Height
and weight fluctuate, body proportions shift, voices alter, motor skills improve, and
sexual development progresses rapidly throughout the teenage era (13-18 years old).
Hormone production causes a growth spurt in both males and girls. In most cases, a boy's
development spurt lags behind that of females. Puberty, the time when people reach
sexual maturity, is perhaps the most significant physical change that occurs throughout
adolescence. Puberty typically begins at age 11 for girls and slightly later for guys. Girls
at this age continue to grow taller, but at a more gradual rate than in previous years. The
pelvic bone becomes broader, the wrist becomes more circular, and the arms and legs
develop longer and leaner. The normally harsh voice takes on a sugary shrill quality. For
example, a girl's sex organs develop into full maturity during puberty. Some of the most
noticeable changes that occur throughout adolescence in females include the development
of breasts, the appearance of pubic and underarm hair, and a shift in their walking style.
In addition, the females' menstrual cycles begin (average age varies from 12 to 16 years).
Scientists have discovered that females reach physical maturity before guys do.
Adolescence in males is characterized by fast growth in height and weight (which
typically peaks around age 18 or 19) as well as the development of muscles and an
increase in strength. Shoulders have rounded, chest has expanded, and muscles have
grown, all signs of altered body proportions. When the voice breaks and deepens, it's a
sign that the larynx has developed.

Psychological Growth

 One definition of emotion is "a stage of agitation," while others use phrases like
"disturbance of equilibrium" or "intense random and disorderly reaction to a stimulus" to
describe other interpretations. Emotions have far-reaching implications on behavior,

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 personality, and health in today's society, making a deeper understanding of them
imperative.

Features of Emotional Growth

 Long-lasting emotions like love, hate, and fear develop in children throughout the
childhood years. Opinions and complexes begin to take shape. They learn to depend on
themselves, engage in violent conflict, question authority, and feel guilty or ashamed as a
result. They love themselves if they think they've achieved something significant, but
they feel bad about themselves if they don't. There are notable shifts in the emotional
behavior of children by the time they reach the adolescent era. Many teenagers have
difficulty answering fundamental questions about who they are. Melancholy, wrath,
sadness, anxiety, and a sense of being in a moral quagmire are all frequent in this
developmental period. Consequently, they start putting their faith in their peers and
giving other people's views more weight. In addition, persons who have "crushes" on
famous actors, models, musicians, etc., tend to be sexually attracted to others. We can use
case studies to attempt to figure out what's going on with these people's feelings.

Cognitive Development

 The primary mental endeavor is the development of one's linguistic abilities and the
application of such abilities in social interaction. It's not hard to see how quickly
language develops. The vocabulary expands exponentially as the grammar and syntax are
improved. The kid makes use of words to express himself. Introspective thought is

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 grounded in the real world and focused inward. Magical thinking and wild fancies are the
norm rather than the exception when it comes to problem solutions.

 Does a kid's intelligence just have to do with how well they do in school? Is there
evidence that cognitive development contributes to a child's flourishing in other areas of
character? Language, social, moral, and emotional development, among others, are built
upon the basis of a child's cognitive growth. However, the issue of its nature emerges.
Perceiving, paying attention, comprehending, and remembering are all components of
cognitive development. Cognition encompasses the activities of the mind. Consider this
aspect of cognitive development in light of Piaget's theory of cognitive development and
generic features. Cognitive characteristics of early and late childhood the geometric
motifs range in size and color on this tray Therefore, youngsters begin to classify objects,
replicate forms, follow directions, and grasp the notions of days, time, money, and space
in early infancy. The couple likes to spend time alone reading. During adolescence, a
child's mind matures in terms of their capacity for social awareness and abstract
cognition. They begin actively seeking information and expertise from their peers and the
media as they consider their future job options. Adolescence begins after children have
finished their latter childhood years. Most discussions of adolescence center on the social
and emotional changes that occur during puberty.

Physical Development

 The primary physical task of the first year of life is the maturation of the child's ability to
control and master his or her own body in terms of gross and fine motor skills,
culminating in the acquisition of walking. The infant's developing balance, coordination,
stability, and manipulative abilities are refined over the first year.

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  Rapid growth, sexual maturity, and the emergence of a person's "second sex" are all made
possible by the physiological changes that occur throughout puberty

Socioemotional development

What is Social-Emotional Development?

How do children start to understand who they are, what they are feeling, what they expect to
receive from others? These concepts are at the heart of their social-emotional wellness. They
contribute to a child’s self-confidence and empathy, her ability to develop meaningful and lasting
friendships and partnerships, and her sense of importance and value to those around her.
Children’s social-emotional development influences all other areas of development: Cognitive,
motor, and language development are all greatly affected by how a child feels about herself and
how she is able to express ideas and emotions.

Professionals sometimes define healthy social-emotional development in young children as early

childhood mental health. Healthy social-emotional development includes the ability to:

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• Form and sustain positive relationships

• Experience, manage, and express emotions

• Explore and engage with the environment

Children with well-developed social-emotional skills are also more able to:

• Express their ideas and feelings

• Display empathy towards others

• Manage their feelings of frustration and disappointment more easily

• Feel self-confident

• More easily make and develop friendships

• Succeed in school

Social-emotional development provides the foundation for how we feel about ourselves and how
we experience others. This foundation begins the day we are born and continues to develop
throughout our lifespan.

The greatest influence on a child’s social-emotional development is the quality of the

relationships that he develops with his primary caregivers.

Positive and nurturing early experiences and relationships have a significant impact on a child’s
social-emotional development. They also influence how the young child’s brain develops. An
attachment relationship is an enduring one that develops during the first few years of the child’s
life. It is built upon repeated interactions between the infant and the primary caregiver. These
interactions mainly involve attempts by the infant to achieve physical and emotional closeness
and the caregiver’s responses to these attempts. They have a lasting influence on how the child
feels about himself, how he thinks and interacts with his world, and what he comes to expect
from others.

Conclusion

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We have learned about the topic of progress and maturation in the human mind. We've also
spoken about the many phases of growth and what to expect at each one. Principles of
development, their significance, and the need of doing scientific research on them have been
explored. The adolescent years are a time of change, as you can see. There are a variety of issues
that go along with it. Adolescents are at a transitional stage between childhood and adulthood.
Their legal standing is still unclear. They have a tendency to disobey orders. In order to better
understand students' needs and difficulties, we have discussed what we can do as teachers to
respond to these issues and how we can aid in the development of a well-rounded personality.

Let's now talk about how physical, cognitive and social emotional
development is related to a lifespan

Lifespan development involves the exploration of biological, cognitive, and psychosocial

changes and constancies that occur throughout the entire course of life. It has been presented as a
theoretical perspective, proposing several fundamental, theoretical, and methodological
principles about the nature of human development. An attempt by researchers has been made to
examine whether research on the nature of development suggests a specific metatheoretical
worldview. Several beliefs, taken together, form the “family of perspectives” that contribute to
this particular view.

German psychologist Paul Baltes, a leading expert on lifespan development and aging,
developed one of the approaches to studying development called the lifespan perspective. This
approach is based on several key principles:

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• Development occurs across one’s entire life, or is lifelong.

• Development is multidimensional, meaning it involves the dynamic interaction of factors

like physical, emotional, and psychosocial development

• Development is multidirectional and results in gains and losses throughout life

• Development is plastic, meaning that characteristics are malleable or changeable.

• Development is influenced by contextual and socio-cultural influences.

• Development is multidisciplinary.

Development is lifelong

Lifelong development means that development is not completed in infancy or childhood

or at any specific age; it encompasses the entire lifespan, from conception to death. The
study of development traditionally focused almost exclusively on the changes occurring
from conception to adolescence and the gradual decline in old age; it was believed that
the five or six decades after adolescence yielded little to no developmental change at all.
The current view reflects the possibility that specific changes in development can occur
later in life, without having been established at birth. The early events of one’s childhood
can be transformed by later events in one’s life. This belief clearly emphasizes that all
stages of the lifespan contribute to the regulation of the nature of human development.

Many diverse patterns of change, such as direction, timing, and order, can vary among
individuals and affect the ways in which they develop. For example, the developmental
timing of events can affect individuals in different ways because of their current level of
maturity and understanding. As individuals move through life, they are faced with many
challenges, opportunities, and situations that impact their development. Remembering

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 that development is a lifelong process helps us gain a wider perspective on the meaning
and impact of each event.

ISSUES IN DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY

There are many different theoretical approaches regarding human development. As we evaluate
them in this chapter, recall that developmental psychology focuses on how people change, and
keep in mind that all the approaches that we present in this chapter address questions of change:
Is the change smooth or uneven (continuous versus discontinuous)? Is this pattern of change the
same for everyone, or are there many different patterns of change (one course of development
versus many courses)? How do genetics and environment interact to influence development
(nature versus nurture)?

Is Development Continuous or Discontinuous?

Continuous development views development as a cumulative process, gradually improving on

existing skills. With this type of development, there is gradual change. Consider, for example, a
child’s physical growth: adding inches to her height year by year. In contrast, theorists who view
development as discontinuous believe that development takes place in unique stages: It occurs at
specific times or ages. With this type of development, the change is more sudden, such as an
infant’s ability to conceive object permanence.

The concept of continuous development can be visualized as a smooth slope of progression,

whereas discontinuous development sees growth in more discrete stages.

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 2. 2.1. Explore the fundamental principles of psychology, including
perception, learning, memory, and motivation.

 What are the fundamentals of psychology?

An introduction to the systematic study of human cognition, emotion, and behavior

with an emphasis on the scientific method. Fundamentals of behavior, learning,
conditioning, development, cognitive processes, perception, emotion, personality,
and psychopathology are among the content areas studied.

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  What are the 4 principles of psychology?

Psychology includes four core goals, or principles, that reflect its purpose and
intentions: to describe, explain, predict, and modify behavior.

Overview

• First, we'll define basic psychology.

• Next, we'll outline a range of basic psychology theories.

• Then, we'll explore the examples of basic psychology theories in more detail.

• Finally, we'll outline the basic schools of psychology to showcase that range of theoretical
approaches towards understanding the human mind.

 what are the basic psychological processes?

Examples of psychological processes include sensation, perception, emotion, memory,

learning, attention, thinking, language and motivation.

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Psychology can help us understand how we influence each other in society and how we bond
with others. It is also concerned with how we create narratives of our past, how we use our
experiences to learn, or why we become distressed.

Defining Basic
Psychology

Psychology as a whole can be defined as an area of science concerned with studying the mind
and behavior. Psychology includes areas of study such as cognitive, forensic, developmental
psychology and biopsychology, to name a few. Many people associate psychology primarily with
mental health, as psychology aids in developing mental health diagnoses and treatments.

Here, the mind includes all the different internal processes, such as cognition or emotional states,
while behavior can be understood as an outward manifestation of those processes.

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There is a reason why this definition is so broad. Psychology is a diverse field in itself, but many
of the issues it is concerned with are interdisciplinary, meaning they overlap with different areas
of study, including biology, history, philosophy, anthropology, and sociology.

Basic Psychology
Theories

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Even though psychology is a broad area of study, some main themes or theories are important to
understand;
Psychological theories are fact-based ideas that describe a phenomenon of human behavior.
These theories are based on a hypothesis which is backed by evidence. Thus, the two key
components of a psychological theory are:

Examples of
Psychological Theories

These are a few examples of psychological theories these are:

Physiological: Food, water, shelter

Safety needs: Security, resources
Belongingness and love: Intimate relationships
Esteem needs: Feeling accomplished
Self-actualization: Living your full potential creatively and spiritually

1 It must describe a behavior.

2 It must make predictions about future behaviors.

The term "theory" is used with surprising frequency in everyday language. It is often used to
mean a guess, hunch, or supposition. You may even hear people dismiss certain information
because it is "only a theory."

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But in the realm of science, a theory is not merely a guess. A theory presents a concept or idea
that is testable. Scientists can test a theory through empirical research and gather evidence that
supports or refutes it.

As new evidence surfaces and more research is done, a theory may be refined, modified, or even
rejected if it does not fit with the latest scientific findings. The overall strength of a scientific
theory hinges on its ability to explain diverse phenomena.

Major Psychological Theories

o Some of the best-known psychological theories stem from the perspectives of various
branches within There are five major types of psychological theories.

Behavioral Theories

o Behavioral psychology, also known as behaviorism, is a theory of learning based on the

idea that all behaviors are acquired through conditioning.

Cognitive Theories

o Cognitive theories of psychology are focused on internal states, such as motivation,

problem-solving, decision-making thinking, and attention. Such theories strive to explain
different mental processes including how the mind processes information and how our
thoughts lead to certain emotions and behaviors

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Humanistic Theories

o Humanistic psychology theories began to grow in popularity during the 1950s.4 Some of
the major humanist theorists included Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow

While earlier theories often focused on abnormal behavior and psychological problems, humanist
theories about behavior instead emphasized the basic goodness of human beings.

Psychodynamic Theories

o Psychodynamic theories examine the unconscious concepts that shape our emotions,
attitudes, and personalities. Psychodynamic approaches seek to understand the root
causes of unconscious behavior.

o These theories are strongly linked with Sigmund Freud and his followers. The
psychodynamic approach is seen in many Freudian claims for instance, that our adult
behaviors have their roots in our childhood experiences and that the personality is made
up of three parts: the ID, the ego, and the superego.

Biological Theories

o Biological theories in psychology attribute human emotion and behavior to biological

causes. For instance, in the nature versus nurture debate on human behavior, the
biological perspective would side with nature.

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 o Biological theories are rooted in the ideas of Charles Darwin, who is famous for
theorizing about the roles that evolution and genetics play in psychology.

o Someone examining a psychological issue from a biological lens might investigate

whether there are bodily injuries causing a specific type of behavior or whether the
behavior was inherited.

Different Types of
Psychological Theories

 There are many psychology theories, but most can be categorized as one of four key
types.

Developmental Theories

o Theories of development provide a framework for thinking about human growth,

development, and learning. If you have ever wondered about what motivates human
thought and behavior, understanding these theories can provide useful insight into
individuals and society.
o Developmental theories provide a set of guiding principles and concepts that describe and
explain human development. Some developmental theories focus on the formation of a
particular quality, such as Kohlberg's theory of moral development.8 Other
developmental theories focus on growth that happens throughout the lifespan, such
as Erikson's theory of psychosocial development

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Grand Theories

o Grand theories are those comprehensive ideas often proposed by major thinkers such
as Sigmund Freud, Erik Erikson and Jean Piaget Grand theories of development
include psychoanalytic theory, learning theory overview and cognitive theory stages-of-
cognitive-development

o These theories seek to explain much of human behavior, but are often considered
outdated and incomplete in the face of modern research. Psychologists and researchers
often use grand theories as a basis for exploration, but consider smaller theories and
recent research as well.

Mini-Theories

o Mini-theories describe a small, very particular aspect of development. A mini-theory

might explain relatively narrow behaviors, such as how self-esteem is formed10 or early
childhood socialization. These theories are often rooted in the ideas established by grand
theories, but they do not seek to describe and explain the whole of human behavior and
growth.

Emergent Theories

o Emergent theories are those that have been created relatively recently. They are often
formed by systematically combining various mini-theories. These theories draw on
research and ideas from different disciplines but are not yet as broad or far-reaching as

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 grand theories. The sociocultural proposed by Lev Vygotsky is a good example of an
emergent theory of development.

The Purpose of
Psychological Theories

You may find yourself questioning how necessary it is to learn about different
psychology theories, especially those that are considered inaccurate or outdated.

However, theories provide valuable information about the history of psychology and the
progression of thought on a particular topic. They also allow a deeper understanding of
current theories. Each one helps contribute to our knowledge of the human mind and
behavior.

By understanding how thinking has progressed, you can get a better idea not only of
where psychology has been, but where it might be going in the future.
Studying scientific theories can improve your understanding of how scientific
explanations for behavior and other phenomena in the natural world are formed,
investigated, and accepted by the scientific community.

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 While debates continue to rage over hot topics, it is worthwhile to study science and the
psychological theories that have emerged from such research, even when what is often
revealed might come as a harsh or inconvenient truth.

How does psychology

affect our lives?

Psychology can provide us with insight into a broad range of issues.

• Why do we form attachments to others?

• Why are some memories stronger than others?

• Why do we develop mental illnesses and how to treat them?

• How can we study or work more efficiently?

Through the above examples and perhaps your own, it is easy to see the vast practical
applications of psychology. Social policies, education systems, and legislation reflect
psychological theories and findings.

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 Basic schools of
psychology

The basic schools of psychology include:

• Psychoanalysis

• Behaviorism

• Humanism

• Cognitivism

• Functionalism

One of the first modern schools of thought in psychology is Freud's psychoanalysis. This school
argues that mental health problems stem from unresolved conflicts, past traumatic experiences
and repressed contents of the unconscious mind. By bringing the unconscious into the
consciousness, it aims to alleviate people from psychological distress.

Behaviorism

Another school that emerged in the early twentieth century is behaviorism pioneered by
researchers such as Pavlov, Watson, and Skinner. This school focused only on studying
behavior rather than the hidden psychological processes. This approach argues that all
human behavior is learned, this learning either occurs through forming stimulus-response

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 associations or through the feedback we receive from the environment (rewards and
punishments).

In the mid-twentieth century, as a response to psychoanalysis and behaviorism, arose

humanistic approaches. Humanistic psychology is often associated with Rogers or
Maslow. It moves away from the deterministic view of human behavior and focuses on
the fact that humans are capable of free will, we can shape our destiny, we intuitively
know how we can develop ourselves to achieve our full potential. Humanistic psychology
aims to create an environment of unconditional positive regard, where people feel safe to
develop true insight into their identity and needs.

Cognitivism

 Around the same time, there was the development of cognitivism, an approach which in
contrast to behaviorism studies the internal psychological processes that influence our
experience. The focus of cognitive psychology is to understand how our thoughts, beliefs,
and attention can influence how we respond to our environment.

Functionalism

 Functionalism is an early approach which shifted the attention of researchers from

breaking mental processes down and creating structures that would represent them and
their basic elements, to developing an understanding of their function. For example,
instead of breaking anxiety down to its causes and basic elements, functionalism
proposes that we should focus on understanding the function of anxiety.

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Introduce of the perception, learning, memory, and motivation & what’s
the purpose of this?

Introduction

 Studying perception, cognition, or any other subject-matter entails conceptualizing what

it is we are studying. This may seem trivial and self-evident, but this conceptualization
determines the theoretical framework and methodology of the entire research program. In
practice, many researchers delve directly into the practicalities of their work, supposedly
claiming a non-stance on the larger philosophical and conceptual issues. However, the
practicalities of their work emerge and presuppose certain views and conceptualizations
about their object of inquiry-even though those stances may only be implicitly embedded
in their work.

 The role of neural networks in studying perception highly depends upon what one
considers as perception. Once this is somewhat clear, then one can go ahead and
concentrate on developing and applying tools that investigate the core and essence of the
perceptual phenomena. Therefore, it is the authors’ belief that it is worthwhile to spend
some time to place perception in its correct conceptual and theoretical framework. Only
then will it be evident how neural networks play a critical role in studying perception. We
will begin this chapter by discussing these fundamental issues. Then we will give a brief
description of neural networks, and proceed to discuss systems theories and a priori
aspects of perception through the research and framework laid down by neural networks.

What Is the Perception ?

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In the early days of psychology, perception was viewed as an introspective subjective
experience. Then the behaviorist approach reduced perception to external stimuli-response
reactions. Although psychology has come a long way from those early attempts at studying
perception, the field has yet to pinpoint what is perception and how it should be studied.

On the one hand, many experimentalists still study behavior. They measure thresholds, reaction
time, and other finely tuned quantifiable

Definition of Learning in Psychology

Learning can be defined in many ways, but most psychologists would agree that it is a relatively
permanent change in behavior that results from experience. During the first half of the 20th
century, the school of thought known as behaviorism rose to dominate psychology and sought to
explain the learning process. Behaviorism sought to measure only observable behaviors.

Definition of Memory in Psychology

Human Memory in Psychology: What is Memory?

Memory is something that all humans have experienced, yet it is not easy to explain, define, or
understand. Humans can remember some childhood experiences for decades; other times, they
struggle to remember a phone number only seconds after reading it. This lesson will explain how
memory works, the three types of memory, and its three stages. But first, let us define the term
''memory.''

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According to most psychologists, memory is defined as an organism's ability to acquire, store,
retain, and eventually retrieve information. For humans, short-term memories last anywhere from
18-30 seconds, while long-term memories can last decades.

Definition of motivation in Psychology

 motivation, Factors within a human being or animal that arouse and direct goal-oriented
behavior. Motivation has long been a central subject of study in psychology. Early
researchers, influenced by Charles Darwin, ascribed much of animal and human behavior
to instinct. Sigmund Freud believed that much of human behavior was also based on
irrational instinctive urges or unconscious motives. Walter B. Cannon proposed that basic
human drives served homeostatic functions by directing energies toward the reduction of
physiological tensions. Behavioral psychologists, in contrast, stress the importance of
external goals in prompting action, while humanistic psychologists examine the role of
felt needs. Cognitive psychologists have found that a motive sensitizes a person to
information relating to that motive: a hungry subject, for example, will perceive food
stimuli as larger than other stimuli. See also behavior genetics; human nature; learning.

2.2 Provide examples to

illustrate how these principles manifest in everyday life

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How to Manifest Someone into Your Life in 6 Easy Steps

We all need social interaction in our lives to feel fulfilled. But not just any interaction.
Meaningful interaction with people we connect with on a deeper level.

And for most of us, we have been looking for that special someone to fill that role in our lives.
So, what if I told you could use manifestation to attract them into your life?

Manifestation is a great tool, that when used properly, can help you with just that. It allows us to
put our intentions out into the world and open ourselves to receiving what we want in return.

What is manifestation?

Manifestation comes from the law of attraction, which states that the energy we put out into the
universe is the energy we receive. In other words, we attract that which we radiate.

In other words, our thoughts, beliefs, and feelings can create what we want we want in the
physical world. Both good and bad.

Essentially, it is a term representing the idea that if you believe in it, it will come true. And the
idea has a huge following.

Rhonda Byrne wrote, “The Secret” a book all about harnessing the power of manifestation in
your life. It garnered such overwhelming critical acclaim that it has been made into a film.

And many famous people believe in the power of manifestation, too, such as Will Smith, Oprah
Winfrey, and Jim Carey.

So, the question is, does manifestation actually work?

Can you really manifest something into your life?

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Despite its strong roots in spirituality, there is a lot of psychological evidence to support the
success of manifestation.

Researcher Carol Dweck created a theory based on the “Growth Mindset.” In this theory, she
states that if you believe you can do something, you are more likely to be able to do it. This
mirrors the way that manifestation works.

Another psychological principle that can explain how manifesting works is “self-fulfilling
prophecies.” That is, whatever you believe of yourself, positive or negative, you will eventually
become.

It’s a principle that is especially talked about in educational circles. Teachers are taught about
how self-fulfilling prophecies can affect their students. For example, if a teacher always tells a
student they are bad, then regardless of if they were bad or not, to begin with, they will
eventually start behaving. Conversely, if they praise the student constantly and tell them they are
doing good, they will begin to believe it and do good.

The same goes for manifestation – what we believe about ourselves we become, what we believe
of our life will come to pass.

So, if we believe we are worthy of a special someone entering our life and manifesting them,
they will be attracted into our lives. This may even apply to manifesting someone back into your
life, such as a good friend that you’d lost contact with. So, how can you manifest someone into
your life, or even how do we manifest love into our life.?

Six steps to manifesting something into your life

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1 Choose who you want to manifest

Your mind might be buzzing with a list a mile long of all the attributes of the person you want to
attract into your life. It’s normal. But for manifesting to work, it’s important to get specific about
what you want.

Manifesting on paper as well as thinking about it is a powerful exercise. So, make a list of all the
things you want to manifest and get clear on exactly who this person is.

2 Why do you want them?

Get specific about why you have chosen this person profile for the person you want to attract
into your life.

For example, why have you chosen certain personality traits? Is it because you think it will
compliment your own personality? Is it the person that you want to be yourself? Are they
qualities you genuinely value, or are they traits society has told you to appreciate in people? The
more specific you get about why you want to attract someone specific into your life, the more
likely it will happen.

3 Believe it will happen

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As we’ve discussed, believing that you can have what you want is essential to manifesting
something into your life, so make sure you start believing it will happen.

An excellent way to do this is to visualize yourself having attracted who you wanted and how
your life looks together. You should then start living your life as if they have already entered
your life so that you can harness the power of the self-fulfilling prophecy.

4 Create affirmations

Affirmations are short phrases you repeat to yourself daily to affirm your beliefs. For example, if
you are manifesting that special person into your life, you might create an affirmation about your
ability to be loved, such as, “I am deserving of love and support.”

You may also wish to use general affirmations for manifestation, such as “I am worthy of
following my dreams and manifesting my desires.”

Choose three to five affirmations and repeat them daily.

5 Journal your progress

When manifestation takes longer than you had hoped, it can be disheartening, and you may want
to give up hope. Don’t.

Instead, keep track of your manifestation by journaling your progress. What are you doing in
your life to align with your “new normal” with this person? Have you noticed any changes in
your life since you started manifesting? Any new people hanging around waiting for you to open
the door to them? Do you think it is related?

Keeping a journal will help provide you with perspective on the hard days.

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6 Be open to receiving what you have manifested

Eventually, your manifestation will bring who you want into your life. But they may not be the
person you were expecting. Depending on why you wanted certain traits in your special person,
you may have attracted someone different than you had envisaged that still offers you the why of
your desires rather than the what.

So, be open to receiving what you want in ways you hadn’t necessarily expected, and make sure
to show gratitude when you do!

Final thoughts on manifesting a specific person

Manifestation is a powerful tool that you can use to attract someone you want into your life.

Make sure that you are sure it’s what you want and that you believe you are worthy of receiving
that person into your life.

And remember, manifesting doesn’t always work in the way you think. You may not get the
person you want, but you will get the person you need to fulfil your desire.

Good luck on your manifesting journey!

Final thoughts on manifesting a specific person

Manifestation is a powerful tool that you can use to attract someone you want into your life.

Make sure that you are sure it’s what you want and that you believe you are worthy of receiving
that person into your life.

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And remember, manifesting doesn’t always work in the way you think. You may not get the
person you want, but you will get the person you need to fulfil your desire.

Good luck on your manifesting journey!

3.3.1. Define abnormal

psychology and discuss the criteria used to determine abnormal
behavior.

How Psychologists Define and Study Abnormal Psychology

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 What Is Abnormal Psychology?

Abnormal psychology is a branch of psychology that deals with psychopathology and

abnormal behavior, or the patterns of emotion, thought, and behavior that can be signs of a
mental health condition. The term covers a broad range of disorders, from depression to
obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) to personality disorders.

The term "abnormal" is the subject of considerable debate. What exactly is "normal" and
who gets to decide? The social norms that are often used to determine what is normal
versus abnormal can shift over time, so settling on a standard definition isn't simple or
straightforward.
Counselors, psychologists, and psychotherapists often work directly in this field, often in a
clinical context. Rather than the distinction between normal and abnormal, psychologists in
this field focus on the level of distress that behaviors, thoughts, or emotions might cause.

This article discusses what abnormal psychology is and the different topics studied by this
area of psychology. It also covers how abnormality is defined and some of the criticisms of
abnormal psychology.

Defining Abnormality

If a behavior is creating problems in a person's life or is disruptive to other people, then this
would be an "abnormal" behavior. In such cases, the behavior may require some type of
mental health intervention.

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What Are the Four Approaches to Abnormal Psychology?

 There are a number of different perspectives used in abnormal psychology. While

some psychologists or psychiatrists may focus on a single viewpoint, many mental
health professionals use elements from multiple areas in order to better understand
and treat psychological disorders.

Psychoanalytic Approach

This perspective has its roots in the theories of Sigmund Freud. The psychoanalytic
approach suggests that many abnormal behaviors stem from unconscious thoughts,
desires, and memories.

While these feelings are outside of awareness, they are still believed to influence conscious
actions.
Therapists who take this approach believe that by analyzing their memories, behaviors,
thoughts, and even dreams people can uncover and deal with some of the feelings that have
been leading to maladaptive behaviors and distress.

Behavioral Approach

This approach to abnormal psychology focuses on observable behaviors in behavioral

therapy, the focus is on reinforcing positive behaviors and not reinforcing maladaptive
behaviors. The behavioral approach targets only the behavior itself, not the underlying
causes. When dealing with abnormal behavior, a behavioral therapist might utilize
strategies such as classical conditioning and operant conditioning to help eliminate
unwanted behaviors and teach new behaviors.

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 Medical Approach

This approach to abnormal psychology focuses on the biological causes of mental illness,
emphasizing understanding the underlying cause of disorders, which might include genetic
inheritance, related physical illnesses, infections, and chemical imbalances. Medical
treatments are often pharmacological in nature, although medication is often used in
conjunction with some type of psychotherapy.

Cognitive Approach

The cognitive approach to abnormal psychology focuses on how internal thoughts,

perceptions, and reasoning contribute to psychological disorders. Cognitive treatments
typically focus on helping the individual change their thoughts or reactions.

Cognitive therapy might also be used in conjunction with behavioral methods in a

technique known as cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT).

Topics in Abnormal Psychology

The main topics in abnormal psychology are the study, understanding, diagnosis, treatment,
and prevention of psychological disorders. Psychological disorders are defined as patterns
of behavioral or psychological symptoms that impact multiple areas of life. These
conditions create distress for the person experiencing symptoms.

Mental health professionals use the "Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental
Disorders” published by the American Psychiatric Association (APA), for a variety of
purposes. The manual contains a listing of psychiatric disorders, diagnostic codes,

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 information on the prevalence of each disorder, and diagnostic criteria. Some of the
categories of psychological disorders include:

 Anxiety disorders such as social anxiety disorder, panic disorder, and

generalized anxiety disorder
Mood disorders such as depression and bipolar disorder
Neurodevelopmental disorders, such as intellectual disability or autism
spectrum disorder
Neurocognitive disorders including delirium Personality disorders such as
borderline personality disorder, avoidant personality disorder, and obsessive-
compulsive personality disorder

Criticisms of Abnormal Psychology

The field of abnormal psychology is not without criticism. In addition to debates over the
use of the term "abnormal" itself, some believe that this area has a number of
shortcomings.

In particular, some feel that this area stigmatizes vulnerable and oppressed people. Critics
also suggest that the field of abnormal psychology tends to pathologize normal variations
in human behavior.

Some also propose that the medical approach to mental illness often focuses only on
biological and genetic determinants of distress rather than taking a more holistic view It
also does not account for the fact that there are major cultural differences in what is
deemed normal and abnormal.

Research has also found that learning more about abnormal psychology appears to do little
to combat stigma regarding mental illness. One study found that teaching students about

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 abnormal psychology did not reduce mental health stigma, improve attitudes toward mental
illness, or increase help-seeking behaviors among students.

Summary

Abnormal psychology may focus on

atypical behavior, but its focus is not to
ensure that all people fit into a narrow
definition of "normal." In most cases, it
is centered on identifying and treating
problems that may be causing distress
or impairment in some aspect of an
individual's life. By better
understanding what is "abnormal,"
researchers and therapists can come up
with new ways to help people live
healthier and more fulfilling lives.

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 what is the abnormal psychology, discus the criteria used to
determine

Abnormal Behavior Definition

The World Health Organization (2022), a psychological disorder is a "clinically significant

disturbance in an individual's cognition, emotional regulation, or behavior." In this article,
we will focus on the behavior part of this definition. The term abnormal behavior can be
difficult to define. We have several ways to describe abnormal behavior, such as "insanity,
madness, lunacy, or emotionally disturbed" to name a few. But psychologists haven't been
able to lock down one single definition of abnormal behavior that's universally accepted.
The very general definition of abnormal behavior that we will use for this article is as
follows:

The abnormal behavior definition can be subjective and heavily depend on cultural
influences. Something that is abnormal behavior in one culture may not be abnormal in
others. Society is also ever-changing. A type of behavior may have been perfectly
acceptable hundreds of years ago that is not acceptable today.

Types of Abnormal Behavior

Now let's break down the types of abnormal behavior that are used in our definition -
distress, dysfunctional and deviant.

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 Deviant Abnormal Behavior

Deviant abnormal behavior is a type of behavior that is outside what is normal according to
society.

Example,

Every time Hallie left the house she had to leave, lock the door and
repeat 5 times before she can actually make her way to school.
Normal social behavior would be to lock it once and go on your way.
Maybe twice if you think you forgot to lock it. But going back 5
times every time would be considered deviant abnormal behavior.

Behaviors that fall under this type of abnormal behavior can vary depending on a person's
culture. A behavior that's deviant in one culture may be perfectly normal in another.

Distressed Abnormal Behavior

Distressed abnormal behavior is abnormal behavior that causes a person to be upset,

anxious, or distraught. This type of abnormal behavior depends on how a person feels and
how they report their emotional state of mind.

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 Example,

Going back and forth to lock her door 5 times every day before
school is making Hallie anxious because she is late almost every day.
This is an example of distressed abnormal behavior.

Dysfunctional Abnormal Behavior

Dysfunctional abnormal behavior refers to maladaptive behaviors a person may display.

Maladaptive behavior

Maladaptive behavior refers to behaviors that interfere with a person's ability to adapt to
and function within society.

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 Example,

Hallie is sitting at the lunch table with all of her friends but she's
having a hard time engaging in any conversations because she only
went to lock her door 4 times today.

Causes of Abnormal Behavior

 Abnormal behavior is not a new phenomenon. All through human history, we have tried
to explain the causes of abnormal behavior. Ancient societies often believed that
abnormal behavior was caused by some type of supernatural cause or evil spirit.
However, as Greek and Roman philosophers (500 BC to 500 AD) began to emerge, the
tune changed to other causes. The Greek physician, Hippocrates, attributed abnormal
behavior to disorders and imbalances in the brain or body. This new view set the
foundation for how we view abnormal behavior today.

Then, as we move to the Middle Ages (500 AD - 1350), supernatural explanations for
abnormal behavior became popular again. This led to extreme practices such as exorcisms
and witch hunts. It also acted as a stepping stone to asylums which first made their
appearance during the Renaissance Era (1400-1700).

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Symptoms of Abnormal Behavior

There can be various symptoms of abnormal behavior. These symptoms are commonly
used to diagnose a psychological disorder using the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual for
Mental Disorders, 5th edition (DSM-V).

Common symptoms of abnormal behavior include the following:

• Suicide ideation (thoughts of suicide)

• Excessive use of drugs and alcohol
• Physical symptoms without a medical cause
• Changes in eating habits (i.e., loss of appetite or excessive hunger)
• Avoidance of social activities
• Insomnia (difficulty sleeping)
• Constant worry or fear
• Changes in sex drive
• Inability to understand the perspective of others
• Struggles to perceive reality (i.e., hallucinations or delusions)
• Obsessive concern with our appearance or fear of gaining weight

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 3.2. According to the DSM 05 (Diagnosis Statistical Manual)
classification, give examples of the criteria that can identify a person
as having mental disorders and describe them one by one.

Diagnosing and Classifying Psychological Disorders

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

• Explain why classification systems are necessary in the study of psychopathology

• Describe the basic features of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth
Edition (DSM-5)

• Discuss changes in the DSM over time, including criticisms of the current edition

• Identify which disorders are generally the most common

A first step in the study of psychological disorders is carefully and systematically discerning
significant signs and symptoms. How do mental health professionals ascertain whether or not a
person’s inner states and behaviors truly represent a psychological disorder? Arriving at a proper
diagnosis-that is, appropriately identifying and labeling a set of defined symptoms is absolutely
crucial. This process enables professionals to use a common language with others in the field and
aids in communication about the disorder with the patient, colleagues and the public. A proper
diagnosis is an essential element to guide proper and successful treatment. For these reasons,
classification systems that organize psychological disorders systematically are necessary.

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 THE DIAGNOSTIC AND STATISTICAL MANUAL OF MENTAL
DISORDERS (DSM)

Although a number of classification systems have been developed over time, the one that is used
by most mental health professionals in the United States is the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual
of Mental Disorders (DSM-5), published by the American Psychiatric Association (2013). (Note
that the American Psychiatric Association differs from the American Psychological Association;
both are abbreviated APA.) The first edition of the DSM, published in 1952, classified
psychological disorders according to a format developed by the U.S. Army during World War II
(Clegg, 2012). In the years since, the DSM has undergone numerous revisions and editions. The
most recent edition, published in 2013, is the DSM-5 (APA, 2013). The DSM-5 includes many
categories of disorders (e.g., anxiety disorders, depressive disorders, and dissociative disorders).
Each disorder is described in detail, including an overview of the disorder (diagnostic features),
specific symptoms required for diagnosis (diagnostic criteria), prevalence information (what
percent of the population is thought to be afflicted with the disorder), and risk factors associated
with the disorder. [link] shows lifetime prevalence rates the percentage of people in a population
who develop a disorder in their lifetime of various psychological disorders among U.S. adults.
These data were based on a national sample of 9,282 U.S. residents (National Comorbidity
Survey, 2007).

The graph shows the breakdown of psychological disorders, comparing the percentage
prevalence among adult males and adult females in the United States. Because the data is from
2007, the categories shown here are from the DSM-IV, which has been supplanted by the DSM-5
Most categories remain the same; however, alcohol abuse now falls under a broader Alcohol Use
Disorder category.

The DSM-5 also provides information about comorbidity; the co-occurrence of two disorders.
For example, the DSM-5 mentions that 41% of people with obsessive-compulsive disorder

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(OCD) also meet the diagnostic criteria for major depressive disorder ([link]). Drug use is highly
comorbid with other mental illnesses; 6 out of 10 people who have a substance use disorder also
suffer from another form of mental illness (National Institute on Drug Abuse [NIDA], 2007).
Obsessive-compulsive disorder and major depressive disorder frequently occur in the same
person. The DSM has changed considerably in the half-century since it was originally published.
The first two editions of the DSM, for example, listed homosexuality as a disorder; however, in
1973, the APA voted to remove it from the manual (Silverstein, 2009). Additionally, beginning
with the DSM-III in 1980, mental disorders have been described in much greater detail, and the
number of diagnosable conditions has grown steadily, as has the size of the manual itself. DSM-I
included 106 diagnoses and was 130 total pages, whereas DSM-III included more than 2 times as
many diagnoses (265) and was nearly seven times its size (886 total pages) (Mayes & Horowitz,
2005). Although DSM-5 is longer than DSM-IV, the volume includes only 237 disorders, a
decrease from the 297 disorders that were listed in DSM-IV.

The latest edition, DSM-5, includes revisions in the organization and naming of categories and in
the diagnostic criteria for various disorders (Regier, Kuhl, & Kupfer, 2012), while emphasizing
careful consideration of the importance of gender and cultural difference in the expression of
various symptoms (Fisher, 2010).

Some believe that establishing new diagnoses might over pathologize the human condition by
turning common human problems into mental illnesses (The Associated Press, 2013). Indeed, the
finding that nearly half of all Americans will meet the criteria for a DSM disorder at some point
in their life (Kessler et al., 2005) likely fuels much of this skepticism. The DSM-5 is also
criticized on the grounds that its diagnostic criteria have been loosened, thereby threatening to
“turn our current diagnostic inflation into diagnostic hyperinflation” (Frances, 2012, para. 22).
For example, DSM-IV specified that the symptoms of major depressive disorder must not be
attributable to normal bereavement (loss of a loved one). The DSM-5, however, has removed this
bereavement exclusion, essentially meaning that grief and sadness after a loved one’s death can
constitute major depressive disorder.

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 THE INTERNATIONAL CLASSIFICATION OF DISEASES

A second classification system, the International Classification of Diseases (ICD), is also widely
recognized. Published by the World Health Organization (WHO), the ICD was developed in
Europe shortly after World War II and, like the DSM, has been revised several times. The
categories of psychological disorders in both the DSM and ICD are similar, as are the criteria for
specific disorders; however, some differences exist. Although the ICD is used for clinical
purposes, this tool is also used to examine the general health of populations and to monitor the
prevalence of diseases and other health problems internationally (WHO, 2013). The ICD is in its
10th edition (ICD-10); however, efforts are now underway to develop a new edition (ICD-11)
that, in conjunction with the changes in DSM-5, will help harmonize the two classification
systems as much as possible (APA, 2013).

A study that compared the use of the two classification systems found that worldwide the ICD is
more frequently used for clinical diagnosis, whereas the DSM is more valued for research (Mezz
ich, 2002). Most research findings concerning the etiology and treatment of psychological
disorders are based on criteria set forth in the DSM (Oltmanns & Castonguay, 2013). The DSM
also includes more explicit disorder criteria, along with an extensive and helpful explanatory text
(Regier et al., 2012). The DSM is the classification system of choice among U.S. mental health
professionals, and this chapter is based on the DSM paradigm.

THE COMPASSIONATE VIEW OF PSYCHOLOGICAL

DISORDERS

As these disorders are outlined, please bear two things in mind. First, remember that
psychological disorders represent extremes of inner experience and behavior. If, while reading
about these disorders, you feel that these descriptions begin to personally characterize you, do

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not worry-this moment of enlightenment probably mean nothing more than you are normal. Each
of us experiences episodes of sadness, anxiety, and preoccupation with certain thoughts-times
when we do not quite feel ourselves. These episodes should not be considered problematic unless
the accompanying thoughts and behaviors become extreme and have a disruptive effect on one’s
life. Second, understand that people with psychological disorders are far more than just
embodiments of their disorders. We do not use terms such as schizophrenics, depressives, or
phobic because they are labels that objectify people who suffer from these conditions, thus
promoting biased and disparaging assumptions about them. It is important to remember that a
psychological disorder is not what a person is; it is something that a person has—through no
fault of his or her own.

As is the case with cancer or diabetes, those with psychological disorders suffer debilitating,
often painful conditions that are not of their own choosing. These individuals deserve to be
viewed and treated with compassion, understanding, and dignity.

What is the classification of mental disorders according to the DSM-5?

Instead, the DSM-5 lists categories of disorders along with a number of different related
disorders. Example categories in the DSM-5 include anxiety disorders, bipolar and related
disorders, depressive disorders, feeding and eating disorders, obsessive-compulsive and related
disorders, and personality disorders.

What are several examples of conditions that fall under this DSM-5 category?

• IMPORTANT: The DSM-5 and DSM-5-TR are medical reference books intended for
experts and professionals. ...

• Neurodevelopmental disorders.
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• Schizophrenia spectrum and other psychotic disorders.

• Obsessive-compulsive and related disorders.

• Trauma- and stressor-related disorders.

• Dissociative disorders.

What are the advantages of the DSM-5?

Strengths of the DSM-5

Its most notable advantages are: It creates common terminology. It fosters a better understanding
of mental illnesses in the general public. It promotes unified research.

What is the diagnosis classification?

Diagnostic classification systems have been constructed to help clinicians make diagnoses. The
most commonly used classification system in the United States is the American Psychiatric
Association's Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th edition (1994, generally
referred to as DSM-IV).

What are the 5 categories of diseases?

Among the various classification of diseases, the five major categories include;

• Congenital and hereditary diseases. There are instances where a child is born with
dysfunctionality in some body tissues or organs. ...

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• Degenerative diseases. ...

• Metabolic diseases. ...

• Inflammatory diseases. ...

• Neoplastic diseases.

mental disorders and describe them one by one.

Anxiety Disorders?

What Are Anxiety Disorders?

 Anxiety is a normal emotion. It’s your brain’s way of reacting to stress and alerting you
of potential danger ahead. Everyone feels anxious now and then. For example, you may
worry when faced with a problem at work, before taking a test, or before making an
important decision.

 Occasional anxiety is OK. But anxiety disorders are different. They’re a group of mental
illnesses that cause constant and overwhelming anxiety and fear. The excessive anxiety
can make you avoid work, school, family get-togethers, and other social situations that
might trigger or worsen your symptoms.

With treatment, many people with anxiety disorders can manage their feelings.

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 Types of Anxiety Disorders There are several types of anxiety disorders:

• Generalized anxiety disorder. You feel excessive, unrealistic worry and tension with little or no
reason.

• Panic disorder. You feel sudden, intense fear that brings on a panic attack. During a panic
attack you may break out in a sweat, have chest pain, and have a pounding heartbeat
(palpitations). Sometimes you may feel like you’re choking or having a heart attack

• Social anxiety disorder. Also called social phobia, this is when you feel overwhelming worry
and self-consciousness about everyday social situations. You obsessively worry about others
judging you or being embarrassed or ridiculed.

• Specific phobias. You feel intense fear of a specific object or situation, such as heights or
flying. The fear goes beyond what’s appropriate and may cause you to avoid ordinary situations.

•Agoraphobia You have an intense fear of being in a place where it seems hard to escape or get
help if an emergency occurs. For example, you may panic or feel anxious when on an airplane,
on public transportation, or standing in line with a crowd.

• Separation anxiety. Little kids aren’t the only ones who feel scared or anxious when a loved
one leaves. Anyone can get separation anxiety disorder. If you do, you’ll feel very anxious or
fearful when a person you’re close to leaves your sight. You’ll always worry that something bad
may happen to your loved one.

Bipolar and Related Disorders

Bipolar disorder, formerly known as manic depression, is characterized by serious and

significant mood swings that impair daily life and negatively affect relationships. According to
the National Institute of Mental Health, approximately 2.6% of American adults have bipolar
disorder. 83% of these cases are classified as "severe."

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What are the four types of bipolar disorder?

Bipolar I - Bipolar I is characterized by severe episodes of mania, often followed by a period of

depression.

Bipolar II - Bipolar II is characterized by hypomania, a period that is less severe than a full
manic episode.

Cyclothymia - Cyclothymia is characterized by brief periods of mania alternating with brief

periods of depressive symptoms.

Other Specified and Unspecified Bipolar Disorder - Unspecified bipolar disorder is when a
person does not meet the criteria for any of the above three disorders but still experiences periods
of abnormal mood elevation.

Depressive disorder

Depressive disorder (also known as depression) is a common mental disorder. It involves a

depressed mood or loss of pleasure or interest in activities for long periods of time.

Depression is different from regular mood changes and feelings about everyday life. It can affect
all aspects of life, including relationships with family, friends and community. It can result from
or lead to problems at school and at work.

Depression can happen to anyone. People who have lived through abuse, severe losses or other
stressful events are more likely to develop depression. Women are more likely to have depression
than men.

An estimated 3.8% of the population experience depression, including 5% of adults (4% among
men and 6% among women), and 5.7% of adults older than 60 years. Approximately 280 million
people in the world have depression (1). Depression is about 50% more common among women

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than among men. Worldwide, more than 10% of pregnant women and women who have just
given birth experience depression (2). More than 700 000 people die due to suicide every year.
Suicide is the fourth leading cause of death in 15–29-year-olds.

Although there are known, effective treatments for mental disorders, more than 75% of people in
low- and middle-income countries receive no treatment (3). Barriers to effective care include a
lack of investment in mental health care, lack of trained health-care providers and social stigma
associated with mental disorders.

Symptoms and patterns

During a depressive episode, a person experiences a depressed mood (feeling sad, irritable,
empty). They may feel a loss of pleasure or interest in activities.

A depressive episode is different from regular mood fluctuations. They last most of the day,
nearly every day, for at least two weeks.

Other symptoms are also present, which may include:

• poor concentration

• feelings of excessive guilt or low self-worth

• hopelessness about the future

• thoughts about dying or suicide

• disrupted sleep

• changes in appetite or weight

• feeling very tired or low in energy.

Depression can cause difficulties in all aspects of life, including in the community and at home,
work and school.

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A depressive episode can be categorized as mild, moderate, or severe depending on the number
and severity of symptoms, as well as the impact on the individual’s functioning.

There are different patterns of depressive episodes including:

• single episode depressive disorder, meaning the person’s first and only episode;

• recurrent depressive disorder, meaning the person has a history of at least two depressive
episodes; and

• bipolar disorder, meaning that depressive episodes alternate with periods of manic symptoms,
which include euphoria or irritability, increased activity or energy, and other symptoms such as
increased talkativeness, racing thoughts, increased self-esteem, decreased need for sleep,
distractibility, and impulsive reckless behavior.

Feeding and Eating disorders

Feeding and eating disorders are characterized by eating behavior that results in health or
psychosocial problems. Anorexia nervosa is characterized by restrictive eating that leads to
dangerously low body weight and disturbances in self-perceived shape or weight. Bulimia
nervosa is a disorder that includes episodes of binge eating and compensatory behaviors (e.g.,
purging, exercising) in individuals who are unduly influenced by shape and weight.
Avoidant/restrictive food intake disorder (ARFID) is a newly defined disorder that describes
rigid eating behavior that results in weight loss, nutritional deficiency, or psychosocial problems
in individuals who are not preoccupied with shape or weight.

Anorexia affects 0.4% of females, while bulimia affects 1% to 1.5% of females. Though males
can be affected by these disorders, it is much more uncommon and prevalence rates are not well
defined.

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Some individuals with anorexia nervosa may be able to continue to participate in social events,
school, or work, while others became very socially isolated and unable to function in these
settings and in expected roles (e.g., as a student, worker, parent).

Key features of bulimia nervosa include patterns of eating objectively large amounts of food in
which an individual experiences the inability to stop their eating (a loss of control) combined
with compensatory behaviors such as purging (i.e., self-induced vomiting), exercise, laxative or
diuretic abuse to prevent weight gain. Individuals with bulimia maintain weight in the normal-to-
overweight range. Bulimia is associated with medical symptoms related to the compensatory
behaviors including potentially life-threatening fluid and electrolyte abnormalities,
gastrointestinal tract damage and cardiac arrhythmias. Individuals with bulimia may be able to
conceal behaviors and maintain social, academic and occupational functioning, while others
cannot maintain function across these domains.

The key features of avoidant/restrictive food intake disorder (ARFID) are food avoidance or
decreased food intake that leads to weight loss, nutritional deficiency or impaired functioning.
The avoidance may be related to sensory issues or in anticipation of unpleasant experiences such
as choking or vomiting. ARFID may be associated with lack of interest in eating, rigidity, and
other features of anxiety or mood disorders. Individuals with this disorder may not be able to
participate in social aspects of eating or may cause significant developmental or family
disturbance when the pattern of eating limits ability to eat in different settings.

Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder?

What Is Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder?

Obsessive-Compulsive and related disorders include obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD),

body dysmorphic disorder, hoarding disorder, trichotillomania (hair-pulling disorder), and
excoriation (skin-picking) disorder. Often called the doubting disease, OCD is typically
characterized by the presence of obsessions and compulsions that the individual finds difficult to
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control. Obsessions are characterized as unwanted intrusive thoughts, urges, images, or impulses.
Common obsessions include a need for cleanliness, concerns over germs, fear of doing
something blasphemous or causing harm to others, and a need for symmetry or to do things “the
right way.” Individuals with obsessions often perform compulsive behaviors to reduce fears
associated with their obsessions. Compulsions, also known as “rituals,” are repeated actions or
thought patterns that are intended to rid troublesome obsessions. Common compulsions include:
excessive washing or cleaning, checking behavior (e.g., repeatedly looking to see if the oven is
turned off), repeating behaviors (e.g., switching a light switch 15 times), mental rituals (e.g.,
repeating phrases or numbers), and organizing possessions in a set pattern (e.g., color-
coordinating items of clothing). Some other disorders included in this category are also
characterized by preoccupations and by repetitive behaviors or mental acts in response to those
preoccupations. Others are characterized primarily by recurrent body-focused repetitive behavior
(e.g., hair pulling, skin-picking) and repeated attempts to decrease or stop the behaviors.

OCD occurs gradually in both adults and children/adolescents and has a chronic course. Boys
most commonly develop OCD in childhood while girls typically develop OCD in early
adulthood. OCD has a genetic component and is heritable. People with OCD often have family
members with OCD and other anxiety problems. Learning and life stress also contribute to the
development of OCD. Most people have thoughts similar to the thoughts that bother people with
OCD; however, people who have OCD are more bothered by these thoughts. They then try to
avoid them or develop compulsions to neutralize them. The avoidance and compulsions make the
thoughts stronger.

Personality Disorders

What are personality disorders?

For people without a personality disorder, personality traits are patterns of thinking, reacting, and
behaving that remain relatively consistent and stable over time. People with a personality

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disorder display more rigid thinking and reacting behaviors that make it hard for them to adapt to
a situation. These behaviors often disrupt their personal, professional, and social lives.

6. 6.1. Define mental health and discuss the importance of

maintaining good mental health

What is the mental health?

Mental health is a state of mental well-being that enables people to cope with the stresses of life,
realize their abilities, learn well and work well, and contribute to their community. It has intrinsic
and instrumental value and is integral to our well-being.

At any one time, a diverse set of individual, family, community and structural factors may
combine to protect or undermine mental health. Although most people are resilient, people who
are exposed to adverse circumstances – including poverty, violence, disability and inequality –
are at higher risk of developing a mental health condition.

Many mental health conditions can be effectively treated at relatively low cost, yet health
systems remain significantly under-resourced and treatment gaps are wide all over the world.
Mental health care is often poor in quality when delivered. People with mental health conditions
often also experience stigma, discrimination and human rights violations.

Why is mental health important for overall health?

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Mental and physical health are equally important components of overall health. For example,
depression increases the risk for many types of physical health problems, particularly long-
lasting conditions like diabetes, heart disease and stroke. Similarly, the presence of chronic
conditions can increase the risk for mental illness.

Can your mental health change over time?

Yes, it’s important to remember that a person’s mental health can change over time, depending
on many factors. When the demands placed on a person exceed their resources and coping
abilities, their mental health could be impacted. For example, if someone is working long hours,
caring for a relative, or experiencing economic hardship, they may experience poor mental
health.

How common are mental illnesses?

Mental illnesses are among the most common health conditions in the United States.

• More than 1 in 5 US adults live with a mental illness.

• Over 1 in 5 youth (ages 13-18) either currently or at some point during their life, have had a
seriously debilitating mental illness.5

• About 1 in 25 U.S. adults’ lives with a serious mental illness, such as schizophrenia, bipolar
disorder, or major depression.6

What causes mental illness?

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There is no single cause for mental illness. A number of factors can contribute to risk for mental
illness, such as

• Adverse Childhood Experiences, such as trauma or a history of abuse (for example, child
abuse, sexual assault, witnessing violence, etc.)

• Experiences related to other ongoing (chronic) medical conditions, such as a traumatic brain
injury, cancer, or diabetes

• Biological factors or chemical imbalances in the brain

• Use of alcohol or drugs

• Having feelings of loneliness or isolation

What is good mental health?

Good mental health is more than just the absence of mental illness. It means you are in a state of
wellbeing where you feel good and function well in the world.

According to the World Health Organization, good mental health is when you can:

cope with the normal stresses of life

learn and work productively

use your talents and abilities

contribute to the community

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If you have good mental health, you might feel happy, confident, hopeful and generally satisfied
with life. You are likely to feel connected to other people and to be making a contribution to
society. You might also have a sense of meaning or purpose and a feeling of being at peace.

Good mental health in challenging times

Everyone has challenges in life. People who have good mental health are more likely to be able
to cope with the ups and downs of daily life.

You are more likely to have good mental health if: you are confident when you come across new
situations or stresses you feel optimistic you do not always blame yourself you can set and
achieve your goals you can stick to routines that are good for you, such as eating and sleeping
well you can enjoy life even though you've had difficult experiences Building resilience An
important part of having good mental health is building resilience .This is when you can cope
with unexpected changes and challenges in your life, by using your inner strength and the
networks around you.

Resilient people can manage stress better. This means they are less likely to develop mental
health problems such as depression and anxiety. You can learn coping skills to build resilience.
For more information about building resilience, visit headspace or Kids Helpline. Daily actions
for good mental health Research conducted by Mind Spot have shown that people who regularly
do the below actions tend to have better mental health than people who don’t do them. Mind
Spot refers to these as ‘the Big Five’, and their research has shown that the more often you do
these actions, the better your mental health may be.

Meaningful activities

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These are any actions that you enjoy or that give you a sense of accomplishment. A meaningful
activity could be listening to music you like, or watching a favorite TV show.

Healthy thinking

Examples of healthy thinking include keeping perspective and talking to yourself with kindness.
Goals and plans Having goals is important to keep you energized and motivated. Goals give you
something to look forward to and can help to prevent dwelling on past problems.

Healthy routine

Keeping up a healthy routine doesn’t need to be complicated. It can be as simple as going to bed
and waking up at the same time every day, or a routine linked to our roles and relationships.

Social connections

Staying connected to friends and family helps you to feel validated and reminds you that you
belong.

Why is mental health important?

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Emotional and mental health is important because it’s a vital part of your life and impacts your
thoughts, behaviors and emotions. Being healthy emotionally can promote productivity and
effectiveness in activities like work, school or caregiving. It plays an important part in the health
of your relationships, and allows you to adapt to changes in your life and cope with adversity.

How can you improve your mental health?

Some steps you can take to improve your mental health include:

• Exercising

• Eating a balanced diet

• Taking breaks and time for yourself

• A good night’s sleep

• Opening up to others

When is a good time to reach out for help?

It is always a good time to take care of your emotional and mental health. Talking to a
professional can help with your overall mental health wellbeing. There are many mental health
and behavioral health therapists that specialize in many areas of behavioral health such as
depression, anxiety, pts., mood behaviors, LGBTQ2+ and more

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What do if your start to feel changes in your overall mental health

Issues related to mental health can impact different people in different ways. If you start to see
changes in your overall happiness and relationships, there are always ways get the support you
want. Here are some ways you can get help:

• Connect with other individuals, friends and family

Reaching out and opening up to other people in your life can help provide emotional support.

• Learn more about mental health.

There are many resources you can turn to for learning more about emotional health. Some
examples include Psychology Today National Institute of Mental Health and Anxiety and
Depression Association of America

• Take a mental health assessment

An assessment can help determine if stress, anxiety or depression may be having an impact on
your life. Doctor On Demand offers a free and private online mental health assessment that you
can take at any time.

• Talk to a professional

If you start to feel like your emotional and mental health is starting to impact you, it may be time
to reach out for extra support.

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 Doctor On Demand by Included Health

At Doctor on Demand by Included Health we have licensed therapists and psychiatrists who
specialize in anxiety, depression, grief and loss, and more. You may benefit from talking to
someone outside of your close family and friends. We’re here when you’re ready, and available
24/7, every day of the year, including holidays.

If you are looking for ways to offer mental health benefits to your employees, learn more about
virtual behavioral health services from Included Health.

6.2. Discuss strategies for promoting mental well-being of the social

and seeking help for mental health issues

Effective Coping Strategies for Promoting Mental Health and Well-Being

When you find yourself overwhelmed or anxious by the challenges of life and work, prioritizing
your mental health and well-being is crucial. Coping strategies play a pivotal role in helping

individuals navigate the complexities of life while maintaining emotional well-being. This article

will delve into coping strategies, exploring their significance in promoting mental health, stress
management, and overall emotional resilience.

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 Understanding Coping Strategies

Coping strategies are individuals’ conscious efforts to deal with the demands of life's challenges.
These strategies can alleviate or exacerbate store significantly impacting mental health and well-
being, either by helping or deepening stress. Distinguishing between healthy and unhealthy
coping mechanisms is essential to ensure that one's efforts lead to positive outcomes.

Healthy coping strategies, such as seeking social support or engaging in physical activities,
promote emotional growth and resilience, fostering a sustainable approach to managing
difficulties. In contrast, unhealthy strategies like substance abuse or avoidance may provide
temporary relief but can escalate stress and hinder personal development over time.

Common Mental Health Challenges

A range of mental health challenges has gained prominence, necessitating a heightened

awareness of their impact on overall well-being. Among these challenges, anxiety is an ordinary,
persistent sense of unease that can impair daily functioning and decision-making. Stress, often
triggered by various life pressures, can accumulate to the point of negatively affecting physical
health and emotional stability. Depression, characterized by profound and prolonged sadness,
saps individuals of their energy and interest in once-enjoyable activities. Unmanaged mental
health issues can also seep into various aspects of life, affecting relationships, work, and personal
fulfillment.

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 Effective Coping Strategies

Emotion-Focused Coping: Addressing emotions head-on is a cornerstone of maintaining

mental health. Mindfulness and meditation allow individuals to be present in the moment,
acknowledging their feelings without judgment. Journaling provides a safe space for emotional
release, enabling the processing of thoughts and emotions.

Problem-Focused Coping: Breaking down challenges into smaller, manageable steps

empowers individuals to take action. Developing practical problem-solving skills helps in
finding solutions and navigating obstacles. This approach shifts the focus from feeling
overwhelmed to taking control of the situation.

Social Support: Connecting with a support network can significantly impact mental well-
being. Sharing feelings with friends, family, or support groups provides a sense of belonging and
reduces feelings of isolation. This human connection acts as a buffer against the adverse effects
of stress.

Physical Well-Being: Regular exercise has been proven to affect mental health positively. It
releases endorphins, which are natural mood elevators. Prioritizing sleep is crucial for emotional
resilience, as inadequate sleep can exacerbate stress and mood disorders. Additionally,
maintaining a balanced diet influences mood and cognitive function.

Hobbies and Creative Outlets: Engaging in activities that bring joy provides a healthy
escape from stressors. Hobbies such as art, music, writing, or other creative outlets allow

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individuals to channel their emotions constructively. Accomplishments in these areas boost self-
esteem and contribute to overall well-being.

Professional Help: Recognizing when professional assistance is needed is a sign of strength.

Overcoming the stigma surrounding therapy or counseling is essential for seeking the help one
deserves. Trained professionals offer valuable guidance and tools for managing mental health
challenges.

Personalizing Coping Strategies

Each person's journey to mental well-being is as unique as their individuality. The quest for
effective coping involves trying various strategies to find the best fit. Openness to experimenting
with different approaches is essential, recognizing that what works for one may not resonate with
another. This exploration taps into personal strengths, from emotional techniques to creative
outlets. Seeking guidance from mentors or professionals can provide new perspectives, while
setbacks become stepping stones for growth. With patience and adaptability, this process builds a
personalized toolkit of coping strategies, nurturing emotional resilience and fostering a profound
connection to one's well-being.

Building Resilience with Mental Health Training

Ultimately, coping strategies aim to build resilience – the ability to bounce back from setbacks
and challenges. Developing long-term coping skills equips individuals with the tools to face
future adversities. Embracing setbacks as learning opportunities nurtures emotional strength,
fostering a mindset of growth and empowerment. Understanding the various approaches

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available and tailoring them to individual needs can pave the way for a healthier and more
resilient life journey.

With the help of Mental Health Coping Strategy training from Easy Llama, employers can
support employees on their journey to overall well-being. A workplace devoid of emotional
support can often lead to burnout and higher employee turnover, so we’ve got you back with our
full Mental Health and Well-Being Learning Journey to identify and address common mental
health challenges. Using modern content, interactive quizzes, and real-life scenarios, your
employees will resonate with our training and better retain the knowledge for when they (or a
colleague) need support. Access your free course preview now to learn more about our engaging
and practical training options.

How to improve your mental wellbeing

What is mental wellbeing?

Mental wellbeing doesn't have one set meaning. We might use it to talk about how we feel, how
well we're coping with daily life or what feels possible at the moment.

Good mental wellbeing doesn't mean that you're always happy. Or that you're unaffected by your
experiences.

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And having good wellbeing doesn't always mean that you don't have a mental health problem.
You may live with a mental health problem, but have good wellbeing right now. Or you might
not have a mental health problem, but be struggling with your wellbeing at the moment.

Poor mental wellbeing can make it more difficult to cope with daily life.

How can I improve my mental health?

There are many different things you can do to improve your mental health, including:

• Staying positive. It's important to try to have a positive outlook; some ways to do that include:

• Finding balance between positive and negative emotions. Staying positive doesn't mean that
you never feel negative emotions, such as sadness or anger. You need to feel them so that you
can move through difficult situations. They can help you to respond to a problem. But you don't
want those emotions to take over. For example, it's not helpful to keep thinking about bad things
that happened in the past or worry too much about the future.

• Trying to hold on to the positive emotions when you have them

• Taking a break from negative information. Know when to stop watching or reading the news.

Use social media to reach out for support and feel connected to others but be careful. Don't fall
for rumors, get into arguments, or negatively compare your life to others.

• Practicing gratitude, which means being thankful for the good things in your life. It's helpful to
do this every day, either by thinking about what you are grateful for or writing it down in a
journal. These can be big things, such as the support you have from loved ones, or little things,
such as enjoying a nice meal. It's important to allow yourself a moment to enjoy that you had the
positive experience. Practicing gratitude can help you to see your life differently. For example,

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when you are stressed, you may not notice that there are also moments when you have some
positive emotions. Gratitude can help you to recognize them.

• Taking care of your physical health, since your physical and mental health are connected.
Some ways to take care of your physical health include:

• Being physically active. Exercise can reduce feelings of stress and depression and improve
your mood.

• Getting enough sleep. Sleep affects your mood. If you don't get a good sleep, you may become
more easily annoyed and angry. Over the long term, a lack of quality sleep can make you more
likely to become depressed. So, it's important to make sure that you have a regular sleep schedule
and get enough quality sleep every night.

• Healthy eating. Good nutrition will help you feel better physically but could also improve your
mood and decrease anxiety and stress. Also, not having enough of certain nutrients may
contribute to some mental illnesses. For example, there may be a link between low levels of
vitamin B12 and depression. Eating a well-balanced diet can help you to get enough of the
nutrients you need.

• Connecting with others. Humans are social creatures, and it's important to have strong, healthy
relationships with others. Having good social support may help protect you against the harms of
stress. It is also good to have different types of connections. Besides connecting with family and
friends, you could find ways to get involved with your community or neighborhood. For
example, you could volunteer for a local organization or join a group that is focused on a hobby
you enjoy.

• Developing a sense of meaning and purpose in life. This could be through your job,
volunteering, learning new skills, or exploring your spirituality.

• Developing coping skills, which are methods you use to deal with stressful situations. They
may help you face a problem, take action, be flexible, and not easily give up in solving it.

• Meditation, which is a mind and body practice where you learn to focus your attention and
awareness. There are many types, including mindfulness meditation and transcendental
meditation. Meditation usually involves:

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• A quiet location with as few distractions as possible

• A specific, comfortable posture. This could be sitting, lying down, walking, or another
position.

• A focus of attention, such as a specially chosen word or set of words, an object, or your
breathing

• An open attitude, where you try to let distractions come and go naturally without judging them

• Relaxation techniques are practices you do to produce your body's natural relaxation response.
This slows down your breathing, lowers your blood pressure, and reduces muscle tension and
stress. Types of relaxation techniques include:

• Progressive relaxation, where you tighten and relax different muscle groups, sometimes while
using mental imagery or breathing exercises

• Guided imagery, where you learn to focus on positive images in your mind, to help you feel
more relaxed and focused

• Biofeedback, where you use electronic devices to learn to control certain body functions, such
as breathing, heart rate, and muscle tension

• Self-hypnosis, where the goal is to get yourself into a relaxed, trance-like state when you hear
a certain suggestion or see a specific cue

• Deep breathing exercises, which involve focusing on taking slow, deep, even breaths

7. 7.1. Define counseling psychology and discuss the role of

counselors in helping individuals address personal, social,
educational, and career-related issues.

Definition of Counselling Psychology

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Counselling psychology is a broad specialization within professional psychology concerned with
using psychological principles to enhance and promote the positive growth, well-being, and
mental health of individuals, families, groups, and the broader community. Counselling
psychologists bring a collaborative, developmental, multicultural, and wellness perspective to
their research and practice. They work with many types of individuals, including those
experiencing distress and difficulties associated with life events and transitions, decision-making,
work/career/education, family and social relationships, and mental health and physical health
concerns. In addition to remediation, counselling psychologists engage in prevention, psycho-
education and advocacy. The research and professional domain of counselling psychology
overlaps with that of other professions such as clinical psychology, industrial/organizational
psychology, and mental health counselling.

Counselling psychology adheres to an integrated set of core values: (a) counselling psychologists
view individuals as agents of their own change and regard an individual’s pre-existing strengths
and resourcefulness and the therapeutic relationship as central mechanisms of change; (b) the
counselling psychology approach to assessment, diagnosis, and case conceptualization is holistic
and client-centered; and it directs attention to social context and culture when considering
internal factors, individual differences, and familial/systemic influences; and (c) the counselling
process is pursued with sensitivity to diverse sociocultural factors unique to each individual.

Counselling psychologists practice in diverse settings and employ a variety of evidence-based

and theoretical approaches grounded in psychological knowledge. In public agencies,
independent practices, schools, universities, health care settings, and corporations, counselling
psychologists work in collaboration with individuals to ameliorate distress, facilitate well-being,
and maximize effective life functioning.

Research and practice are viewed as mutually informative and counselling psychologists conduct
research in a wide range of areas, including those of the counselling relationship and other
psychotherapeutic processes, the multicultural dimensions of psychology, and the roles of work
and mental health in optimal functioning. Canadian counselling psychologists are especially
concerned with culturally appropriate methods suitable for investigating both emic and etic
perspectives on human behavior, and promote the use of research methods drawn from diverse

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epistemological perspectives, including innovative developments in qualitative and quantitative
research.

What Is Counselling? Definition and Role of a Counsellor

People from all different backgrounds and age groups may visit counsellors for therapy. A
counsellor has many different roles, from listening to a client to helping them to find a solution
to their problems. Knowing what counselling is can help you better understand the role of a
counsellor if you're interested in becoming one. In this article, we explore what is counselling,
what is a counsellor and how to become one.

What is counselling?

There are a few aspects to counselling. The definition of counselling is a therapy session that
involves a trained therapist listening to a client and helping them find ways to deal with different
emotional issues. To better understand what counselling is, it's important to know these aspects:

• A process: Counselling is when a counsellor and client set a time to explore the emotions a
client is feeling and the situations that are causing them stress as well as to guide them on how to
deal with those emotions.

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• A therapy: Counselling occurs when a counsellor examines a client's feelings, experiences and
behavior and helps the client sees his issues from a different perspective.

• A relationship of trust: Counselling is very important as it requires a lot of trust and

confidentiality. Whatever a client tells a counsellor always remains strictly confidential.

What is the purpose of counselling?

During counselling, clients may reflect on challenges and changes in their lives. As a counsellor,
you may discuss strategies and methods to help the particular client reach their goals. The
purposes of counselling can vary depending on your specialty. Some common purposes may
include:

Facilitating the next step

A counsellor may help clients identify their individual challenges and emotions so that they may
take the next step to solve their problems. A counsellor may also help the client determine what
the next step might be by offering suggestions. Counselling is very client-focused and helps the
client grow a sense of responsibility to help themselves overcome their difficulties.

Working through a long-term process

Counsellors can offer opinions to their clients, but counselling is typically a long-term process
for the clients. The purpose of this long-term process is to help clients realize that they have the
potential to make good decisions for themselves. This long-term process is to help clients take
small and steady steps to reach their personal goals or health objectives.

Finding strength in the client

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Through the process of counselling, the counsellor may help the client find their strengths during
challenging times or changes. The goal of counselling may be to help the client feel better so that
they can eventually resolve their challenges. The counsellor may discuss what the client thinks
their strengths are. Then, they help to build on those strengths.

Why is counselling important?

Counselling can be beneficial for everyone, especially individuals overcoming challenges or

experiencing changes. Through counselling, the client can speak their mind and share their
feelings freely. A counsellor listens without judgement and may provide advice or treatment
steps. This can help the client express their emotions better to the counsellor, who acts as their
support system.

Counselling also helps a client find clarity through their issues and emotions. Making sense of
their emotions can be a confusing experience for clients and they can find clarity by speaking to
a counsellor about what they're going through. Becoming more self-aware of their emotions can
help them to find the answers to their problems, so that they may know what steps to take after
each session.

What does a counsellor do?

The role of a professional counsellor is a very important one. They speak to many different
people and help their clients develop an understanding of their own issues and situations. The
duties of a counsellor include:

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• Evaluating a client's needs and developing treatment plans

• Listening to their client's problems

• Acting as a support system for their clients

• Guiding their clients in expressing difficult feelings like guilt, fear, anger or resentment

• Providing their clients clarity on some of the emotions they're feeling

• Helping their clients make effective decisions to change their attitudes and behaviors

• Planning and implementing programmed for their clients

• Following up with their clients after every session to assess their progress

• Keeping confidential records of their clients and monitoring their progress

• Building a relationship of trust and respect with their clients

• Educating their clients on trauma coping mechanisms

How to become a counsellor

If you have a passion for helping others, a counsellor might be a good job for you. Becoming a
counsellor requires patience and time, as well as relevant educational background and
certifications. Here are some requirements to become a counsellor:

1. Complete your education

Becoming a counsellor requires a minimum of a postgraduate diploma from a recognized course

and school. You can pursue a diploma in counselling or psychotherapy. To have a successful

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career in counselling, you can also pursue a bachelor's degree or master's degree in counselling.
During your course of study, you can understand the guidelines and ethical codes of counselling,
which can help you advance to a professional qualification.

2. Get trained

After obtaining the relevant degrees, it's important for you to get enough training to become a
counsellor. The Singapore Association for Counselling (SAC) requires all counsellors to go
through at least 100 practicum hours with 10 hours of clinical supervision. By conducting
counselling sessions, you can gain practical experience and develop your skills. The best way to
get training is to sign up for traineeships or internships with clinics or therapists near you.

3. Obtain certification

After completing the practicum and clinical supervision, you can register to be a Provisional
Clinical Member (PCM). Upon completion, you can gain employment as a professional
counsellor in hospitals, private clinics or schools. After becoming a PCM, you can work towards
accumulating 600 hours of face-to-face counselling, 60 hours of clinical supervision and three
years of working experience to upgrade to a Clinical Membership. To become a registered
counsellor, you require a Clinical Membership.

4. Register with the Singapore Association for Counselling

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After obtaining the Clinical Membership, you can register with the Singapore Association for
Counselling as a counsellor. To register with the SAC, you would require the following:

• A $50 registration fee

• A counselling log sheet personally endorsed by a SAC-registered counsellor

• Complete 600 hours of face-to-face counselling and 60 hours of clinical supervision

• Your academic transcripts

• A current letter of employment with an organization with an official letterhead

• A valid professional indemnity insurance

After successfully registering with the SAC as a registered counsellor, your status requires a
renewal every two years.

What skills does a counsellor have

Counsellors possess a variety of skills to provide the best service to their clients. Here are some
of them:

Communication skills

As a counsellor, it's important for you to listen effectively to your clients and give them your full
attention. Counsellors are also sensitive to their clients' nonverbal communication such as their
body language, facial expressions and tone of voice. They often ask their clients about their
emotions in an appropriate way to better understand their issues. Developing your
communication skills can help you succeed in these tasks.

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Empathy skills

Empathy is a very important skill for counsellors because they work directly with clients. Having
empathy means being aware of your client's feelings and emotions to better understand how your
client feels. This skill can help you ask your client the appropriate questions to lead your client to
the best solutions for them.

Interpersonal skills

Counsellors communicate and liaise with clients and their families daily; hence interpersonal
skills can be a good skill to have. As a counsellor, you build a lot of rapport and trust with your
client, so that they can confide with you. The trust you build up with your client helps you better
understand their issues so that you can find a suitable treatment for them.

How much does a counsellor earn

The average salary of a counsellor is $4,359 per month. There are several factors that contribute
to the differing salaries, including the type of environment you work in. Counsellors may be
posted to a private clinic, local hospital, or school.

7.2. Explore different approaches to counseling, such as cognitive-

behavioral therapy, humanistic therapy, and psychodynamic
therapy

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 1. Psychodynamic therapy

Psychodynamic therapy developed from psychoanalysis, a long-term approach to mental health

treatment.

In psychoanalysis, you can expect to talk about anything on your mind to uncover patterns in
thoughts or behavior that might be contributing to distress. It’s also common to talk about your
childhood and past, along with recurring dreams or fantasies you might have.

How it works

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In psychodynamic therapy, you’ll work with a therapist to explore the connection between your
unconscious mind and your actions. This involves examining your emotions, relationships, and
thought patterns.

Psychodynamic therapy can be a longer-term approach to mental health treatment, compared to

cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) and other types of therapy. Traditional psychoanalysis is an
intensive form of treatment that people can go to for years.

Research suggests many people continue to improve, even after they complete psychodynamic
therapy.

2. Behavioral therapy

Behavioral therapy is a focused, action-oriented approach to mental health treatment.

According to behavioral theory, certain behaviors develop from things you learned in your past.
Some of these behaviors might affect your life negatively or cause distress.

Behavioral therapy can help you change your behavioral responses.

How it works

In behavioral therapy, you won’t spend much time talking about unconscious reasons for your
behavior or working through emotional difficulties.

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Instead, you’ll focus on ways to change behavioral reactions and patterns that cause distress.

Subtypes of behavioral therapy

There are many subtypes of behavioral therapy, including:

• Systematic desensitization. Systematic desensitization combines relaxation exercises with

gradual exposure to something you fear. This can help you slowly get used to replacing feelings
of fear and anxiety with a relaxation response.

• Aversion therapy. In aversion therapy, you learn to associate the behavior you want to change
with something that’s uncomfortable or unpleasant in some way. This association may help you
stop the behavior.

• Flooding. This is similar to systematic desensitization, but it involves facing your fears
directly from the start, rather than gradually. If you have a phobia of dogs, for example, the first
exposure step might be sitting in a room of friendly, playful dogs. With systematic
desensitization, on the other hand, your first exposure step might be looking at pictures of dogs.

3. Cognitive behavioral therapy

Cognitive behavioral therapy is a short-term approach to mental health treatment. It’s similar to
behavioral therapy, but it also addresses unhelpful thought patterns or problematic thoughts.

The idea behind CBT is that certain feelings or beliefs you have about yourself, or situations in
your life can lead to distress.

This distress may contribute to mental health issues, occur alongside them, or develop as a
complication of other mental health issues.

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How it works

In CBT sessions, you’ll work on identifying patterns and learning more about how they might
negatively affect you.

With your therapist’s guidance, you’ll explore ways to replace negative thought patterns or
behaviors with ones that are more helpful and accurate.

Like behavioral therapy, CBT doesn’t spend much time addressing past events. Instead, it
focuses on addressing existing symptoms and making changes.

CBT often involves homework or practice outside the therapy session.

For example, you might keep track of negative thoughts or things that trouble you between
sessions in a journal. This practice helps to reinforce what you learn in therapy and apply your
new skills to everyday situations.

4. Humanistic therapy

Humanistic therapy is an approach that looks at how your worldview affects the choices you
make, especially choices that cause distress. It’s based on the belief that you’re the best person to
understand your experiences and needs.

Humanistic therapists work to help you better understand what you’re experiencing, offering
guidance and support without interpreting your feelings for you.

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How it works

Your therapist will help you work toward the goal of living your most fulfilling life, largely by
enabling you to be your true self. You’ll spend time exploring ways to grow and increase self-
acceptance along with discussing the issues you’re dealing with.

Another important principle in humanistic therapy is unconditional positive regard.

This simply means your therapist will accept you, even if they disagree with you on some things.
Humanistic therapy is particularly useful for coping with negative judgement (perceived or real)
from others.

Generally, you’ll be the one directing the session. Your therapist will step in when needed, but
otherwise they’ll be actively listening to you, occasionally asking questions to ensure they
understand what you’re saying.

Subtypes of humanistic therapy

Humanistic approaches to therapy include:

• Existential therapy. In this philosophical approach to treatment, you’ll consider concepts such
as responsibility for your choices and your freedom to make choices. You might spend time
talking about what certain parts of your life mean to you and how you might find greater
meaning in life.

• Person-centered therapy. This approach works from the belief that emotional distress can
result when others criticize you or show disapproval for your choices or actions. This can make
self-acceptance and growth difficult. Therapists offer acceptance, empathy, and guidance as you
work on personal growth and positive change.

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• Gestalt therapy. With this approach, you’ll look at unresolved issues, such as relationship and
family conflicts, considering how they affect your emotional well-being. Gestalt therapy focuses
on the present moment and often involves role-playing or acting out scenarios with movement or
visualization.

How to make a choice

With so many options, it can feel overwhelming to commit to a specific kind of therapy. If you
receive a mental health diagnosis from a healthcare professional, they may have some
recommendations based on your needs.

Ultimately, the choice is yours. Keep in mind that many therapists use a combination of
techniques from different types of therapy. It’s also perfectly acceptable to try one approach, find
that it doesn’t work for you, and try a different type.

Therapy can be difficult, regardless of the approach you choose. You might feel uncomfortable or
nervous about discussing mental health symptoms and personal thoughts with a stranger. This
often gets easier with time.

Whether you’re having a difficult time in life or have a mental health issue that causes serious
distress, your therapist is trained to help without judgment. If you don’t feel they are, seek out a
new therapist.

If you’re not sure where to start, consider looking through the American Psychological
Association’s database of therapists in your area. Most list the types of therapy they offer.

As you contact potential therapists, keep a few things in mind:

• What issues do you want to address? These can be specific or vague.

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• Are there any specific traits you’d like in a therapist? For example, are you more comfortable
with someone who shares your gender?

• How much can you realistically afford to spend per session? Do you want someone who offers
sliding-scale prices or payment plans?

• Where will therapy fit into your schedule? Do you need a therapist who can see you on a
specific day of the week? Or someone who has nighttime sessions?

Remember, it’s OK to change therapists or therapy types if one isn’t working for you. Keep
trying until you find someone who feels right to you.

5. 5.1. Discuss how parents affect child development & behavior

How Does Parental Influence Affect Child Development?

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Parental influence is the process by which parents’ actions, attitudes, and beliefs have an impact
on their kids’ growth. Other factors, including genetics, social interactions, and school
environment, can also influence a child’s development in addition to parental influence.
However, a crucial component that can have a long-lasting effect on children’s development is
parental involvement.

Positive parenting helps the child face non-social or social problems. Positive parenting is
required for early cognitive development, emotional balance, and the maturation of thought.
While negative, hostile parenting leads to depression and social and cultural problems.

How can family affect in the development of a child's personality?

The family has a significant influence on the development of a child's personality. The family's
influence is seen in various aspects such as self-esteem, self-perception, behavior,
communication, personal confidence, and independence.

How responsible are parents for the behavior of their children?

Parents have moral and legal responsibilities towards their child. If they set a bad example to
their children, they will definitely follow in their steps. In other words, they are the primary
teachers and discipliners of their children.

Do children learn behaviors from parents?

They copy the information which is the most important characteristic of humans and is called
imitation. Psychologically the children are in the phase of sensitive learning, they rapidly copy
the behavior of their parents which is imprinted on their minds.

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 What factors can affect behavior?

5 Factors Influencing Human Behavior and Values

• Environment. The environment refers to the physical, social, and cultural conditions that
surround us. ...

• Genetics. Genetics also plays a significant role in shaping behavior and patterns. ...

• Culture. ...

• Social learning. ...

• Personal experiences.

What are the 4 Behavioral problems in children?

Some of the typical behaviors of a child with CD may include:

• frequent refusal to obey parents or other authority figures.

• repeated truancy.

• tendency to use drugs, including cigarettes and alcohol, at a very early age.

• lack of empathy for others.

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 What impact can control parents have on a child?

This depends on the nature of the child, so one of 3 things can happen:

1 The child has no backbone and no will or opinion as they have been taught that their thoughts,
values and opinions will be overruled. They learn not to have any guts about them. They become
weak and might even need anti-depressants to get through life.

2 The child will rebel - they will lie about where they are and generally be deceitful. These
children are likely to fall into the wrong hands as they are looking to “belong”, this is where
unscrupulous adults with bad intentions come in as these children will be easy prey

3 The child will want to be as far from the controllers as possible and will leave home at the
earliest opportunity. Female children are likely to end up with the wrong type of boyfriend and
poor decisions are likely to be made because they are not use to making their own choices.

5.2. Introduce the different stages of child development and explain

how the child's physical, cognitive, emotional and social
development is accomplished under those stages.

Parental influence on childhood development

Child development is greatly influenced by parental involvement in a variety of ways, including

intellectual and social skills development, emotional health, and personality traits. The following
are some areas where parental influence is seen to be crucial:

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1 Cognitive Development:

Parents have a big impact on their kids’ intellectual development. This begins in the early years
when a parent reads to, converses with, and engages with their child. These activities promote
brain growth and lay the groundwork for education.

2 Social Skills:

Parents serve as the primary role models for their children. Kids learn essential social skills by
observing and interacting with their parents, like sharing, manners, and how to behave in
different social situations. The social relationships parents have with others also provide a
template for the child’s future relationships.

3 Emotional Health:

Parents contribute to their children’s emotional health in many ways. Their love, attention,
understanding, and discipline all significantly affect the child’s emotional well-being. Parents can
also teach coping skills and resilience, which can equip their children to deal with stress and
adversity in the future.

4 Self-Concept:

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Parents’ beliefs and attitudes towards their children significantly affect how children see
themselves. If parents demonstrate that they value their children and have high but realistic
expectations, children are likely to develop a positive self-concept and strong self-esteem.

5 Behavior and Discipline:

Parental rules and discipline strategies affect children’s immediate behaviors and their
understanding of right and wrong. Parental consistency in discipline is essential for children to
learn what is expected of them and can lead to better behaviors in the long run.

6 Physical Health and Lifestyle:

Parents directly affect their children’s physical health by providing balanced meals, encouraging
regular exercise, and ensuring appropriate sleep routines. Parents also model behaviors related to
health and wellness, such as attitudes towards food and exercise, that children often adopt.

7 Educational Aspirations and Achievements:

Parents’ attitudes towards education can influence a child’s academic performance and
aspirations. Parents who are involved in their children’s education and express the value of
learning tend to raise children who perform better academically and have higher educational
aspirations.

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8 Moral and Values Development:

Parents play a vital role in instilling moral and ethical values in their children. This can be done
through direct teaching, modelling appropriate behavior, and creating an environment that
encourages honesty, responsibility, and respect for others.

It’s important to remember that parenting styles and family dynamics can vary significantly, and
these differences can also affect child development. Furthermore, children’s development is
influenced by a range of factors beyond parents, including genetics, peer influence, schools, and
community environments. But overall, the influence of parents is paramount in shaping the
child’s personality and future.

Parenting styles influence child development

Parenting styles play a critical role in child development. In psychology, there are typically four
main types of parenting styles that have been identified by psychologist Diana Baumrind. These
are authoritative, authoritarian, permissive, and neglectful (or uninvolved). Each of these styles
can have different impacts on a child’s development.
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1 Authoritative Parenting:

This style is characterized by high expectations of children but with a warm, nurturing approach.
Parents are attentive, forgiving, teach their kids to be responsible, and encourage them to express
their opinions. Children raised by authoritative parents tend to have high self-esteem, be self-
reliant, socially accepted, perform well in school, and exhibit good psychological adjustment and
lower levels of depression and anxiety.

2 Authoritarian Parenting:

This style is characterized by strict rules and high expectations, but with little to no warmth and
flexibility. Communication is mainly one way – from parent to child. These parents can be highly
critical and may not respond well to their child’s needs. Children of authoritarian parents may be
obedient and proficient, but they’re also likely to have lower self-esteem, poorer social skills,
and higher levels of depression and anxiety.

3 Permissive Parenting:

Permissive parents set few rules or expectations and tend to be warm and indulgent but not
demanding. They often take on more of a friend role than a parent role. They’re non-traditional
and lenient, do not require mature behaviors, allow considerable self-regulation, and avoid
confrontation. Children raised by permissive parents might struggle academically and may
exhibit behavioral problems. They might also have higher rates of substance use and other risky

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behaviors. However, they tend to have higher self-esteem, better social skills, and lower levels of
depression.

4 Neglectful (Uninvolved) Parenting:

This style is characterized by few demands, low responsiveness, and little communication. These
parents fulfil the child’s basic needs but are generally detached from their child’s life. Children
with this type of upbringing exhibit the worst outcomes, having problems across the board, such
as attachment issues, low self-esteem, higher rates of substance use, and poorer physical health.

Remember, these categories serve as a guide and many parents may not fit neatly into one single
style. Parenting is often a mix of styles and depends on the parent’s culture, situation,
personality, and the child’s behavior.

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