OBJECTIVE OF A RADIATION PROTECTION PROGRAM

➢ DOCUMENTATION - Radiation safety is a concern for

patients, physicians, and staff in many departments,
including.
• Radiology
• Interventional Cardiology
• Surgery
Radiation emitted during fluoroscopic procedures is
responsible for the greatest radiation dose for medical
staff.
Radiation protection aims to reduce unnecessary radiation
exposure to minimize the harmful effects of ionizing radiation.
There are three basic principles of radiation protection:
NON-OCCUPATIONAL DOSE LIMITS:
❑ Justification - involves an appreciation for the benefits
and risks of using radiation for procedures or
treatments.

❑ Optimization - keeping the doses 'as low as reasonably

achievable, economic, and societal factors being
considered.

❑ Dose limitation - ensure that no person is exposed to

an excessive amount of radiation in normal, planned
situations.

➢ OCCUPATIONAL AND NO OCCUPATIONAL DOSE

LIMITS
OCCUPATIONAL DOSE LIMITS
➢ ALARA CONCEPTS Risks of Radiation vs. Benefits of Radiation:
• The As Low As Reasonably Achievable (ALARA)
• All medical procedures and tests carry both risks and
Principle - defined by the code of federal
benefits, and any consideration of radiation risk must
regulations, and was created to ensure that all
be balanced against the benefits. Media reports
measures to reduce radiation exposure have been
taken while acknowledging that radiation is an generally focus on the risks of radiation, but there are
integral part of diagnosing and treating patients. substantial benefits to these tests that must be
considered in any balanced discussion of risk versus
• Encourages efforts to keep radiation exposure as benefit.
low as reasonably achievable, considering the
economic and social factors. • To put the estimated risk of developing cancer from an
imaging study in context, keep in mind that:
• ALARA is based on the idea that any amount of
radiation exposure, big or small, can increase The annual dose of radiation we all receive from
negative health effects, such as cancer, for an background radiation is from 3 to 5 mSv.
individual.
• There is risk in all aspects of life and the best that can
➢ How can you reduce external radiation exposure? be hoped for is to minimize the risks that have the
1. TIME - reducing the time of exposure can directly reduce greatest potential for disrupting one’s life. When a risk
radiation dose. has a benefit to an individual or society the risk may be
justified concerning the benefit.
2. DISTANCE – By increasing the distance between you and
the radiation source you will reduce exposure by the ➢ NEGLIGIBLE INDIVIDUAL DOSE
square of the distance. defined as an annual dose value for a particular
3. SHIELDING - lead or lead equivalent shielding for X-rays radiation source or set of sources is described in NCRP
and gamma rays is an effective way to reduce radiation Report No. 116 (NCRP 1993).
exposure.
This concept was introduced in NCRP (1987) and was
There are various types of shielding used in the reduction defined as the level of average annual excess risk of
of radiation exposure including. fatal health effects attributable to radiation below
• lead aprons which efforts to reduce radiation exposure to the
individual are unwarranted.
• mobile lead shields
NCRP (1993) defines an annual Negligible Individual
• lead glasses, and; Dose (NID) that establishes a boundary below which
• lead barriers. the dose can be dismissed from consideration and sets
the annual NID at 0.01 mSv effective dose.

➢ COMPARABLE RISK The NID is described as “an effective dose

corresponding to the level of average annual excess risk
Radiation protection concerns the risk of stochastic late of fatal health effects attributable to radiation
effects, especially cancer, and limits on radiation exposure. For comparison, the NID was set at an annual
exposure both occupationally and for the public tend to effective dose of 10 µSv per source or practice.
be based on these risks.

Risks of medical imaging at effective doses below 50 ➢ LEGAL AND ETHICAL RESPONSIBILITIES
mSv for single procedures or 100 mSv for multiple LEGAL RESPONSIBILITY
procedures over short periods are too low to be
detectable and may be nonexistent. Predictions of ❑ BREAK OF PROFESSIONAL CONFIDITION - the
hypothetical cancer incidence and deaths in patient radiographer should regard as confidential any
populations exposed to such low doses are highly information about the patient.
speculative and should be discouraged.
❑ NEGLIGENCE - failure to meet the standard of care.
 ❑ THE PROCESS IN THE EVENT OF THE ACCIDENT - the • WHAT IS NCRP? - National Council on radiation
radiographer should report senior radiographer about protection and measurement is a regulatory board in
the accident. US. That deals with the radiation protection among the
human being and the environment.
Reporting the accident should be done as soon as
• AIM - It support radiation protection by providing
possible.
independent scientific analysis, information, and
ETHICAL RESPONSIBILITY recommendation that represent the agreement of
leading scientist.
❑ Discretion in speech and absolute necessity not to
reveal information about the patient which is HISTORY:
confidential.
• NCRP is a US organization
❑ It is the radiographer’s duty to give minimum radiation • Established in 1929
dose to the patient. • In 1946 organization’s name changed the name to the
National Committee on Radiation Protection and
DOSE
Measurement.
➢ U.S. NUCLEAR REGULATORY COMMISSION - ensures • 1964 US Congress reorganized the organization as the
the safe use of radioactive materials for beneficial National Council on Radiation Protection and
civilian purposes. The NRC regulates commercial Measurement.
nuclear power plants and other uses of nuclear
PRINCIPLE ON WHICH NCRP IS BASED ON:
materials, such as in medicine and industry.

HEADED BY FIVE COMMISSIONERS appointed by the President • Since the NCRP will cooperate with the ICRP its basic
of the United States and confirmed by the United States Senate principle includes justification, optimization, and dose
for five-year terms. limits
• These principles are published in ICRP 26
• Chair Christopher T. Hanson
ROLE OF NCRP:
• Commissioner Jeff Baran
• Commissioner David A. Wright • Protection against radiation, radiation measurement,
• Commissioner Annie Caputo quantities, and units.
• Commissioner Bradley R. Crowell • Facilitate effective use of combined resources of
organizations concerned with radiation protection.
NRC's Mission:
• Cooperative with national and international govt and
The mission of the NRC is to protect people and the private organization.
environment by regulating the nation's civilian use of
radioactive materials.
➢ DOSE QUANTITIES
Regulatory Activities:
Radiation Dose - Radiation dose is a measure of the amount of
The NRC's regulatory activities include licensing, inspection, and
radiation exposure.
enforcement to ensure that nuclear facilities and materials are
used safely. The NRC also conducts research and emergency When ionizing radiation penetrates the human body or an
preparedness activities. object, it deposits energy. The energy absorbed from radiation
exposure is called a dose.
International Collaboration:
Radiation dose quantities are described in three ways.
The NRC collaborates with other countries and international
organizations to promote nuclear safety and security globally.

➢ National Council on Radiation Protection ( NCRP) and

Measurement
 ➢ ABSORBED DOSE - The radiation energy absorbed per ➢ Collective effective DOSE - This quantity is derived
unit mass. from summing the individual effective doses within
• Measured in Units: J/kg an exposed population (or workforce). One type of
• SI Unit: Gray in tissue unit to express this quantity is the man Sv.
• Old Unit: rad (radiation absorbed dose ) ➢ AVERAGE effective DOSE - refers to an estimation
of the radiation dose received by a patient
1 J/kg = 1 Gyt undergoing a particular radiological procedure.
1 Gray = 100 rad It' s a measurement that accounts for the different
types of radiation and their potential biological
➢ EQUIVALENT DOSE - It is the product of the average effects on the human body.
absorbed dose in a tissue or organ in the human body
and its associated radiation weighing factor ( WR )
chosen for the type and energy of the radiation in AREA MONITORING DEVICES
question PERSONAL DETECTORS

AREA MONITORING

• The Assessment of radiation levels at different

locations in the vicinity of the radiation installation
is known as Area Monitoring or Radiation Survey.

• If the radiation level is found to be higher than the

permissible levels, suitable remedial measures can
be taken.

AIM & OBJECTIVE:

• To detect various types of radiation, especially

ionizing radiation.
• To ensure Radiation safety and minimize radiation
exposure.
➢ EFFECTIVE DOSE - It is the sum of the equivalent • To keep records of monitoring over a long time.
doses to all tissues and organs multiplied by the
weighting factor for each tissue of the organ. ➢ IDEAL AREA MONITOR
➢ SI Unit: Sievert ( Sv ) Old Unit: rem (radiation • An ideal area monitor should have a uniform
equivalent man ) response to X & and gamma radiation over the
range of 15 keV To 3 meV.
• It should cover a wide range of exposure rates from
0.25 mR /h to 10 R/h.

• Should be able to assess beta radiation levels.

• Should be operable with battery cells.

➢ AREA MONITORING DEVICES

Devices/instruments used for the foresaid purpose are

called area monitoring devices /radiation survey
meters. These are.
• Ionization chamber
• GM Counter
• Scintillation Detector
 ➢ IONISATION CHAMBER ➢ GEIGER-MULLER COUNTER
• A GM Counter is an area monitoring Device.
PRINCIPLE:
• A GM counter is an instrument used for detecting
• Gas molecules get ionized when energetic charged particles and measuring the ionizing radiation.
propagate through a gas. ➢ It is used in applications such as:
1. Radiation dosimetry
CONSTRUCTION:
2. Radiation protection
• A metallic cylinder filled with a suitable gas at atmospheric 3. Nuclear industry
pressure consisting of two electrodes (cathode and anode). ➢ It detects radiation such as alpha particles, beta
• The cathode is (– ive) and the Anode is (+ ive). particles, and gamma rays.
• In most Detectors, a cathode is the wall of the cylinder that CONSTRUCTION:
holds the gas and the anode is the wire inside the container.
• GM counters consist of cylindrical cathode walls
WORKING:
with a thin wire made of Tungsten that acts as an
• Ionization radiation produces ion pairs in the gas. anode.
• Cations and Anions are attracted towards respected • The device is filled with a mixture of Gas (Ar ) with
electrodes. a pressure of 10mmhg.
• Depending upon the no. of particles entering into the
cylinder, an electric pulse of proportional magnitude is WORKING:
Developed. • When radiation passes through the counter, ion
• Which is then displayed on the deflection needle. pairs are formed.
• Deflection needle meter measures doses in the format of • The electrons are accelerated towards the central
mR/h. electrode or wire due to the large positive potential
ION CHAMBER WORKING DIGITAL: on the wire.
• These electrons in turn produce a large number of
secondary electrons or a group of electrons, thus a
large amplification of charge by incident electron is
produced.
• GM counter works at a high applied voltage (500-
1500 volt).

➢ SCINTILLATION DETECTOR
HISTORY:

• The modern electronic scintillation detector

counter was invented in 1994 by Sir Samuel Curran
(UK)

TYPES OF SCINTILLATORS:
CHAMBER-BASED SURVEY METERS:
• Cesium iodide (CsI) detection of photons and alpha
particles Sodium iodide (NaI) containing a small
amount of thallium detection of gamma waves
• Zinc sulfide (ZnS) detectors of alpha particles
• Zinc sulfide is the material Rutherford used to
perform his scattering experiment
• Lithium iodide (LiI) is used in neutron detectors.
PRINCIPLE: FILM HOLDER:

• Scintillation counter is an instrument that is used for • Film is packed in a light proof, vapor proof envelope
detecting and measuring ionizing radiation. preventing light, moisture, or chemical vapor from
affecting the film.
• It comprises of the Scintillator that generates photons
• The holder contains suitable metallic filters fixed on
by excitation effect in response to incident radiation
both sides of the holder which help to identify the
and detecting the resultant light pulses.
type and energy of incident radiation.
WINDOWS:
PERSONAL DETECTORS
1st Window - Detects alpha particles.
• Personal radiation detectors (PRDs) are small
electronic devices used to detect the illicit transport • Has open window.
of radioactive materials. They are designed to be
worn by law enforcement personnel or customs • Due to the low penetration power of alpha particles
inspectors to indicate elevated radiation levels. no metallic filter is used.

Types of personnel monitoring devices: 2nd window - Filter is made up of plastic.

● Occupational radiation monitoring offers no • Light white color

protection. • It detects beta particles.
• The thickness of the filter is generally 1 mm
● It simply measures the quantity of radiation to which
3rd window - Filter is made up of cadmium
● Dosimeters should be obtained from a certified
laboratory. • Yellow in color
• It detects the thermal neutrons
Passive Dosimeters
• The thickness of filter is 1 mm
• Film badge 4th Window - Filter made up of thin copper
• TLD badge
• OSL Dosimeter • Green in color
Active Dosimeter • It detects the low energy x-rays
• Pocket dosimeters • Thickness of filter is generally 0.15 mm
5th window - Filter is made up of thin copper
1. FILM BADGES • Pink in color
• it detects gamma rays and hard x-rays
• Come in general use during the 1947s
• Thickness of the filter 1mm
• Widely used in diagnostic radiology
6th window - Filter is made of lead
• One of the earliest dosimeters and simply like the • Black in color
packets of dental x-ray film that was developed
• Detects gamma ray
occasionally to view the extent of darkening.
• Thickness of filter 1mm
• The darker the film the more radiation dose
Two types of film badge:
• Exposure less than 10mR is not measured by it.
• Chest badge
• It can detect alpha particles, beta particles, x-rays, • Extremity badge
gamma rays, and thermal neutrons
• Minimum dose that can be measured by film badge is
• A special type of film is used which is coated with two 100 microsievert
different emulsion.
• Can be used to measure radiation from 10mR to
1000R with the accuracy of +\- 10 percent The badge
should be kept in cool, dry and control area.
Advantages:
Advantage over the TLD, it gives instant reading that can be
➤ Inexpensive repeated.

► Easy to handle and process ➤ Other advantages are:

►Reasonably accurate • more accurate than TLD.
►Provide permanent record • large exposure range
• can be re-read to confirm exposure
Disadvantages:
▷ Disadvantages: - most expensive
➤Can not be reused
4. POCKET DOSIMETER
►Must be developed and read by a processor i.e. time
consuming Advantages of pocket dosimeter:

►Sensitive to heat and humidity ► It gives immediate reading

►Must be changes monthly ► Reusable

► Easy to use
2. Thermoluminescence dosimeter (TLD) badge Disadvantages:
• Thermo-luminescent dosimeter (TLD) badge is used ▸low accuracy
currently instead of film badge It is based on
phenomenon of thermo luminescence, the emission ▸ doesn't provide permanent record
of light when certain material are heated after 5. DIGITAL ELECTRONIC DOSIMETER
radiation exposure
• In early 1960s, Cameron and co-workers from • Type of pocket dosimeter. Dosimeters most often use Geiger-
University of Wisconsin developed the TLD badge, Muller counters.
used to measure individual dose from x ray . beta • Some include an audible alarm feature which emits an
particles and gamma radiation. audible signal.
• Response is directly proportional to the amount of
SURVEYS
radiation absorbed.
• Can detect x-ray, gamma ray and beta particle. It can • A survey is an evaluation of work areas, instruments and
measure exposure as low as 10 microsivert. apparatus, floors, sinks, faucet handles, drawer fronts,
• TLD badge can cover a wide range of the dose from doorknobs, telephones, light switches, refrigerators, etc. for
10 mR to 10000 R with the accuracy of +/-10 percent the presence of radioactive contamination.

3. OPTICALLY STIMULATED LUMINESCENCE (OSL) What's the purpose of survey in Radiation Protection?
DOSIMETER
• The purpose of a radiation protection survey is to identify
• OSL dosimeter have recently become commercially higher-than-normal doses of radiation in medical
available as an alternative to TLD. New technology environments, labs, and anywhere radiation-emitting
that uses a laser to trap energy from radiation fields machines or radioactive materials (RAM) are used. They are
in a tiny crystal. required by state and federal regulations to be performed
• Stored energy from the radiation released from the regularly to ensure the safety of technicians, technologists,
dosimeter material by optical stimulation. Energy nurses, doctors, researchers, and patients.
release in the form of luminescence. • Surveys provide a direct measure of area radiation levels and
• It is more sensitive than TLD. detect the presence of radioactive material inadvertently
• Capable to detecting dose as low as 10μSv (Imrem). spilled on a person, surface, or piece of equipment. Surveys
• Working mechanism is similar to the TLDs except the are therefore an indication of the radiation hazard present
light emission is stimulated by laser light. 70 either during or after an experiment. It is vital that individuals
Crystalline Aluminum oxide activated with carbon working with radioactive materials are aware of accepted
(A1203:C) is commonly used. procedures for performing such surveys. The information
which follows is a suggested guide for performing surveys of
laboratory areas.
Surveys are performed on:
4. Bioassay Survey
• Diagnostic fluoroscopic and radiographic equipment
• Internal exposure monitoring, or a bioassay survey, is
• Non-medical industrial equipment such as those found
performed on individuals that use unsealed
in veterinary offices
radioactive materials. The survey estimates the
• CT and CBCT machines
internal organ dose to determine if any RAM has
• Particle accelerators entered the body. It can also help determine if RAM
• Irradiators is present in the air.
• Bone mineral densitometers • Bioassay surveys are performed by analyzing blood,
• Cabinet x-ray machines tissue, or urine samples or by carefully monitoring
• Areas that use sealed sources of RAM the presence and/or quality of isotopes present in
• Packages containing RAM the organ of concern.
The Different Types of Radiation Surveys: Is there a special equipment required for a survey?
1. Radiation Emitting Device Survey Special equipment is required to detect ionizing radiation.
X-ray machines and other radiation-emitting devices Most equipment is handheld measurement instruments
require regular surveys to be performed to confirm that called survey meters. This equipment is required to be
the machine is operating as expected. Radiation calibrated annually to maintain accuracy and to ensure that
producing machines are surveyed for: reliable measurements are recorded.
• Timer accuracy
• Radiation output Survey meters consist of:
• Focal spot size • A probe which produces electrical signals when it is
• kVp and mA exposed to radiation
• Beam limitation accuracy • A control panel readout with an electronic meter that
• Filtration gauges the amount of radiation exposure
• Skin entrance exposure / rate of exposure
• A speaker which provides an audible indication of the
• Scatter radiation measurements
radiation exposure *There are several different kinds
• Photo-timer operation
of survey meters physicists use to perform radiation
• Proper signage, labels, and postings
surveys.

2. Contamination Wipe Test 5. Geiger-Mueller Pancake Probe

• A contamination wipe test, also known as an indirect or
• One of the more commonly used survey meters is the
swipe survey, is used to identify radioactive material
Geiger-Mueller Pancake Detector. Although there is
contamination on surfaces, equipment, and clothing
no “universal” radiation detector, the G-M Pancake
such as those found in a lab. This type of survey can
Probe comes pretty close. This is because the probe
identify non-fixed radiation left behind from radioactive
can detect alpha, beta, and gamma radiation,
solids,liquids,or gasses.
although they are generally used for detecting Beta
• Wipe tests are recommended to be performed
Emitters. These probes come in a variety of models
frequently, especially if you are a HAZMAT employee
and configurations.
that receives or ships RAM packages. A wipe test
• The probe detects radiation by collecting counting
involves wiping at least 300cm2 of the package’s
gas within the tube. The counting gas is ionized when
surfaces using an absorbent material. Afterward, the
a photon or particle interacts with a released
activity on the swipe is measured assuming a removal
electron. When the voltage is high, radiation that
efficiency of 0.1 unless the actual efficiencyis known.
interacts with the counting gas produces an
• Users in lab settings typically survey their work areas
electronic pulse that is measured with a separate
after an experiment or when a minor spill is suspected.
counting instrument.
• A pancake probe has a thin layer of mica on the
3. Radioactive Sealed Source
active face of the detector, which allows most alpha
• A radioactive sealed source is a source of special form
and beta particles to interact with the counting gas
RAM that has been contained or encapsulated to
inside the tube.
prevent contamination. These sources can only be
opened by destruction. Semi-annual surveys of these
sources are required to check for leakage.
6. Scintillation Survey Meter ➢ Internal Radiation Monitoring
• A scintillation survey meter is used to detect • Internal radiation exposure results from the ingestion,
lowenergy Gamma Emitters and x-rays. The absorption, inhalation, or injection of radioactive
scintillator, or sensor, is made of a transparent materials into the body. To monitor internal exposure,
crystal or liquid which shines when it interacts with bioassay techniques such as urinalysis and thyroid
ionizing radiation. The scintillator is attached to a monitoring are employed.
photosensor like a photomultiplier tube which ➢ Dosimeter Usage
detects the generated light. • Dosimeters must be always worn when frequenting or in
• This survey meter detects I-125 and Cr-51. They are areas with radiation sources. They should be stored in
an ideal equipment choice for surveying electron an accessible, centralized location free of possible
microscopes and x-ray diffractometers. irradiation, heat, humidity, and direct sunlight.
Individuals assigned dosimeters are responsible for their
7. Area Survey proper wearing and storage.
• Area surveys are required anywhere a radiation ➢ Obtaining Dosimeters
device is in use and the potential for receiving a • Personnel who are likely to receive a dose over
higher-than-normal radiation dose is present. These regulatory limits can obtain dosimeters by completing a
surveys are typically measured in milliRoentgen per dosimeter request form and sending it to the
hour (mR/hr). The Roentgen is a measure of the appropriate office. Dosimeter delivery may take one to
amount of ionization in the air from the radiation. two weeks from the receipt of the request form.
• Anytime you have an area survey performed, you ➢ Bioassay Program
are required to keep the official records of the • A bioassay program provides necessary personnel
survey results for 3 years monitoring to measure operational or accidental
radioactive material uptakes. It involves direct (in vivo)
PERSONAL MONITORING measurement or by common techniques such as
urinalysis and thyroid monitoring.
➢ Personnel monitoring, or dosimetry - is an
important safety practice when using radioactive METHODS AND TYPES OF PERSONNEL MONITORS METHODS
material or working with radiation-producing OF PERSONNEL MONITORS:
equipment.
• Radiation protection involves personal monitoring • Is required for the persons who are likely to receive a
to ensure that individuals are not exposed to dose over the UNR’s administrative limits or 10% of
state occupational dose limits and anyone who received
harmful levels of ionizing radiation. This monitoring
radiation safety training and who is likely to receive 10%
is essential to maintain exposure levels below
of the state occupational dose limits may request
regulatory limits and As Low As Reasonably personal monitoring. The requesting personnel must
Achievable (ALARA) principles. The monitoring complete the dosimeter request form and send it to
program provides early notice if exposure exceeds EH&S.
limits and maintains a permanent record of • The dosimeter request form is available from the EH&S
exposure. web page and office. Dosimeter delivery may take one
week to two weeks from receipt of the dosimeter
request form. Those persons wishing to provide
Types of Dosimeters Two primary types of dosimeters are dosimetry to their students for class or laboratory
used for personnel monitoring: activities must make special arrangements with EH&S.
1. Film Badge: It is periodically checked to indicate the
➢ EH&S (Environment, Health, and Safety)
cumulative amount of radiation exposure.
• It’s to refers to laws, rules, regulations, professions,
2. Ring Dosimeter: Meant to measure hand exposures
programs, and workplace efforts to protect the health
only and should not be stored in lab coat pockets to and safety of employees and the public as well as the
avoid exposure to whole-body radiation. environment from hazards associated with the
workplace.
TYPES OF PERSONNEL MONITORS:
▪ RECORDING PERSONAL RADIATION EXPOSURE -
1. RECORDS - Personnel exposure data will be sent to Employers must keep a record of the doses received for
each group or department to be available to each employee with a PMD, and these records should be
dosimeter wearers when reports are received. regularly reviewed (e.g. quarterly).
2. INTERNAL DOSIMETRY - A internal ionising radiation
• The dose record for each person provided with a
dose assessment due to radionuclides incorporated
inside the human body. PMD must contain
3. MEDICAL SURVEILLANCE POLICY - Personnel will be • The amount of radiation to which the person has
placed under medical surveillance when their been exposed as measured by the dosimeter. The
potential exposure to ionizing radiation is such that dose should be recorded in sieverts.
somatic biological effects susceptible to detection by a • The results of any tests carried out by the employer
medical evaluation could occur. to determine the amount of radiation to which the
4. VISITOR DOSIMETRY - Visitors are not normally employee has been exposed.
allowed in restricted areas by prior arrangements have
to be made , if there is a need to have visitors in a Records must be kept for each worker issued with a PMD
restricted area containing:

• full name, sex and date of birth

• current home address or if no longer employed, the last
➢ RECORDS OF ACCUMULATED DOSE
• The record of accumulated doses for personnel known home address
monitoring in radiation protection is crucial for • the date employment commenced and ceased
ensuring the safety of individuals working in • the kind of work performed details of the types of
environments where they may be exposed to ionizing ionizing radiation to which the worker may have been
radiation. This monitoring is especially important in exposed to in the course of their employment, including
industries such as nuclear power, medical radiology, information about unsealed radioactive substances to
and industrial radiography. The accumulated dose is which they may have been exposed
typically measured in units of Sieverts (Sv) or • details of any radiation accidents involving or affecting
millisieverts (mSv). the worker
Here are some key points to the record of accumulated dose • PMD details, including the type of monitor, where on the
for personnel monitoring: body it was worn and the name of the PMD service
provider
▪ DOSIMETER BADGES - Workers in radiation-prone
• the radiation exposure dose results for the employee.
environments often wear dosimetry badges, also
known as personal radiation monitors or film badges.
▪ REGULAR MONITORING - Regular monitoring is
essential to track the cumulative radiation dose over ▪ RADIATION PROTECTION PROGRAMS - Organizations with
time. The frequency of monitoring may depend on the radiation-related activities implement radiation
level of radiation risk associated with the specific job protection programs that include personnel monitoring.
or workplace. These programs are designed to ensure compliance with
▪ LEGAL LIMITS - There are legal limits to the amount of safety regulations and to protect the health of workers.
radiation exposure that workers can receive. ▪ MEDICAL SURVEILLANCE - In some cases, individuals with
Regulatory bodies, such as the Nuclear Regulatory
higher occupational radiation exposure may undergo
Commission (NRC) in the United States or the
medical surveillance to monitor their health for potential
European Union Directive on Ionizing Radiation, set
radiation-related effects.
these limits to ensure the safety of workers.
▪ ALARA Principle - The ALARA (As Low As Reasonably ▪ RECORD RETENTION - Records of accumulated dose are
Achievable) principle is a fundamental concept in typically retained for a specified period, as mandated by
radiation protection. It means that radiation exposure regulatory requirements. This documentation may be
should be kept as low as possible, taking into account subject to inspection by regulatory agencies.
economic and social factors.
▪ RECORDING AND REPORTING - The recorded doses are
typically maintained in a central database. ➢ EFFECTIVE DOSE LIMITS
• The concept of effective dose was developed by the
International Commission on Radiological Protection
(ICRP) as a risk adjusted dosimetric quantity for the
management of protection against stochastic effects,
principally cancer, enabling comparison of estimated
doses with dose limits, dose constraints, and reference
levels expressed in the same quantity.
• Its use allows all radiation exposures from external and
internal sources to be considered together and summed,
relying on the assumptions of a linear non-threshold
dose–response relationship, equivalence of acute and
chronic exposures at low doses or low dose rates, and
equivalence of external and internal exposures.
• ICRP Publication 103 provides detailed explanation of
the purpose and use of effective dose and equivalent
dose to individual organs and tissues. This publication
provides further guidance on the scientific basis for the
control of radiation risks using dose quantities, and
discusses occupational, public, and medical applications.
It is recognised that best estimates of risk to individuals
will use organ/tissue doses and specific dose risk
models. Although doses incurred at low levels of
exposure may be measured or assessed with reasonable
accuracy, the associated risks are increasingly uncertain
at lower doses.
• Bearing in mind the uncertainties associated with risk
projection to low doses or low dose rates, it is concluded
that effective dose may be considered as an
approximate indicator of possible risk, recognizing also
that lifetime cancer risks vary with age at exposure, sex,
and population group.
• A further conclusion is that equivalent dose is not
required as a protection quantity. It will be more
appropriate for limits for the avoidance of tissue
reactions for the skin, hands and feet, and lens of the
eye to be set in terms of absorbed dose rather than
equivalent dose.