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Problem Solving with C 6th Edition Savitch Digital
Instant Download
Author(s): Savitch, Walter
ISBN(s): 9780321412690, 0321412699
Edition: 6
File Details: PDF, 11.81 MB
Year: 2006
Language: english
 LOCATION OF VIDEO NOTES IN THE TEXT
Chapter 1 Compiling and Running a C++ Program, p. 27
Solution to Programming Project 1.6, p. 37
Chapter 2 Precedence and Arithmetic Operators, p. 71
Common Bugs with = and ==, p. 81
Solution to Programming Project 2.13, p. 107
Chapter 3 switch Statement Example, p. 132
Nested Loop Example, p. 161
Solution to Programming Project 3.13, p. 178
Chapter 4 Programmer-Defined Function Example, p. 201
Walkthrough of Functions and Local Variables, p. 223
Solution to Programming Project 4.7, p. 245
Chapter 5 Call by Reference and Call by Value, p. 268
Debugging, p. 287
Solution to Programming Project 5.9, p. 299
Chapter 6 Solution to Programming Project 6.18, p. 371
Chapter 7 Array Walkthrough, p. 381
Passing Arrays to Functions, p. 388
Selection Sort Walkthrough, p. 415
Solution to Programming Project 7.3, p. 434
Chapter 8 Example using cin and getline with the string class, p. 472
Solution to Programming Project 8.1, p. 491
Chapter 9 Solution to Programming Project 9.6, p. 526
Chapter 10 Class Scope, Public and Private Members, p. 553
Separate Interface and Implementation, p. 579
Solution to Programming Project 10.3, p. 604
Chapter 11 Arrays of Classes using Dynamic Arrays, p. 663
Overloading = and == for a Class, p. 672
Solution to Programming Project 11.15, p. 693
Chapter 12 Solution to Programming Project 12.3, p. 730
Chapter 13 Solution to Programming Project 13.6, p. 778
Solution to Programming Project 13.9, p. 780
Chapter 14 Recursion and the Stack, p. 794
Solution to Programming Project 14.7, p. 821
Chapter 15 Inheritance Example, p. 848
Solution to Programming Project 15.12, p. 879
Chapter 16 The STL exception Class, p. 906
Solution to Programming Project 16.3, p. 909
Chapter 17 Solution to Programming Project 17.10, p. 942
Chapter 18 Solution to Programming Project 18.7, p. 996
PROBLEM SOLVING
WITH

S EVENTH E DITION
This page intentionally left blank
PROBLEM SOLVING
WITH

S EVENTH E DITION

WALTER SAVITCH
U NIVERSITY OF C ALIFORNIA , S AN D IEGO

CONTRIBUTOR
KENRICK MOCK
U NIVERSITY OF A LASKA , A NCHORAGE

Boston San Francisco New York

London Toronto Sydney Tokyo Singapore Madrid
Mexico City Munich Paris Cape Town Hong Kong Montreal
Executive Editor Michael Hirsch
Acquisitions Editor Matt Goldstein
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Savitch, Walter J., 1943-

Problem solving with C++ / Walter Savitch. -- 7th ed.
p. cm.
ISBN 0-321-53134-5
1. C++ (Computer program language) I. Title.
QA76.73.C153S29 2008
005.13'3--dc22
2007052559

Copyright © 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this
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Preface

This book is meant to be used in a first course in programming and computer

science using the C++ language. It assumes no previous programming experi-
ence and no mathematics beyond high school algebra.
If you have used the previous edition of this book, you should read the
following section that explains the changes to this seventh edition, and then
you can skip the rest of this preface. If you are new to this book, the rest of this
preface will give you an overview of the book.

Changes to the Seventh Edition

This seventh edition presents the same programming philosophy as the sixth
edition. All of the material from the sixth edition remains. Thirty new program-
ming projects have been added, and the presentation has been reworked in
several chapters. Additional material on the map class has been added and the
program examples have been updated for greater compatibility with a majority
of compilers in use today. Moreover, thirty-nine videos that cover specific topics
and solutions to the Programming Projects have been added to the book’s
website. These video notes walk students through the process of both problem
solving and coding to help reinforce key programming concepts. An icon
appears in the margin of the book when a video is available regarding the topic
covered in the text. Finally, in response to instructors’ reviews of the previous
edition, introductory material on inheritance has been moved from Chapter 6,
“I/O Streams,” to Chapter 10, “Defining Classes.” However, if you are an
instructor already using the sixth edition, you can continue to teach your course
almost without change.

Choose Your Own Ordering of Topics

Most introductory textbooks that use C++ have a very detailed agenda that
instructors must follow to use the book in their courses. That is not true of this
book. If you are an instructor, this book adapts to the way you teach, rather than
making you adapt to the book. You can easily change the order in which
chapters and sections are covered without loss of continuity. A dependency
chart at the end of this preface gives an overview of the orders in which chapters
and sections may be covered, and each chapter has a “Prerequisites” section that
explains what parts of the book need to be covered before each section in that
chapter. This allows instructors to easily rearrange the order in which chapters,
or even sections, are covered.
v
vi PREFACE

Although this book uses libraries and teaches students the importance of
libraries, it does not require any nonstandard libraries. This book uses only
libraries that are provided with essentially all C++ implementations.

Allows either Late or Early Introduction of Classes

This book allows for flexible coverage of classes. You may cover classes either
early or late.
The default ordering of chapters begins by introducing students to the
fundamental concepts of variable declarations, expression evaluation, control
structures, procedural abstraction, function definition, arrays, and pointer manip-
ulation. This gives the student a solid foundation in the most basic of program-
ming concepts before tackling the more sophisticated concepts involved in object-
oriented programming. The book covers these most basic of programming
concepts in Chapters 2 through 9. In Chapter 6, file I/O streams are used to teach
students how to use classes. Because stream I/O does require some use of
namespaces and class libraries, some minimal coverage of how to use predefined
namespaces and some standard library I/O classes is integrated into the first few
chapters. In Chapter 10, students learn how to write their own classes.
Instructors who prefer to introduce classes earlier in the course can rear-
range the order of chapters to suit their approach. This is discussed in the section
“Flexibility in Topic Ordering” later in this preface. Essentially, instructors can
cover Chapter 10, “Defining Classes,” immediately after Chapter 6.
The book uses a measured approach to teaching classes. It teaches students
to write some very simple classes, then adds constructors, overloading simple
operators, overloading the I/O operators, and so forth. This measured approach
keeps the student from being overwhelmed with a long list of complicated
constructions and concepts. However, one goal of this book is to get students to
write realistic class definitions without spending time writing classes that are
artificially simple. By the end of Chapter 11, students are writing essentially the
same kinds of classes that they will be writing when they finish the course.
Inheritance is covered briefly in Chapter 10 so that students become aware of
the concept. However, this book does not teach students how to write their own
derived classes and use virtual functions until Chapter 15. Some instructors may
choose to leave that material for a second course. Other instructors will want to
integrate this inheritance coverage into their course. If desired, the material on
inheritance may be moved later, since Chapters 16 through 18 do not require
inheritance.

Accessibility to Students
It is not enough for a book to present the right topics in the right order. It is not
even enough for it to be clear and correct when read by an instructor or other
experienced programmer. The material needs to be presented in a way that is
accessible to beginning students. In this introductory textbook, I have endeav-
ored to write in a way that students find clear and friendly. Reports from the
 PREFACE vii

many students who have used the earlier editions of this book confirm that this
style makes the material clear and often even enjoyable to students.

ANSI/ISO C++ Standard

This edition is fully compatible with compilers that meet the latest ANSI/ISO
C++ standard.

Advanced Topics
Many “advanced topics” are becoming part of a standard CS1 course. Even if
they are not part of a course, it is good to have them available in the text as
enrichment material. This book offers a number of advanced topics that can
be integrated into a course or left as enrichment topics. It gives thorough
coverage of C++ templates, inheritance (including virtual functions), excep-
tion handling, and the STL (Standard Template Library).

Summary Boxes
Each major point is summarized in a boxed section. These boxed sections are
spread throughout each chapter.

Self-Test Exercises
Each chapter contains numerous Self-Test Exercises at strategic points. Com-
plete answers for all the Self-Test Exercises are given at the end of each chapter.

Video Notes
The icon in the margin indicates when an online video is available that relates
to the current topic in the book.

Classroom Tested
Hundreds of thousands of students have used the first six editions of this
book. Many of these students and many of their instructors have given me
feedback about what worked and what did not work for them. The vast
majority of the comments were extremely positive and indicated that students
and teachers liked the book pretty much as it was, but suggestions for some
changes were made. All suggestions for changes were carefully considered.
That valuable feedback was used to revise this edition so that it fits students’
and instructors’ needs even better than the previous editions.

Flexibility in Topic Ordering

This book was written to allow instructors wide latitude in reordering the
material. To illustrate this flexibility, we suggest two alternative ways to order
viii PREFACE

the topics. There is no loss of continuity when the book is read in either of
these ways. To ensure this continuity when you rearrange material, you may
need to move sections rather than entire chapters. However, only large
sections in convenient locations are moved. To help customize a particular
order for any class’s needs, the end of this preface contains a dependency
chart, and each chapter has a “Prerequisites” section that explains what
material needs to be covered before each section in that chapter.

Reordering 1: Earlier Classes

To effectively design classes, a student needs some basic tools such as control
structures and function definitions. This basic material is covered in Chapters
1 through 6. After completing Chapter 6, students can begin to write their own
classes. One possible reordering of chapters that allows for such early coverage
of classes is the following:
Basics: Chapters 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6. This material covers all control struc-
tures, function definitions, and basic file I/O. Chapter 3, which covers
additional control structures, could be deferred if you wish to cover
classes as early as possible.
Classes and namespaces: Chapter 10, Sections 11.1 and 11.2 of Chapter 11,
and Chapter 12. This material covers defining classes, friends, overloaded
operators, and namespaces.
Arrays, strings and vectors: Chapters 7 and 8.
Pointers and dynamic arrays: Chapter 9.
Arrays in classes: Sections 11.3 and 11.4 of Chapter 11.
Inheritance: Chapter 15.
Recursion: Chapter 14 (Alternately, recursion may be moved to later in the
course.)
Pointers and linked lists: Chapter 13.
Any subset of the following chapters may also be used:
Exception handling: Chapter 16.
Templates: Chapter 17.
Standard Template Library: Chapter 18.

Reordering 2: Classes Slightly Later but Still Early

This version covers all control structures and the basic material on arrays
before doing classes, but classes are covered later than the previous ordering
and slightly earlier than the default ordering.
Basics: Chapters 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6. This material covers all control struc-
tures, function definitions, and the basic file I/O.
 PREFACE ix

Arrays and strings: Chapter 7, Sections 8.1 and 8.2 of Chapter 8.

Classes and namespaces: Chapter 10, Sections 11.1 and 11.2 of Chapter 11,
and Chapter 12. This material covers defining classes, friends, overloaded
operators, and namespaces.
Pointers and dynamic arrays: Chapter 9.
Arrays in classes: Sections 11.3 and 11.4 of Chapter 11.
Inheritance: Chapter 15.
Recursion: Chapter 14. (Alternately, recursion may be moved to later in
the course.)
Vectors: Chapter 8.3.
Pointers and linked lists: Chapter 13.
Any subset of the following chapters may also be used:
Exception handling: Chapter 16.
Templates: Chapter 17.
Standard Template Library: Chapter 18.

Support Material
There is support material available to all users of this book and additional
material available only to qualified instructors.

Materials Available to All Users of this Book

■ Source Code from the book
■ PowerPoint slides
■ Video Notes
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Resources Available to Qualified Instructors Only

Visit Addison-Wesley’s instructor resource center (http://www.aw.com/irc), con-
tact your local AW sales representative, or send email to [email protected]
for information on how to access instructor supplements:
■ Instructor’s Resource Guide—including chapter-by-chapter teaching hints,
quiz questions with solutions, and solutions to many programming projects
■ Test Bank and Test Generator
■ PowerPoint Lectures—including programs and art from the text
■ Lab Manual
■ Instructor access to Addison-Wesley’s MyCodeMate
x PREFACE

Visual C++ Support

In addition to the already listed support material, this text is also available
with supplementary Visual C++ materials:
■ Visual C++ 2008 Programming Companion (includes Microsoft’s Visual
C++ Express compiler)
■ Visual C++ 2005 Programming Companion (includes Microsoft’s Visual
C++ 2005 compiler)
Contact your local Addison-Wesley/Pearson representative, or send email to
[email protected] for information on obtaining the book with Visual C++.

Additional Support Material

■ Addison-Wesley’s C++ Backpack Reference Guide is a quick reference to
C++’s most frequently used keywords and libraries. It integrates all the
specifics of C++ in one handy place including syntax examples, keyword
descriptions, and programming tips. The C++ Backpack Reference Guide is
offered at a discount when packaged with a new copy of this text.
■ Addison-Wesley’s MyCodeMate is a book-specific Web resource that pro-
vides tutorial help and evaluation of student programs. A complimentary
subscription to MyCodeMate is offered when the access code is ordered
in a package with a new copy of this text. Subscriptions can also be pur-
chased online. For more information, visit http://www.mycodemate.com.
For more information on these and other resources available with the
book, contact your local Addison-Wesley representative, or send email to
[email protected].

Acknowledgments
Numerous individuals and groups have provided me with suggestions,
discussions, and other help in preparing this textbook. Much of the first
edition of this book was written while I was visiting the Computer Science
Department at the University of Colorado in Boulder. The remainder of the
writing on the first edition and the work on subsequent editions was done in
the Computer Science and Engineering Department at the University of
California, San Diego (UCSD). I am grateful to these institutions for providing
a conducive environment for teaching this material and writing this book.
I would like to thank reviewers of this edition. They are: Joseph Allen
(Community College of Rhode Island), Noah Aydin (Kenyon College), Andrew
Haas (University at Albany, SUNY), Huzefa Kagdi (Kent State University), Gilliean
Lee (Lander University), Cynthia Martincic (Saint Vincent College), Jeff Roach
(East Tennessee State University), Susanne Sherba (University of Colorado, Boul-
der), Michal Sramka (Florida Atlantic University), James Stepleton (Stevens Insti-
tute of Technology), and Jeffrey Watson (Walla Walla Community College).
 PREFACE xi

I extend a special thanks to all the individuals who have contributed

critiques or programming projects for this or earlier editions and drafts of this
book. In alphabetical order they are: Claire Bono, Richard Borie, Andrew Burt,
Edward Carr, Karla Chaveau, Wei Lian Chen, Joel Cohen, Doug Cosman,
Charles Dowling, Scot Drysdale, Joe Faletti, Alex Feldman, Sheila Foster, Paulo
Franca, Len Garrett, Jerrold Grossman, Eitan M. Gurari, Dennis Heckman, Bob
Holloway, Nisar Hundewale, Matt Johnson, Bruce Johnston, Larry Johnson,
Thomas Judson, Paul J. Kaiser, Michael Keenan, Brian R. King, Paul Kube,
Barney MacCabe, Steve Mahaney, Michael Main, Walter A. Manrique, Anne
Marchant, John Marsaglia, Nat Martin, Bob Matthews, Jesse Morehouse, Ethan
Munson, Donald Needham, Dung Nguyen, Joseph D. Oldham, Jennifer
Perkins, Carol Roberts, Ken Rockwood, John Russo, Amber Settle, Naomi
Shapiro, Scott Strong, David Teague, Jerry Weltman, John J. Westman, and
Linda F. Wilson.
I extend a special thanks to the many instructors who used early editions
of this book. Their comments provided some of the most helpful reviewing
that the book received.
I thank all the individuals at Addison-Wesley who contributed so much to
making this book possible: Marilyn Lloyd, Sarah Milmore, Chris Kelly, and my
editor, Matt Goldstein.
Finally, I thank Kenrick Mock who implemented the changes in this
edition. He had the almost impossible task of pleasing me, my editor, and his
own sensibilities, and he did a superb job of it.
Walter Savitch

Dependency Chart
The dependency chart on the next page shows possible orderings of chapters
and subsections. A line joining two boxes means that the upper box must be
covered before the lower box. Any ordering that is consistent with this partial
ordering can be read without loss of continuity. If a box contains a section
number or numbers, then the box refers only to those sections and not to the
entire chapter.
xii PREFACE

DISPLAY P.1 Dependency Chart

Chapter 1 Chapter 2 Chapter 4 Chapter 5

Introduction C++ Basics Functions 1 Functions 2

Chapter 3
Chapter 6
More Flow of
I/O Streams
Control

Chapter 7
Chapter 14 Chapter 10
Arrays
Recursion Classes 1
7.1–7.3

Chapter 7
Chapter 11 *Chapter 16
7.4, Multi-
Classes 2 Exception
Dimensional
11.1–11.2 Handling
Arrays

Chapter 12
Chapter 8 Chapter 11
Separate
Strings and 11.3 Classes
Compilation &
Vectors & Arrays
Namespaces

Chapter 9 Chapter 11
Chapter 13
Pointers and 11.4 Classes
Pointers and
Dynamic & Dynamic
Linked Lists
Arrays Arrays

Chapter 15
Inheritance

Chapter 17
Templates

*Chapter 16 contains
occasional references
to derived classes, but Chapter 18
those references can STL
be omitted
Brief Contents

Table of Location of Video Notes

Inside front cover

Chapter 1 Introduction to Computers and

C++ Programming 1

Chapter 2 C++ Basics 39

Chapter 3 More Flow of Control 111

Chapter 4 Procedural Abstraction and Functions That

Return a Value 181

Chapter 5 Functions for All Subtasks 251

Chapter 6 I/O Streams as an Introduction to Objects

and Classes 305

Chapter 7 Arrays 375

Chapter 8 Strings and Vectors 445

Chapter 9 Pointers and Dynamic Arrays 499

Chapter 10 Defining Classes 529

Chapter 11 Friends, Overloaded Operators, and Arrays

in Classes 609

xiii
xiv BRIEF CONTENTS

Chapter 12 Separate Compilation and Namespaces 695

Chapter 13 Pointers and Linked Lists 733

Chapter 14 Recursion 781

Chapter 15 Inheritance 825

Chapter 16 Exception Handling 881

Chapter 17 Templates 913

Chapter 18 Standard Template Library 943

Appendices
1 C++ Keywords 999
2 Precedence of Operators 1000
3 The ASCII Character Set 1002
4 Some Library Functions 1003
5 Inline Functions 1011
6 Overloading the Array Index
Square Brackets 1012
7 The this Pointer 1014
8 Overloading Operators as Member
Operators 1017
Index 1019
Contents

TABLE OF LOCATION OF VIDEO NOTES

Inside front cover

Chapter 1 Introduction to Computers and C++

Programming 1

1.1 COMPUTER SYSTEMS 2

Hardware 2
Software 7
High-Level Languages 8
Compilers 9
History Note 12

1.2 PROGRAMMING AND PROBLEM-SOLVING 12

Algorithms 12
Program Design 15
Object-Oriented Programming 17
The Software Life Cycle 17

1.3 INTRODUCTION TO C++ 19

Origins of the C++ Language 19
A Sample C++ Program 20
Pitfall: Using the Wrong Slash in \n 24
Programming Tip: Input and Output Syntax 24
Layout of a Simple C++ Program 24
Pitfall: Putting a Space before the include File Name 26
Compiling and Running a C++ Program 27
Programming Tip: Getting Your Program to Run 27

1.4 TESTING AND DEBUGGING 30

Kinds of Program Errors 30
Pitfall: Assuming Your Program Is Correct 31

xv
xvi CONTENTS

Chapter Summary 32
Answers to Self-Test Exercises 33
Programming Projects 36

Chapter 2 C++ Basics 39

2.1 VARIABLES AND ASSIGNMENTS 40

Variables 40
Names: Identifiers 42
Variable Declarations 44
Assignment Statements 45
Pitfall: Uninitialized Variables 47
Programming Tip: Use Meaningful Names 49

2.2 INPUT AND OUTPUT 50

Output Using cout 50
Include Directives and Namespaces 52
Escape Sequences 53
Programming Tip: End Each Program with a \n or endl 55
Formatting for Numbers with a Decimal Point 55
Input Using cin 56
Designing Input and Output 58
Programming Tip: Line Breaks in I/O 58

2.3 DATA TYPES AND EXPRESSIONS 60

The Types int and double 60
Other Number Types 62
The Type char 63
The Type bool 64
Introduction to the Class string 65
Type Compatibilities 66
Arithmetic Operators and Expressions 69
Pitfall: Whole Numbers in Division 71
More Assignment Statements 73

2.4 SIMPLE FLOW OF CONTROL 74

A Simple Branching Mechanism 74
Pitfall: Strings of Inequalities 80
Pitfall: Using = in place of == 81
Compound Statements 82
Simple Loop Mechanisms 84
 CONTENTS xvii

Increment and Decrement Operators 87

Programming Example: Charge Card Balance 89
Pitfall: Infinite Loops 90

2.5 PROGRAM STYLE 93

Indenting 93
Comments 94
Naming Constants 96

Chapter Summary 98
Answers to Self-Test Exercises 99
Programming Projects 104

Chapter 3 More Flow of Control 111

3.1 USING BOOLEAN EXPRESSIONS 112

Evaluating Boolean Expressions 112
Pitfall: Boolean Expressions Convert to int Values 116
Enumeration Types (Optional) 119

3.2 MULTIWAY BRANCHES 120

Nested Statements 120
Programming Tip: Use Braces in Nested Statements 121
Multiway if-else Statements 123
Programming Example: State Income Tax 125
The switch Statement 129
Pitfall: Forgetting a break in a switch Statement 133
Using switch Statements for Menus 134
Blocks 134
Pitfall: Inadvertent Local Variables 139

3.3 MORE ABOUT C++ LOOP STATEMENTS 140

The while Statements Reviewed 141
Increment and Decrement Operators Revisited 142
The for Statement 145
Pitfall: Extra Semicolon in a for Statement 150
What Kind of Loop to Use 151
Pitfall: Uninitialized Variables and Infinite Loops 153
The break Statement 153
Pitfall: The break Statement in Nested Loops 155
xviii CONTENTS

3.4 DESIGNING LOOPS 156

Loops for Sums and Products 156
Ending a Loop 157
Nested Loops 161
Debugging Loops 163

Chapter Summary 166

Answers to Self-Test Exercises 167
Programming Projects 173

Chapter 4 Procedural Abstraction and Functions

That Return a Value 181

4.1 TOP-DOWN DESIGN 182

4.2 PREDEFINED FUNCTIONS 183

Using Predefined Functions 183
Type Casting 188
Older Form of Type Casting 190
Pitfall: Integer Division Drops the Fractional Part 191

4.3 PROGRAMMER-DEFINED FUNCTIONS 192

Function Definitions 192
Functions That Return a Boolean Value 196
Alternate Form for Function Declarations 199
Pitfall: Arguments in the Wrong Order 199
Function Definition–Syntax Summary 201
More About Placement of Function Definitions 202
Programming Tip: Use Function Calls in Branching Statements 202

4.4 PROCEDURAL ABSTRACTION 204

The Black Box Analogy 204
Programming Tip: Choosing Formal Parameter Names 206
Programming Tip: Nested Loops 208
Case Study: Buying Pizza 211
Programming Tip: Use Pseudocode 217

4.5 LOCAL VARIABLES 218

The Small Program Analogy 218
Programming Example: Experimental Pea Patch 220
Global Constants and Global Variables 221
Other documents randomly have
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virgin forests are capable of supplying humanity with cabinet and
other woods for several centuries. Their trade and imports must
therefore increase. It is apparent that they cannot diminish. We
cannot as a nation afford to remain indifferent any longer to their
possibilities and opportunities.
Very naturally there have been many objections on the part of our
business men to going after this trade which all of Europe strained
every resource to acquire and control. It was urged that we had all
the business we required; that we lacked foreign banking facilities;
that our merchant marine was small and inefficient; that to go
abroad for trade meant learning new languages, acquiring new
customs, opening new accounts, taking more risks. These conditions
were equally true when the European merchant decided to enter this
field. He met and overcame all these difficulties under far more
adverse circumstances than exist for us, to-day. His experience in
this territory has charted the path for us to follow, and if we take
advantage of the beacons he has erected we shall be saved from many
pitfalls.
Latin America with the things the world most requires—wheat,
meat, wool, coffee, sugar, nitrates, minerals, woods—can never
collapse completely through any financial crisis. Furthermore its
power of reviving quickly from any unfavorable panic is truly
phenomenal. I recall Venezuela, the year she terminated her
bloodiest revolution under Castro, harvesting and exporting a
bumper crop of coffee, which immediately cleared up her monetary
depression, and this rapid convalescent condition has been
duplicated time and time again after every period of internal trouble
experienced by all of these countries.
Nature has been bounteous in her gifts to these favored lands of
the sun. If in a given locality the soil is not fertile, it is rich in mineral
wealth, or covered with luxuriant forests. Throughout Latin America
large and small rivers afford easy and cheap means of transportation.
Drought or excessive rainfalls are comparatively unknown. Despite
the fact that a majority of the population lives primitively, epidemics
of a severe nature have been few and far between. Revolutions,
formerly the blight on these lands, are becoming rare and in most of
these countries there have been no such uprisings or demonstrations
of this character for more than twenty years.
 The opportunities for successful business in almost any chosen
line in Latin America are unlimited, provided one uses ordinary
judgment and simple tact in the undertaking. Furthermore less
capital is required to start an enterprise than in lands where
competition is keener, and less energy necessary to insure success.
The truth of these statements is demonstrated most completely by
the fact that millions of Europeans—many of them uneducated and
possessed of no great amount of ability or money—have settled
throughout these lands and established themselves in prosperous
occupations.
The greatest possibilities exist along the lines of general
development. All these countries are new; most of them practically
unexplored—many of them not even having their boundary lines
definitely established. Think of what must be the opportunities in
Brazil—a country larger in area than the United States, and
supporting only 20,000,000 people—or of Argentine, spreading over
almost as much territory as Europe, excepting Russia and Austria-
Hungary, with a population slightly more than 7,000,000. It is to
these countries that overcrowded Europe must come for elbow room
—for a glimpse of the sun.
Once a business or a plant is established in Latin America one
need not have the intense fear of bitter local competition. These
people have never been manufacturing or creative in their desires,
and the chances are, if we are to predicate their future from their
past, that they never will become competitors in any of these fields.
Climatic conditions, racial and inherited traits have made them
follow the lines of least resistance and they have become cattle
raisers and large farmers, while comparatively few have entered
commercial life. This being true it follows that these countries are
ideal for those desirous of leading an active commercial or
manufacturing career.
All of Latin America is in the process of awakening. They are
building railways, making vast municipal and national
improvements, exploiting their natural resources, modernizing their
agricultural methods. The advent of the foreigner has been potent in
raising their standard of living. If these people were to raise their
standard of living to that of the United States at the present time, it
would be the equivalent, so far as market possibilities are concerned,
to creating three new Americas. Each day sees some progress in this
direction, and with it a desire for more of the comforts of modern
civilization—for more of the things which go to make up the full and
complete life. This means employment for their people—civic
progress—and prosperity.
Their markets are easily reached, the merchants willing to buy, our
producers capable of providing the things they require. Their first
orders may be small, but they become enormous buyers when they
find the article adapted for their needs. The European marts which
might have supplied the things these nations require in their growth
cannot do so for a long time to come, thus giving us an ideal
opportunity to capture these markets and at the same time introduce
American methods throughout the length and breadth of the land.
 II
BRAZIL

The Republic of the United States of Brazil, including the Acre

Territory, is the largest of the South American countries and if we
include Alaska and our island possessions is really larger in area than
the United States of America, by about 200,000 square miles. It is
fifteen times larger than Germany and sixteen times larger than
France. With the exception of Ecuador and Chile its frontier touches
every country of South America, being bounded on the north by
British, French and Dutch Guiana and Venezuela; on the west by
Colombia, Peru, Bolivia, Paraguay and Argentine; on the south by
Uruguay, while the Atlantic Ocean forms its eastern and a portion of
its northern limitation. Its most eastern point is but three days’ sail
from the western coast of Africa. It is the fourth largest country in
the world, and is widest between the Equator and the Tropic of
Capricorn, covering an area of 3,292,000 square miles.
The population has been variously estimated at from 20,000,000
to 24,000,000, of whom less than 1,000,000 are aborigines, thus
giving it about one-fifth of the population per square mile of the
population of the United States of America. Its inhabitants are white,
black, mulattoes, Indians and mixed breeds, a heavy percentage
being descendants from the slaves imported originally from Africa,
slavery in Brazil having been abolished in 1888.
The language of Brazil is Portuguese except among the Indian
tribes, each one of which has its own dialect. These Indians are to be
found in the interior and the remote districts, and are a negligible
quantity as far as trade is concerned, living primitive lives and having
few wants that the rich country and rivers cannot supply.
 The Harbor of Rio de Janeiro

Brazil was discovered April 22, 1500, by Pedro Alvarez Cabral, a

Portuguese explorer, but no definite attempt was made to settle it, or
assume governing power by the Portuguese until 1549, fifty-seven
years after Columbus had been to America, when Portugal awoke to
the great possibilities of the country and dispatched her first
Governor General in the personage of Thome de Souza.
During the century following the arrival of its first constituted
governor, Brazil became the scene of numerous attacks and
invasions on the part of the French, Dutch and British, each one
desirous of acquiring portions of its territory, having been attracted
by the current stories of its great wealth and latent resources. For a
time both France and Holland established themselves in a small way
within its boundary, but ultimately abandoned their outposts.
From 1640 to 1808 Brazil was governed by a Viceroy, who resided
in Rio de Janeiro. The victorious armies of Napoleon and their
progress across the Spanish Peninsula ultimately caused King John
to abandon his capital in Portugal and flee to Brazil, where he
established himself in Rio de Janeiro (in 1808), and ruled Portugal
from this one of his possessions. This is the only instance in history
of any portion of Europe ever being ruled from the western
continent. When peace came to Europe, King John returned, leaving
Brazil under the regency of his eldest son Dom Pedro, who in 1822,
proclaimed Brazil independent of Portugal, and established himself
in power as Emperor, the first and only instance of such a form of
government in South America. Dom Pedro was forced to abdicate in
1831 in favor of his son Dom Pedro II, who after reigning through a
regency assumed the throne on becoming of age in 1840. It is
unnecessary to detail the causes that led to the bloodless revolution
of November 15, 1889, which ended his reign and by means of which
Brazil proclaimed herself a republic, adopting a constitution
patterned after our own and a government comprising a President,
with legislative powers vested in a Congress composed of two bodies,
a Senate and a Chamber of Deputies.
Brazil is so immense, situated between the fifth degree north and
the thirty-third degree south, and its topography so varied that it has
all kinds of climates excepting extreme cold. Lying in the temperate
and tropical zones one would incline to the belief that it would be
more or less warm, but its many rivers and mountains, its high table-
lands and plateaus exert a beneficial influence in this regard and
materially modify what otherwise would be extreme degrees of heat.
More than half of Brazil is an elevated plateau, varying from 2000
to 3000 feet in altitude. It has four distinct mountain ranges, which
deflect its rains and form vast watersheds for irrigating the fertile
lands at their base. The eastern and central portions are elevated
while the chief characteristics of the north and west are its fertile
plains and valleys.
The coast of Brazil straggles along for over 5000 miles and is
provided with numerous natural harbors, where the earlier settlers
established cities which have grown and prospered, the principal
ones from the north to the south being Belem, or Para, San Luiz,
Parnahyba, Fortaleza or Ceara, Natal, Parahyba, Recife or
Pernambuco, Maceio, Aracaju, São Salvador or Bahia, Victoria, Rio
de Janeiro, Santos, Paranagua, São Francisco, Rio Grande do Sul and
Porto Allegre. As a rule each of these ports is the terminus for a
railway system penetrating the interior, designed solely for the
purpose of bringing the products to market and carrying supplies
and necessities to the part of the country dependent upon it. There
are practically no trunk or interstate lines, but plans are now
formulated to overcome this condition.
Manaos is an inland port of Brazil, famous as a trading depot and
one of the centers of the rubber industry. It is located on the Rio
Negro, at its mouth where it empties into the great Amazon, one
thousand miles from the Atlantic Ocean, and maintains direct
steamship connection with the United States and Europe as well as
the other ports of Brazil.
Perhaps no other country in the world is so well provided with
rivers as Brazil. The mighty, muddy Amazon, the greatest river in
existence, practically traverses the country from east to west in its
3850 miles journey to the sea. Some idea of its strength and volume
may be gained when I state that its yellow waters color the Atlantic
for over 100 miles beyond its mouth, and freshen the salt water for a
distance of 180 miles. Emptying into this Queen of Rivers are more
than 200 tributaries, over 100 of which are navigable, the famous
Rio Roosevelt or River of Doubt forming one of the number. There
are over 10,000 miles of navigable waterways for ocean vessels and
20,000 miles for light-draft boats.
Brazil is a pastoral country and the indications are that it will
always remain so. Its vast savannahs and fields have formed ideal
locations for raising cattle and sugar, while its mountain sides and
plateaus are unparalleled for the growth of its staple product—coffee,
the average yearly crop of which is the enormous amount of
1,596,000,000 pounds. Rice, cotton, sugar, tobacco, matte (a species
of tea for native use), mandioca (a starchy tuber from which a bread
is made much liked by the native) and cacao are also extensively
grown. India rubber, the use of which was early known to the Indians
of Brazil, to whom it is indebted for its name, is the second leading
product of this remarkable land. The tree, the juice of which
produces this twentieth century necessity, grows wild in the northern
portion of the country, although it can be successfully cultivated. No
effort is made to preserve the trees when once tapped, and the
rubber prospectors are continually going farther and farther into the
interior in search of new districts. The trees are from three to twelve
feet in diameter, of slow growth, indigenous to the region of the
Amazon and its tributaries, growing wild, scattered through the
jungles and tropical shrubbery.
The forests of Brazil are practically virgin. They abound in dye,
cabinet and hard woods and the opportunities for the development
in this field alone are enormous. Due to the fact that the country has
a wonderful series of aqueous arteries the transportation problem to
mills and markets is easily solved and the waterpower can be used in
preparing the timber for shipping.
Brazil has at present more local factories than all the other Latin
American countries combined, forty per cent. of her manufactured
articles being cotton goods, which find a ready market. In the Federal
District of Rio de Janeiro, five of these mills have eight thousand
operatives, producing yearly about 80,000,000 yards. Petropolis has
four mills and São Paulo twenty-five with a total output of nearly
100,000,000 yards. The number of establishments in this industry
alone amounts to 3664, giving employment to 168,760 hands, with a
total yearly output of 275,000,000 yards of goods.
Of late the shoe-making industry has developed extensively. In
1913 there were in all of Brazil 4524 factories employing ten or more
operatives, with a total invested capital of $18,857,000. These plants
are nearly all operated by American machinery, many of them under
American superintendents, the demand for American equipment
being sufficiently large to warrant the big shoe machinery and shoe-
finding houses of New England in maintaining their own offices and
carry their own stock in the larger cities devoted to this business.
Brazil is wonderfully rich in mines of precious and semi-precious
stones. Among the semi-precious stones to be found are achroite,
actinolite, agates, amethysts, analcime, anatase, andalusites,
anthophyllite, apophyllite, apatite, aquamarines, cymophane, citune,
columbite, desemine, iolite, jasper, opals, ruby, sapphires, spinel,
topaz, tourmalines. There are many deposits of minerals, such as
copper, iron, silver, gold, arsenic, barium, bismuth, cinnabar, cobalt,
galena, manganese, nickel, platinum, tin, and wolframite. There are
also rich veins of asbestos, coal, soapstone, sulphur, salt, marble,
mica, and evidences of petroleum.
Gold has been mined in Brazil for over 300 years, the principal
deposits being in the State of Minas Geraes. A mine near the Honario
Bicalho station produced from 1888 to 1912, over $26,000,000
worth of gold and as late as 1911, paid a dividend of 10 per cent. An
English authority has estimated the total output of gold to date from
all mines at $1,000,000,000.
Brazil is reputed to be the second largest diamond-producing
country in the world, the Brazilian stone being considered fifty per
cent. better than others owing to the constant attrition it has
undergone in prehistoric days. At one time more than 40,000 men
were employed in this industry in Minas Geraes alone. The best
diamond fields extend from 10 degrees to 25 degrees south latitude
and many enormous and high-grade stones have been discovered,
the total amount exported in 175 years or up to 1903, being estimated
at four tons. Edwin Streeter in his book on precious stones, says that
“The State of Minas Geraes produced in the first twenty years
144,000 carats. Up to 1850,—5,844,000 carats worth $45,000,000
were sold and some $10,000,000 stolen from the mines by
employes.” As an evidence of the fact that these mines are still
productive, there were registered 456 claims in 1909 in the Diamanta
Districts, which produced $1,000,000 worth of gems. In 1911 there
were registered in the State of Minas Geraes 437 claims.
Travel along the coast and to the cities located on the railway lines
is comparatively convenient and comfortable although very
expensive. In the interior and from the beaten paths it is difficult and
filled with hardships.
Living is high—much more so than in the larger cities of the States
or Europe. Hotels are far from the standard one is accustomed to in
towns of corresponding size, throughout the world—a statement
equally true of all Latin America.
At first the monetary system of Brazil may confuse one, its
currency being on the gold exchange basis. A milreis is the unit of
value and while it is subject to fluctuation, may for all practical
purposes be reckoned as worth .33⅓ cents, or three milreis as the
equivalent of a United States dollar. The symbol for the unit is $ and
the value of our dollar would be expressed thus 3$000. A conto, or
about $333.33 would be written 1000$000. The banking of Brazil is
chiefly controlled by the British, while Germany is their closest
competitor, both France and Italy being represented each by a bank.
The National City Bank of New York has recently established a
branch in Rio de Janeiro, with sub-agencies throughout Brazil, so
that direct exchange on New York may now be bought.
Brazil imported in 1913, $326,428,509 worth of goods, of which
sum the United Kingdom supplied $79,881,008; Germany,
$57,043,754; United States, $51,289,682; France, $31,939,752;
Argentine, $24,293,712.
 In the same period of time she exported goods to the value of
$315,164,687, the United States taking about one-third of the total
amount or to be exact, $102,652,923; Germany, $44,392,410; United
Kingdom, $41,701,815; France, $38,685,561; Holland, $23,252,700.
The United States should do a much larger trade with Brazil owing
to a preferential duty allowed our nation due to the fact that we are
the largest consumers of her leading staple—coffee. According to
government decree No. 9323, of January 17, 1912, flour imported
from the States pays 30 per cent. less duty than if imported from any
other land, while dried fruit, condensed milk, typewriters, rubber
articles, and supplies, scales, refrigerators, cement, corsets, school
furniture, windmills, watches, desks and printing inks, pay 20 per
cent. less duty than similar articles imported from other countries.
Brazil exports coffee, rubber, hides, skins, cacao, tobacco, salt,
cotton, sugar, woods, nuts, precious and semi-precious stones and
gold. She imports foodstuffs, shoes, machinery, textiles, building
woods, ammunition, wheat, automobiles, vehicles, codfish, dried
fruits, glass, toilet articles, building and kitchen hardware, cement,
scientific instruments, iron and steel, enamelled ware, paints and
varnish, haberdashers’ goods, cottons, hats, corrugated iron,
galvanized iron, tools, condensed milk, stationery, pipe, printing
material and presses, electric machinery and supplies, typewriters,
nails, screws and rivets.
American fruits are much in demand in Brazil, and an excellent
market exists to-day for apples. Potatoes, onions, beets, garlic and
other fresh vegetables would also sell well and a lucrative trade in
these necessities of life could be developed without any great effort.
The refrigerator ships running from the Argentine to New York with
meat could carry as return freight these perishable cargoes at a low
rate.
Steamship connections between Europe and the United States,
with Brazilian ports are numerous and sailings comparatively
frequent and as a rule the accommodations are all that could be
desired. From New York the Booth line (English) has two steamers a
month to North Brazil and Amazon River towns, touching at
Barbados, Para and Manaos, with a ship every six weeks to Iquitos,
Peru. One steamer goes each month to North Brazilian ports
including Parnahyba, Natal and nearby localities. The United States
Steamship Line (American) has one vessel monthly for Pernambuco,
Rio de Janeiro and Santos, freight being redistributed at these ports
for intermediate points. The Lloyd Brazilleiro Line (Brazilian)
maintains a semi-monthly service between New York and Natal, and
Parahiba; and Pernambuco, Rio de Janeiro, and Santos, with
occasional service to other larger ports. These boats do not as a rule
carry passengers. They also maintain a service along the smaller
coast towns and the rivers leading into the interior of Brazil, even
having regular sailings from Asuncion, Paraguay, for Brazilian river
towns. The Lamport & Holt Line (English) has weekly sailings from
New York to Bahia, Rio de Janeiro and Santos, generally stopping at
Trinidad and Barbados, West Indies, on their trip north. The Prince
Line (British) touch once a month at Rio de Janeiro and Santos,
carrying freight chiefly. Other vessels of this line make monthly calls
at Pernambuco, Bahia, Rio de Janeiro and Santos. Numerous tramp
ships also sail from American ports on the eastern coast of the States
to Brazil.

Photograph by Underwood &

Underwood

Avenida Rio Branco and Opera House, Rio de

Janeiro
 Brazil has 15,272 miles of railways, federal, state and private, over
many of which tickets which correspond to our mileage books are
issued, for the convenience of the travelling public. Many new lines
are in process of construction or contemplated, and a very decided
effort is being made to unite the various main lines by connecting
roads, so that the entire republic, including its most remote districts,
may be thus reached.
The leading cities, which should be visited for business purposes,
are:—
Population
Rio de Janeiro 1,128,000
São Paulo 450,000
Bahia 300,000
Belem or Para 250,000
Pernambuco 200,000
Porto Allegre 125,000
Mañaos 60,000
Santos 45,000
Campinas 40,000
Ceara 40,000
San Luiz or Maranao 40,000
Parahiba 32,000
Nichteroy 30,000
Florianopolis, or Desterro 27,000
Rio Grande do Sul 20,000
Some of the States and municipalities of Brazil have a special tax
for commercial travellers, which varies from year to year, concerning
the payment of which arrangements can be best made when on the
ground. A small tax is also levied on trade samples, presumably to be
refunded when leaving the country. It is advisable to learn how best
to handle the situation from travellers with whom you will meet en
route. As a rule, all of these are mere matter of detail and can be
advantageously arranged, through the proper channel.
 III
ARGENTINE

Juan Diaz de Solis in 1508 discovered the Rio de la Plata,

otherwise known as the River Plate, while searching for a southerly
passage to the Pacific Ocean. In 1525 Sebastian Cabot entered the
river and gave it the name it now bears, at the same time erecting a
fort near its mouth. A wealthy Spaniard, Pedro de Mendoza, in 1536,
in exchange for certain landed rights and governmental privileges,
established what is now the present city of Buenos Aires.
It is unnecessary for the purposes of this book to do more than
state briefly that the conditions imposed by Spain on all its colonies
were outrageously unjust and caused much dissension. Efforts to
progress were throttled and the friction between the mother country
developed until the conquest of Spain by Napoleon, which gave the
many Spanish colonies that had become thoroughly satiated with
disgust and contempt for the Madrid Government, a chance to rebel
and establish themselves as independent nations. Taking advantage
of the condition in Europe and having in mind the successful
revolution of the American colonists, the people of Argentine,
Bolivia, Paraguay and Chile revolted, and after much fighting finally
drove the Spanish troops from their shores. May 25, 1810, the people
of Buenos Aires declared their independence. A Congress was held in
Tucuman on July 9, 1816, the result of which was the more complete
unification of the Argentine people under the title of the United
Provinces of the La Plata River. The government in 1860 adopted as
its national title “The Argentine Nation” by which it now prefers to
be called.
Few know that the British had covetous plans upon this really
wonderful country and twice invaded it, once in 1806, and again in
1807. After their fleet had bombarded the capital, the troops landed,
and were both times thoroughly defeated, some of the English battle
flags which were captured still being exhibited in Buenos Aires.
The government of the Argentine Nation is patterned after that of
the United States of America, and has a constitution similar in its
important features. There are three branches of government,
executive, legislative and judicial; the legislative power being vested
in a Congress composed of a Senate and a House of Deputies. The
executive power is vested in a President and Vice-President elected
as those of the United States, each holding office for the period of six
years. Of late the Government has been very stable and there have
been less tendencies to overthrow the authorized power than in most
Latin American countries. By a treaty with Chile in 1881, the great
territory of Patagonia, to the south of the Argentine, was divided
between these two nations.
Argentine covers an area of 1,153,418 square miles, or about one-
third as large as the United States. To be more specific it is as large as
Texas, and all of our territory east of the Mississippi. It is bounded
on the north by Bolivia, and Paraguay, on the west by Chile, on the
south by a portion of Chile and the Atlantic Ocean. Paraguay, Brazil
and Uruguay, together with the Atlantic Ocean which washes its
shores for more than 1500 miles, constitute its eastern boundary.
Over 700,000,000 acres of its land is admirably adapted for cattle
raising and the growing of cereals, a fact which argues much for its
future development and prosperity.
Its population is variously estimated at from 6,000,000 to
9,000,000 but it can with safety be placed at 7,000,000, a little less
than 25 per cent. of its inhabitants residing in the city of Buenos
Aires, which has 1,700,000 citizens, a rather unusual condition of
affairs. The early settlers of the Argentine were of course Spaniards
and their descendants form the bulk of the population to-day. There
are comparatively few blacks or mixed breeds, slavery having been
abolished in 1813, while the Indians and aborigines are scattered
along the frontier. Early in its history Argentine encouraged
emigration from Europe, using as an inducement the free grant of
public lands, which proved especially attractive to the Italian and
Spaniard. In fact the preponderance of the Italian in the business
and social life, due to this movement has had a noticeable effect on
the Spanish language as spoken in this country. From 1857 to 1913
the total of newcomers amounted to 4,781,653, many of whom
became landholders and began at once to contribute to the growth
and wealth of the country. The population to-day is 7.8 persons per
square mile as against 32.31 per square mile in the United States.
More than 300,000 persons migrate to this country each year.
The chief characteristic of the physical formation of the Argentine
is its vast pampas or plains stretching from the Rio de la Plata to the
west, terminating in the foothills of the Andes, or the Cordilleras.
Perhaps no part of the earth’s surface has such flat, smooth, treeless
plains as here confront the traveller. The climatic conditions, owing
to the fact that it extends over thirty-four degrees of latitude, vary
from tropical in the north to practically arctic coldness in the south,
the seasons being the reverse of ours,—that is, they have winter when
we have summer and vice versa. The greater portion of the country is
in the temperate zone, the summers being very hot and the winters
typified by heavy rains, especially in the eastern portion, diminishing
toward the west where there is often much drought. In the extreme
south, in what was formerly Patagonia the heavy snows of winter
take the place of rains, which together with the warm summers
produce a luxuriant growth of grass, especially adapted for the
grazing of sheep.

Photograph by Underwood &

Underwood

Taking produce to the station, Argentine

 The Argentine has for some years been one of the granaries of the
world and as its available land becomes cultivated is destined to play
a more important rôle in this field. Some idea of its rapid
development may be gained from the fact that in 1904, 26,000,000
acres were under cultivation, while in 1913 over 60,000,000 were
sown. Wheat is of course its chief cereal, last year over 17,000,000
acres being cultivated. The Argentine Agricultural Department states
that for the same period of time there were 12,000,000 acres in corn;
4,000,000 in oats and 15,000,000 in lucerne or alfalfa,
proportionately large territories being planted with barley, sugar,
grapes, rice, cotton and tobacco.
This country has been the second largest linseed producing nation
of the world, yielding first place to India. Last year nearly 6,000,000
acres were devoted to the growing of this seed alone.
Comparatively little attention is paid to truck gardening or the
raising of kitchen vegetables, fruits or berries, and this offers a
remarkable opportunity to one versed in the subject. Conditions for
growing these necessities are most favorable but have been neglected
in the efforts made to develop other sources of revenue.
Tucuman has been the center of the sugar industry, practically all
of which is consumed in the country, 43 refineries and plants being
devoted to this business. The grapes grown at the foot of the eastern
slopes of the Andes, near and around Mendoza, yield 500,000,000
quarts of wine yearly, most all being for internal consumption.
Owing to the reversal of seasons here, crops are harvested when ours
are being sown.
Recently dairying has developed to a remarkable extent, over 1300
creameries and factories being devoted to the manufacture of butter
and cheese, doing a gross business of nearly $9,000,000. Much
butter and cheese are shipped to England, Brazil and South Africa.
For the first time in its history, butter was exported to the United
States last year.
Flour milling was established in the Argentine in the 16th century.
Prior to this Chilean flour supplied the demands for this article. To-
day in addition to providing sufficient for its own requirements,
Argentine ships much of its flour to Brazil, Chile and Europe and has
about 800 flour mills in operation, representing an investment of
approximately $14,000,000.
 From the days of the early Spaniards stock-raising has flourished
and will always be one of the chief industries of the land. Not only
the Government but individuals as well realize this and co-operate
with each other for the purpose of producing the best strains of all
breeds of cattle.
There are many “refrigerificos” or cold-storage plants and
abattoirs throughout the land and for years Europe received
practically all of Argentine’s animal products, her exports in this line
alone being approximately $350,000,000 in 1914. Due to the fact
that these establishments were operated by British capital, England
naturally took most of this meat. The larger American packing-
houses have now entered the trade with the double purpose of
supplying both their European and American customers from this
field and direct refrigerator ships now run from the River Plate to
New York City with cargoes of Argentine beef and mutton. The last
census showed 30,000,000 beef cattle; 9,000,000 horses; 500,000
mules; 300,000 asses; 90,000,000 sheep; 4,000,000 goats and
3,000,000 pigs.
Nature seems content in having blessed this country with fertile
pampas and agricultural lands, consequently there are comparatively
few minerals within its territory. There are however some veins of
gold, silver, copper and wolfram. Petroleum has recently been
discovered, but not in large quantities. There is no coal in the
Argentine, but in some sections bogs of peat cover extensive areas
and await development.
To the north and in the interior are forests of valuable woods,
there being over thirty-three species of commercial value. Quebracho
wood is found in the provinces of Santa Fe, Santiago del Estero and
Corrientes. It is very hard, impervious to moisture and will not rot.
Due to these admirable qualities it was formerly used for sleepers for
railways but now owing to the fact that it is excessively rich in tannin
it is used almost exclusively for the purpose of curing leather.
Formerly it was exported in large logs to Europe or to the States and
the tanning extracts expressed, but to-day there are many factories in
the districts where the wood is grown, devoted to obtaining the
tannin directly, thereby materially reducing the cost of the article.
Inasmuch as hides and quebracho are products of the Argentine it
would seem that the tanning of leather would under proper
management develop into a large industry here. The export of tannin
for 1914 was over $11,000,000.
Outside of the industries referred to and a few breweries, cigar
factories, and apparel factories, wherein goods for local consumption
are produced, there is no general manufacturing in the Argentine.
No other country of Latin America is as well provided with
railways as the Argentine, nor with as regular and superior access to
Europe and the States and all parts of the world. More than fifty
steamship lines arrive and depart regularly from the various
Argentine ports, all the seafaring nations of the earth being
represented. In 1852, one observer counted over 600 vessels in the
harbor of Buenos Aires flying the American flag or more than double
the number of all the other nations combined. To-day but few are to
be seen in the vast shipping of this busy port.
The Argentine Republic stands ninth among the world’s nations in
the length of her railways, having about 22,000 miles of track. Many
lines are in process of construction or contemplated, the public and
the government both realizing that a complete network of railways
leading to the ports accelerate the moving of crops and cattle and are
absolutely essential to its prosperity. Buenos Aires quite naturally is
the principal terminal of most roads, while Santa Fe, Rosario, Bahia
Blanca and La Plata are rapidly coming to the front as shipping
centers and are providing appropriate facilities for handling trade. It
has been said that every railway in the country is extending its lines
more and more into the interior, and railway journeys to Brazil,
Paraguay and Bolivia as well as Chile are now possible. It may be
interesting to note that the longest stretch of straight track known to
railroad builders is to be found in the Argentine, where the rails run
a distance of 175 miles without a curve of any kind.
Wagon roads outside of the larger cities are poor and in bad
condition, and much is needed to be done in this respect.
There are many weekly sailings of the most modern and swift
passenger ships to Europe, one Italian line making the voyage from
Buenos Aires to Genoa in fifteen days. It is also possible to go via
Hamburg or England to New York in better ships for practically the
same money and in less time than is taken by ships engaged in the
direct run from Buenos Aires to New York. The Lamport & Holt Line
(British) runs directly from New York to Buenos Aires, with weekly
sailings, carrying freight and passengers. The Prince Line (British)
and the Barber Line (American but flying the British flag), the
Norton Line (British), the American Rio Plate Line (American) leave
New York twice a month for Argentine ports. The Houston Line
(British) from Boston and New York and the New York and South
American Line sail monthly from New York for River Plate ports. The
Munson Line (American) from Mobile, Alabama, sends two ships
monthly to Buenos Aires. There are many tramp ships from
American ports in this trade also.
The docks and facilities for handling goods in Buenos Aires are
second to none in the world and are modeled after the famous
Liverpool system, having cost over $50,000,000. Steamers unload
cargoes directly into the government custom warehouses, on the
other side of which are networks of railway tracks from which they
can be forwarded to the interior. Each of the large cement-sided
canals or basins for the ship traffic is provided with locks or water
gates, while the masonry warehouses, buildings and grain elevators
extend for miles along the city water front. Yet the business of the
port has grown so that there is much congestion, especially at certain
seasons of the year and plans are being considered for doubling its
present facilities.

By permission of the editor of

The Americas

Grain Elevators, Buenos Aires

 Much of the impetus in trade circles in this land is due to the
presence of the English, Germans and Italians who control the
banking, transportation and commercial life of the country. Both the
Briton and the Teuton have large sums invested in all kinds of
enterprises, the total being estimated at $2,000,000,000. The
Italian has developed into the small shopkeeper and farmer. In
Buenos Aires alone there are two daily papers printed in English,
which serves to give some idea of the extent of the English speaking
population in this city. There are also daily papers published in
Italian, German, French and Arabic.
Practically all the nations of Europe are represented in the banking
business, the United States being the last to enter the field. The
English are the strongest and the Germans next.
Argentine is supposed to be on a gold exchange basis, the gold
peso being worth one hundred centavos, or in our money 96.5 cents.
The gold peso is designated by the sign $C/L, the symbol C/L
meaning curso legal, or legal tender. This is practically an imaginary
coin, and the money one sees is paper currency, the paper peso being
worth 44 per cent. of its face value, or 42.46 cents in United States
gold. This is represented in the following manner $M/N, meaning
moneda nacional or national money. This paper currency fluctuates
slightly each day, being governed by the market conditions. The
abbreviations O/S, C/L, and M/N are placed before the dollar or
peso mark, as for example O/S $500 or may follow it, as, for
instance, $500 M/N.
The Argentine has long been noted for its unfavorable fees charged
travellers, each province having a separate tariff, varying according
to the commodity one may be selling. They are subject to such
changes on short notice that it is useless to give them here, besides
the subject has been dealt with elsewhere in this book. Before doing
business it is wise to give this matter careful consideration. No duty
is charged on samples.
The following cities should be visited:
Population
Buenos Aires 1,700,000
Rosario 300,000
Cordoba 120,000
 La Plata 100,000
Tucuman 80,000
Bahia Blanca 75,000
Mendoza 65,000
Santa Fe 50,000
Salta 40,000
Parana 37,000
Corrientes 30,000
San Juan 16,000
San Luis 15,000
The Argentine exported goods to the value of $468,999,410 in
1913, and during the same time imported goods to the extent of
$408,711,966, of which amount less than 8 per cent. came from the
United States. England controlled the bulk of the trade with
Germany second and France third.
The principal exports are meats and meat products, agricultural
products such as wheat, corn, oats, barley, linseed, hay, alfalfa,
woods and dye woods, live animals, wool, hides, skins, butter and
cheese. It imports foodstuffs, textiles, iron, steel, railway supplies
and rolling stock, agricultural implements and machinery, wagons,
carriages, automobiles and automobile supplies, electrical apparatus,
glass, china, ready-made clothes, hats, shoes, toilet articles, drugs
and chemicals, paints and varnish, stockings and socks, silks,
kitchen-utensils, enamelled ware, tools, vegetables, fruits, eggs, oils,
greases, and coal.
 IV
URUGUAY

The first European who set foot on Uruguayan soil was the man
who discovered the Rio de la Plate—Juan Diaz de Solis. This was in
1508. He and his associates were immediately attacked by the
Charruca Indians, who annihilated the party. Later on Portuguese
settlers from Brazil attempted to colonize this land, but they met
with repulses, as did also the Spanish colonists who followed them.
As a result of the invasion of this territory by Portuguese and Spanish
it was claimed by both these countries and became a bone of
contention between them for more than two hundred years. The
Portuguese colonists were finally routed bodily and their city of
Montevideo, founded in 1724, came under control of the Spanish
Viceroy. Portugal still persisted in claiming this province and when
Dom Pedro made an Empire of Brazil, he also attempted to exercise
jurisdiction over Uruguay as well. This ultimately resulted in a war
between Brazil and Argentine, in which the Uruguayans rallied to the
aid of the Argentinians, defeating the Brazilians. A treaty of peace in
which the mediation of England was asked, was signed August 27,
1828, giving Uruguay its independence.
The present government is based upon that of the United States
and comprises executives in the persons of a President and a Vice-
President, elected for four years, and a legislative body, consisting of
a House of Representatives and a Senate.
Uruguay occupies an area of 72,210 square miles, or is about as
large as all of the New England States. It is virtually an extensive
undulating plain, having in its northern section a series of mountain
ranges but few of which are higher than 2000 feet. It is bounded on
the east by the Atlantic Ocean and on the north by Brazil, the Rio
Cuareim flowing between the two countries. The Uruguay, dividing
Argentine and Uruguay, forms its western boundary while the wide
mouth of the Rio de la Plate may be called its southern boundary
line.
The climate is extremely temperate and healthful—so much so in
fact that it is rapidly developing into a summer resort for Chileans,
Argentinians and Brazilians; many of the wealthiest of these
nationalities have established seashore homes within its boundaries,
especially outside of Montevideo. Extreme summer heat such as one
finds in Buenos Aires, is never encountered here, although there are
days in winter when it is particularly cold. Snow occasionally falls.
Uruguay has a population of 1,500,000, its people being among
the best in Latin America. As in Argentine, the Indians are
comparatively few and to be found in remote districts only. There are
practically no negroes and mixed breeds. Owing to the influx of
English, Italian, and Swiss colonists, the standard of the population
is continually rising and its geographical position, salubrious climate
and vast areas of tillable land will attract more and more desirable
settlers to its boundary. Immigration is encouraged along the most
modern and progressive lines.
Uruguay is fortunate in having many navigable rivers, the chief of
which are the Rio de la Plate and the Uruguay, giving a total of over
700 miles of water deep enough for ocean-going vessels. One river
alone—the Uruguay—has ten ports open for interoceanic trade, the
cities on this river being Carmelo, Neuva Palmira, Soriano, Fray
Bentos, Neuva Berlin, Casa Blanca, Pysandu, Neuva Pysandu, Salto
and Santa Rosa. Mercedes is a large city, on the Rio Negro, and is
used as a port of call for ocean-going vessels. There is also Lake
Merim on the borders of Brazil on which run small launches.
Uruguay has comparatively few railroad systems and only 1600
miles of railways. There are many projects for railway development
however and the completion of the mileage planned will rapidly
bring the country to the fore. American capital is now being
interested in this field.
While there are some minerals to be found in the mountainous
sections, still the country will always be a pastoral one. Mica, gold,
precious stones and petroleum are known to exist, yet comparatively
little, if anything, has been done along these lines.
 Of her 45,000,000 acres of land, less than 5 per cent. is devoted to
agriculture, owing to lack of population. There are about 1,700,000
acres of virgin forest lands and over 40,000,000 acres devoted to
grazing cattle and sheep.
Wheat is the chief cereal grown, with corn, barley, oats and linseed
in the order named. Tobacco has been tried with favorable results.
The raising of cattle of all kinds and the maintenance of slaughter-
houses and packing establishments for the purpose of supplying
Europe with meat forms the largest industry. One plant alone at Fray
Bentos—owned by the Liebig Company and where the extract of that
name is made,—kills over 3,000,000 head a year. Very naturally
meat by-products are produced and exported in large quantities.
Much frozen and tinned meat is exported. Some idea of the
enormous size of the cattle industry here may be gained when we are
told that at the present time Uruguay has over 9,000,000 cattle,
30,000,000 sheep, 800,000 hogs, 600,000 goats and 430,000
horses.
One of the leading industries is the shearing of wool, all of which is
exported. The good climatic conditions, in connection with attention
paid to breeding, have resulted in the production of a wool of
superior length and texture and as a consequence wool-buyers from
Europe are attracted to this market. In 1913 the amount exported
reached the enormous sum of $35,875,975.
Despite the fact that Uruguay has no gold coin of its own, it is on a
gold basis and its peso, or dollar, is worth almost four cents more
than ours, or to be exact, $1.034. This is a decidedly unusual state of
affairs for Latin America, and reflects favorably on the financial
condition of the country.
There is much English capital invested here, and to a large extent
trade is in the hands of Englishmen. Many German and Italian
houses are represented and these nationalities are also becoming
interested in local enterprises.
Uruguay exports wool, hides, horn, hair, meats and meat products,
grease tallow, grain and cereals, the total amount expressed in
figures for 1913 being $65,142,000.
In 1913 she imported goods to the value of $50,666,000, the
leading items being foodstuffs, iron, steel, glass, china, wooden
products, oils, chemicals, medicines, stationery, toilet articles,
tobacco, textiles, shoes, hats, and silks.
While commercial travellers are supposed to pay a yearly license of
$100, still this can be waived by making the proper connection with
some local dealer or commission house.
The following cities should be visited:
Population
Montevideo 500,000
Pysandu 35,000
Mercedes 25,000
Salto 25,000
Fray Bentos 15,000
Rivera 10,000
Guadalupe 10,000
Minas 10,000
Florida 10,000
Colonia 10,000
Uruguay has from three to five steamships sailing weekly direct for
Europe, or the United States.
All vessels leaving either Europe or the United States and calling at
Buenos Aires touch at Montevideo the day before arriving at Buenos
Aires, as well as on the return trip. Two night lines of comfortable
steamers connect Buenos Aires and Montevideo, which are about 110
miles apart. Ample transoceanic and coastwise freight service is also
provided.
 V
PARAGUAY

Due to the ambitions of one man—Carlos Antonio Lopez—a

dictator of the worst type, with Napoleonic designs, Paraguay, one of
the finest of South American countries, one with brilliant prospects
and holding the greatest opportunities, is to-day the most backward
and has the smallest population.
Paraguay was discovered by Sebastian Cabot in 1526. Following
him came Juan de Ayolas and Domingo Irala, who in 1536 founded
the city of Asuncion, now the capital of the republic. Up to 1810 it
was a Spanish colony, being latterly governed by the Viceroy from
the home country who resided in Buenos Aires. At that time it was
called the Province of Paraguay. It declared its independence from
the mother country in 1811, the Spanish Governor-General aiding in
the movement. After trying various forms of government it became a
republic in 1844, which form of government still exists, the executive
power being vested in a President and Vice-President, with a
legislative body composed of a Senate and Chamber of Deputies.
It is impossible in even briefly writing of this really wonderful
country to refrain from some reference to the one man, Lopez, whose
desire for power resulted in the almost total annihilation of a people.
His arbitrary rule embroiled his nation in disputes with much of
Europe and the United States, and resulted in a war with Uruguay,
Brazil and Argentine. In addition to this internal strife developed in
which assassins, murderers and executioners played their parts.
When Lopez was finally killed and his power gone, Paraguay’s
population, according to Dawson, the well-known historian, had
decreased from a “1,300,000 to a little over 200,000, only about
29,000 being men and 90,000 children under fifteen years of age.”
There were five women to one man. As a result of this devastation
the country never has revived. Recent revolutions have set it back
still further and whatever of good may come to this benighted land
must be written in the future tense.
Paraguay is almost an inland country, having but one outlet to the
sea in the Parana River. Its 196,000 square miles of territory is
bounded on the north by Brazil and Bolivia; on the west and south by
Argentine, and on the east by Argentine and Brazil. The Paraguay
River runs directly through its territory from south to north dividing
it into two sections, Western Paraguay, or the Chaco, and Eastern
Paraguay. It is well watered with many small streams, while toward
the north and east are mountain chains.
The climate of Paraguay is so equable that the country is
sometimes called the “Sanitarium.” The two seasons are the rainy
and the dry. It never snows in this land and flowers in great variety
and a riot of color bloom constantly. The southern two-thirds are in
the Temperate Zone, the northern one-third in the Tropic Zone.
The population is estimated at 800,000, over 100,000 of which
are wild Indians, the remainder being largely of mixed blood, negro
predominating. There have been some sporadic attempts to
encourage immigration, which have not resulted in any great
movement in this direction, owing to the instability of the
government and the backward condition of the people as well as to
the general isolation of the country.
Travel in Paraguay is most primitive. There are few roads and
most of the commerce is carried by bullock carts on almost
impassable trails or by pack train over narrow paths. But one
railway, having a total length of about 250 miles, ekes out a
homeopathic existence, running from Asuncion, the capital, to Ville
Encarnacion. Many railways must be built to open the country. One
can go by rail from Asuncion to Buenos Aires in two days, the trip
requiring a ferry-age from Posadas to Ville Encarnacion. The Trans-
Paraguayan Railway now in course of construction will do much to
develop the country. Communication with the outside world via
Montevideo or Buenos Aires is maintained by river steamers,
requiring from five days to a week to make the trip to Asuncion,
which is about 1100 miles from the Argentine capital.
 Interior of a gentlemen’s hat
store, Asuncion, Paraguay

A country store in Colombia

From Asuncion it is possible to go into the interior or even to

Brazil, on light-draft steamers, the Guyara Falls, 1300 miles above
the capital, stopping navigation of the Parana River at this point.
The Paraguay River is navigable for vessels of twelve-foot draft to
Asuncion and for smaller vessels 700 miles farther.
Most of the commerce of Paraguay is carried in lighters drawn by
tugs, and these emissaries of trade are to be met on all the rivers and
waterways of this country.
 There are several lakes, navigable for small craft, but of no
importance from a commercial standpoint.
While both the climate and the soil warrant one in stating that
Paraguay is susceptible of high agricultural development, little has
been done in this regard, outside of locally producing the few
vegetables and fruits required for home consumption. Sugar-cane,
tobacco, tropical fruits and cotton would thrive in this country. Each
one of these staples has been successfully raised, the cotton being
something like our own famous Sea Island brand.
A business, small in size, yet of great importance, and restricted to
this locality, is the production of oil of petitgrain, a form of orange
perfume, much in use in European perfume houses as a base for
toilet and flavoring extracts. The essential oil is obtained in the most
primitive manner and is always in great demand.
A lace peculiar to the country, called “nanduti” or spider lace, is
made by native women, and if properly commercialized might
develop into a paying trade.
The growing and curing of “Yerba Mate,” a native tea, used
extensively in Paraguay, Uruguay, Brazil, Argentine and Chile, yields
considerable income, but is never destined to become an article of
great international commerce. The plant or shrub grows wild. The
crop amounts to about 18,000,000 pounds yearly.
Quebracho, a red-colored wood, rich in tannin, is indigenous to the
country. It is used for furniture and railroad ties and the extract
made from it is employed in tanning leather. In one year, over
$4,000,000 of this wood alone was imported to the United States,
much of it being used for paving blocks.
Thousands of acres of cabinet and other commercial woods are to
be found in the forests, but are without value, owing to their isolation
and lack of means of transportation to get them to the markets.
The country has some ore deposits. The principal ones are copper,
mercury, manganese and iron. They cannot be developed on account
of their remote location.
It therefore follows that the chief industries of Paraguay for years
to come will be in the production of raw materials and in the raising
of cattle for which its well-watered plains are admirably adapted. It
has now about 6,000,000 head of cattle and sheep and two
slaughter-houses, killing about 40,000 annually. There are two large
American companies engaged in the cattle industry; also one big
German firm in the same line.
Paraguay has not invited capital and inducements of this nature
need not be expected for some time.
While supposedly on a gold basis, money of this metal exists only
as a fiction. The inconvertible paper peso has a fluctuating value,
being at times as low as two and a half cents U. S. gold, and as high
as five cents U. S. gold, according to the stability of the government
and local commercial conditions.
Credits should be extended with the greatest caution.
In 1913 Paraguay exported $5,462,000 worth of materials, chiefly
fruit to Argentine, as well as yerba mate, timber, hides, dried beef,
quebracho, lace, and tobacco. Most of her exports were taken by the
neighboring republics, and by them reshipped to the markets of the
world. No exports to the United States for 1913 are given, but in 1912
they amounted to only $593. Germany is her largest European
creditor, last year taking over $1,198,686 of her products.
Paraguay in 1913, imported $7,671,551 in textiles, foods, hardware,
fancy and toilet goods, shoes, hats, liquors, drugs, clothes, steel and
iron, of which amount the United States contributed $181,367 as
against Germany’s $989,898 and England’s $963,418.
Commercial travelers are supposed to pay a duty proportionate to
the business they do. As a matter of fact, no effort is made to collect
this tax and the local merchant generally protects the traveler visiting
him from such exploitation.
The following cities should be visited:
Population
Asuncion 60,000
Villa Rica 35,000
Concepcion 25,00
Encarnacion 10,000
Owing to its situation it is necessary in order to reach Paraguay to
go by train or boat from Buenos Aires, or by boat from Montevideo;
the journey from Buenos Aires is the quickest and most comfortable.
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