China

China,[i] officially the People's Republic of China (PRC),[j] is a country in East Asia. With a
population exceeding 1.4 billion, it is the second-most populous country after India,
representing 17.4% of the world population. China spans the equivalent of five time zones and
borders fourteen countries by land[k] across an area of nearly 9.6 million square kilometers
(3,700,000 sq mi), making it the third-largest country by land area.[l] The country is divided
into 33 province-level divisions: 22 provinces,[m] 5 autonomous regions, 4 municipalities, and
2 semi-autonomous special administrative regions. Beijing is the country's capital, while
Shanghai is its most populous city by urban area and largest financial center.

People's Republic of China

中华⼈⺠共和国 (Chinese)
Zhōnghuá Rénmín
Gònghéguó (Pinyin)

Flag Emblem
Anthem: "March of the Volunteers"
:
 0:50

Location of the People's Republic of China

Territory claimed but not controlled
Capital Beijing
39°55′N 116°23′E (https://geohack.toolforg
e.org/geohack.php?pagename=China&para
ms=39_55_N_116_23_E_type:city(21,000,
000)_region:CN-BJ)
Largest city by Chongqing[a]
municipal boundary
Largest city by urban Shanghai
population
Official languages Standard Chinese (de
facto)[2]
Official script Simplified Chinese
(Chinese mainland),
Traditional Chinese
:
 (Hong Kong, Macau)
Ethnic groups (2020) 91.11% Han Chinese
[3] 1.39% Zhuang
0.84% Uyghur
0.81% Hui
0.79% Miao
0.74% Manchu
0.70% Yi
0.68% Tujia
0.50% Tibetan
2.44% Others
Demonym(s) Chinese
Government Unitary Marxist–
Leninist one-party
socialist republic

• CCP General Xi Jinping

Secretary and
President[b]

• Premier Li Qiang
• Congress Chairman Zhao Leji
• CPPCC Chairman[c] Wang Huning
• Vice President Han Zheng
Legislature National People's
:
 Legislature National People's
Congress[d]
Formation

• First pre-imperial c. 2070 BCE

dynasty
• First imperial 221 BCE
dynasty
• Establishment of the 1 January 1912
Republic of China
• Proclamation of the 1 October 1949
People's Republic

Area
• Total 9,596,961 km2
(3,705,407 sq mi)[e][7]
(3rd/4th)
• Water (%) 2.8[4]
Population
• 2024 estimate 1,408,280,000[f][8]
(2nd)
• Density 147/km2 (380.7/sq mi)
(83rd)
:
 GDP (PPP) 2025 estimate
• Total $40.716 trillion[g][9]
(1st)
• Per capita $28,978[9] (72nd)
GDP (nominal) 2025 estimate
• Total $19.232 trillion[9]
(2nd)
• Per capita $13,687[9] (69th)
Gini (2021) 35.7[10]
medium inequality
HDI (2023) 0.797[11]
high (78th)
Currency Renminbi (元/¥)[h]
(CNY)
Time zone UTC+8 (CST)
Calling code +86 (mainland)
+852 (Hong Kong)
+853 (Macau)
ISO 3166 code CN
Internet TLD .cn · .中国 · .中國
(mainland)
:
 .hk · .⾹港 (Hong Kong)
.mo · .澳⻔ · .澳⾨
(Macau)

Considered one of six cradles of civilization, China saw the first human inhabitants in the
region arriving during the Paleolithic. By the late 2nd millennium BCE, the earliest dynastic
states had emerged in the Yellow River basin. The 8th–3rd centuries BCE saw a breakdown in
the authority of the Zhou dynasty, accompanied by the emergence of administrative and
military techniques, literature, philosophy, and historiography. In 221 BCE, China was unified
under an emperor, ushering in more than two millennia of imperial dynasties including the Qin,
Han, Tang, Yuan, Ming, and Qing. With the invention of gunpowder and paper, the
establishment of the Silk Road, and the building of the Great Wall, Chinese culture flourished
and has heavily influenced both its neighbors and lands further afield. However, China began
to cede parts of the country in the late 19th century to various European powers by a series of
unequal treaties. After decades of Qing China on the decline, the 1911 Revolution overthrew
the Qing dynasty and the monarchy and the Republic of China (ROC) was established the
following year.

The country under the nascent Beiyang government was unstable and ultimately fragmented
during the Warlord Era, which was ended upon the Northern Expedition conducted by the
Kuomintang (KMT) to reunify the country. The Chinese Civil War began in 1927, when KMT
forces purged members of the rival Chinese Communist Party (CCP), who proceeded to
engage in sporadic fighting against the KMT-led Nationalist government. Following the
country's invasion by the Empire of Japan in 1937, the CCP and KMT formed the Second
United Front to fight the Japanese. The Second Sino-Japanese War eventually ended in a
Chinese victory; however, the CCP and the KMT resumed their civil war as soon as the war
ended. In 1949, the resurgent Communists established control over most of the country,
proclaiming the People's Republic of China and forcing the Nationalist government to retreat to
the island of Taiwan. The country was split, with both sides claiming to be the sole legitimate
government of China. Following the implementation of land reforms, further attempts by the
PRC to realize communism failed: the Great Leap Forward was largely responsible for the Great
Chinese Famine that ended with millions of Chinese people having died, and the subsequent
Cultural Revolution was a period of social turmoil and persecution characterized by Maoist
populism. Following the Sino-Soviet split, the Shanghai Communiqué in 1972 would precipitate
the normalization of relations with the United States. Economic reforms that began in 1978
moved the country away from a socialist planned economy towards a market-based economy,
spurring significant economic growth. A movement for increased democracy and liberalization
:
 stalled after the Tiananmen Square protests and massacre in 1989.

China is a unitary communist state led by the CCP that self-designates as a socialist state. It is
one of the five permanent members of the UN Security Council; the UN representative for
China was changed from the ROC to the PRC in 1971. It is a founding member of several
multilateral and regional organizations such as the AIIB, the Silk Road Fund, the New
Development Bank, and the RCEP. It is a member of BRICS, the G20, APEC, the SCO, and the
East Asia Summit. Making up around one-fifth of the world economy, the Chinese economy is
the world's largest by PPP-adjusted GDP and the second-largest by nominal GDP. China is the
second-wealthiest country, albeit ranking poorly in measures of democracy, human rights and
religious freedom. The country has been one of the fastest-growing major economies and is
the world's largest manufacturer and exporter, as well as the second-largest importer. China is
a nuclear-weapon state with the world's largest standing army by military personnel and the
second-largest defense budget. It is a great power, and has been described as an emerging
superpower. China is known for its cuisine and culture and, as a megadiverse country, has 59
UNESCO World Heritage Sites, the second-highest number of any country.

Etymology

China (today's Guangdong), Mangi

(inland of Xanton), and Cataio (inland of
China and Chequan, and including the
capital Cambalu, Xandu, and a marble
bridge) are all shown as separate regions
on this 1570 map by Abraham Ortelius.

The word "China" has been used in English since the 16th century; however, it was not used by
the Chinese themselves during this period. Its origin has been traced through Portuguese,
Malay, and Persian back to the Sanskrit word Cīna, used in ancient India.[14] "China" appears in
Richard Eden's 1555 translation[n] of the 1516 journal of the Portuguese explorer Duarte
Barbosa.[o][14] Barbosa's usage was derived from Persian Chīn (‫)ﺣٮ"ﻦ‬,
$ which in turn derived
:
 from Sanskrit Cīna (चीन).[19] The origin of the Sanskrit word is a matter of debate.[14] Cīna was
first used in early Hindu scripture, including the Mahabharata (3rd century BCE–4th century
CE) and the Laws of Manu (2nd century BCE–2nd century CE).[20] In 1655, Martino Martini
suggested that the word China is derived ultimately from the name of the Qin dynasty (221–
206 BCE).[21][20] Although use in Indian sources precedes this dynasty, this derivation is still
given in various sources.[22] Alternative suggestions include the names for Yelang and the Jing
or Chu state.[20][23]

The official name of the modern state is the "People's Republic of China" (simplified Chinese:
中华⼈⺠共和国; traditional Chinese: 中華⼈⺠共和國; pinyin: Zhōnghuá rénmín gònghéguó). The
shorter form is "China" (中国; 中國; Zhōngguó), from zhōng ('central') and guó ('state'), a term
which developed under the Western Zhou dynasty in reference to its royal demesne.[p][q] It
was used in official documents as an synonym for the state under the Qing.[26] The name
Zhongguo is also translated as 'Middle Kingdom' in English.[27] China is sometimes referred to
as mainland China or "the Mainland" when distinguishing it from the Republic of China or the
PRC's Special Administrative Regions.[28][29][30]

History

Prehistory

10,000-year-old pottery, Xianren Cave

culture (18000–7000 BCE)

Archaeological evidence suggests that early hominids inhabited China 2.25 million years ago.
[31]
The hominid fossils of Peking Man, a Homo erectus who used fire,[32] have been dated to
between 680,000 and 780,000 years ago.[33] The fossilized teeth of Homo sapiens (dated to
125,000–80,000 years ago) have been discovered in Fuyan Cave.[34] Chinese proto-writing
:
 existed in Jiahu around 6600 BCE,[35] at Damaidi around 6000 BCE,[36] Dadiwan from 5800 to
5400 BCE, and Banpo dating from the 5th millennium BCE. Some scholars have suggested
that the Jiahu symbols (7th millennium BCE) constituted the earliest Chinese writing system.
[35]

Early dynastic rule

Yinxu, the ruins of the capital of the late

Shang dynasty (14th century BCE)

According to traditional Chinese historiography, the Xia dynasty was established during the
late 3rd millennium BCE, marking the beginning of the dynastic cycle that was understood to
underpin China's entire political history. In the modern era, the Xia's historicity came under
increasing scrutiny, in part due to the earliest known attestation of the Xia being written
millennia after the date given for their collapse. In 1958, archaeologists discovered sites
belonging to the Erlitou culture that existed during the early Bronze Age; they have since been
characterized as the remains of the historical Xia, but this conception is often rejected.[37][38]
[39]
The Shang dynasty that traditionally succeeded the Xia is the earliest for which there are
both contemporary written records and undisputed archaeological evidence.[40] The Shang
ruled much of the Yellow River valley until the 11th century BCE, with the earliest hard evidence
dated c. 1300 BCE.[41] The oracle bone script, attested from c. 1250 BCE but generally
assumed to be considerably older,[42][43] represents the oldest known form of written Chinese,
[44]
and is the direct ancestor of modern Chinese characters.[45]

The Shang were overthrown by the Zhou, who ruled between the 11th and 5th centuries BCE,
though the centralized authority of Son of Heaven was slowly eroded by fengjian lords. Some
principalities eventually emerged from the weakened Zhou and continually waged war with
each other during the 300-year Spring and Autumn period. By the time of the Warring States
:
 period of the 5th–3rd centuries BCE, there were seven major powerful states left.[46]

Imperial China

Qin and Han

The southward expansion of the Han dynasty

during the 2nd century BCE

The Warring States period ended in 221 BCE after the state of Qin conquered the other six
states, reunited China and established the dominant order of autocracy. King Zheng of Qin
proclaimed himself the Emperor of the Qin dynasty, becoming the first emperor of a unified
China. He enacted Qin's legalist reforms, notably the standardization of Chinese characters,
measurements, road widths, and currency. His dynasty also conquered the Yue tribes in
Guangxi, Guangdong, and Northern Vietnam.[47] The Qin dynasty lasted only fifteen years,
falling soon after the First Emperor's death.[48][49]

Following widespread revolts during which the imperial library was burned,[r] the Han dynasty
emerged to rule China between 206 BCE and 220 CE, creating a cultural identity among its
populace still remembered in the ethnonym of the modern Han Chinese.[48][49] The Han
expanded the empire's territory considerably, with military campaigns reaching Central Asia,
Mongolia, Korea, and Yunnan, and the recovery of Guangdong and northern Vietnam from
Nanyue. Han involvement in Central Asia and Sogdia helped establish the land route of the Silk
Road, replacing the earlier path over the Himalayas to India. Han China gradually became the
largest economy of the ancient world.[51] Despite the Han's initial decentralization and the
official abandonment of the Qin philosophy of Legalism in favor of Confucianism, Qin's legalist
:
 institutions and policies continued to be employed by the Han government and its successors.
[52]

Three Kingdoms, Jin, Northern and

Southern dynasties
After the end of the Han dynasty, a period of strife known as Three Kingdoms followed, at the
end of which Wei was swiftly overthrown by the Jin dynasty. The Jin fell to civil war upon the
ascension of a developmentally disabled emperor; the Five Barbarians then rebelled and ruled
northern China as the Sixteen States. The Xianbei unified them as the Northern Wei, whose
Emperor Xiaowen reversed his predecessors' apartheid policies and enforced a drastic
sinification on his subjects. In the south, the general Liu Yu secured the abdication of the Jin in
favor of the Liu Song. The various successors of these states became known as the Northern
and Southern dynasties, with the two areas finally reunited by the Sui in 581.

Sui, Tang and Song

The Sui restored the Han to power through China, reformed its agriculture, economy and
imperial examination system, constructed the Grand Canal, and patronized Buddhism.
However, they fell quickly when their conscription for public works and a failed war in northern
Korea provoked widespread unrest.[53][54] Under the succeeding Tang and Song dynasties,
Chinese economy, technology, and culture entered a golden age.[55] The Tang dynasty
retained control of the Western Regions and the Silk Road,[56] which brought traders to as far
as Mesopotamia and the Horn of Africa,[57] and made the capital Chang'an a cosmopolitan
urban center. However, it was devastated and weakened by the An Lushan rebellion in the 8th
century.[58] In 907, the Tang disintegrated completely when the local military governors
became ungovernable. The Song dynasty ended the separatist situation in 960, leading to a
balance of power between the Song and the Liao dynasty. The Song was the first government
in world history to issue paper money and the first Chinese polity to establish a permanent
navy which was supported by the developed shipbuilding industry along with the sea trade.[59]

Between the 10th and 11th century CE, the population of China doubled to around 100 million
people, mostly because of the expansion of rice cultivation in central and southern China, and
the production of abundant food surpluses. The Song dynasty also saw a revival of
Confucianism, in response to the growth of Buddhism during the Tang,[60] and a flourishing of
philosophy and the arts, as landscape art and porcelain were brought to new levels of
:
 complexity.[61] However, the military weakness of the Song army was observed by the Jin
dynasty. In 1127, Emperor Emeritus Huizong, Emperor Qinzong of Song and the capital Bianjing
were captured during the Jin–Song wars. The remnants of the Song retreated to southern
China and reestablished the Song at Jiankang.[62]

Yuan, Ming and Qing

China's first emperor, Qin Shi Huang, is famed

for having united the Warring States' walls to
form the Great Wall of China. Most of the
present structure dates to the Ming dynasty.

The Mongol conquest of China began in 1205 with the campaigns against Western Xia by
Genghis Khan,[63] who also invaded Jin territories.[64] In 1271, the Mongol leader Kublai Khan
established the Yuan dynasty, which conquered the last remnant of the Song dynasty in 1279.
Before the Mongol invasion, the population of Song China was 120 million citizens; this was
reduced to 60 million by the time of the census in 1300.[65] A peasant named Zhu Yuanzhang
overthrew the Yuan in 1368 and founded the Ming dynasty as the Hongwu Emperor. Under the
Ming dynasty, China enjoyed another golden age, developing one of the strongest navies in the
world and a rich and prosperous economy amid a flourishing of art and culture. It was during
this period that admiral Zheng He led the Ming treasure voyages throughout the Indian Ocean,
reaching as far as East Africa.[66]

In the early Ming dynasty, China's capital was moved from Nanjing to Beijing. With the budding
of capitalism, philosophers such as Wang Yangming critiqued and expanded Neo-
Confucianism with concepts of individualism and equality of four occupations.[67] The scholar-
official stratum became a supporting force of industry and commerce in the tax boycott
movements, which, together with the famines and defense against Japanese invasions of
Korea (1592–1598) and Later Jin incursions led to an exhausted treasury.[68] In 1644, Beijing
was captured by a coalition of peasant rebel forces led by Li Zicheng. The Chongzhen Emperor
committed suicide when the city fell. The Manchu Qing dynasty, then allied with Ming dynasty
general Wu Sangui, overthrew Li's short-lived Shun dynasty and subsequently seized control
:
 of Beijing, which became the new capital of the Qing dynasty.[69]

The Qing conquest of the Ming and expansion

of the empire

The Qing dynasty, which lasted from 1644 until 1912, was the last imperial dynasty of China.
The Ming-Qing transition (1618–1683) cost 25 million lives, but the Qing appeared to have
restored China's imperial power and inaugurated another flowering of the arts.[70] After the
Southern Ming ended, the further conquest of the Dzungar Khanate added Mongolia, Tibet
and Xinjiang to the empire.[71] Meanwhile, China's population growth resumed and shortly
began to accelerate. It is commonly agreed that pre-modern China's population experienced
two growth spurts, one during the Northern Song period (960–1127), and other during the
Qing period (around 1700–1830).[72] By the High Qing era China was possibly the most
commercialized country in the world, and imperial China experienced a second commercial
revolution by the end of the 18th century.[73] On the other hand, the centralized autocracy was
strengthened in part to suppress anti-Qing sentiment with the policy of valuing agriculture and
restraining commerce, like the Haijin during the early Qing period and ideological control as
represented by the literary inquisition, causing some social and technological stagnation.[74]
[75]

Fall of the Qing dynasty

:
 The Eight-Nation Alliance invaded China
to defeat the anti-foreign Boxers and
their Qing backers. The image shows a
celebration ceremony inside the Chinese
imperial palace, the Forbidden City after
the signing of the Boxer Protocol in 1901.

In the mid-19th century, the Opium Wars with Britain and France forced China to pay
compensation, open treaty ports, allow extraterritoriality for foreign nationals, and cede Hong
Kong to the British[76] under the 1842 Treaty of Nanking, the first of what have been termed
the unequal treaties. The First Sino-Japanese War (1894–1895) resulted in Qing China's loss
of influence in the Korean Peninsula, as well as the cession of Taiwan to Japan.[77] The Qing
dynasty also began experiencing internal unrest in which tens of millions of people died,
especially in the White Lotus Rebellion, the failed Taiping Rebellion that ravaged southern
China in the 1850s and 1860s and the Dungan Revolt (1862–1877) in the northwest. The initial
success of the Self-Strengthening Movement of the 1860s was frustrated by a series of
military defeats in the 1880s and 1890s.[78]

In the 19th century, the great Chinese diaspora began. Losses due to emigration were added
to by conflicts and catastrophes such as the Northern Chinese Famine of 1876–1879, in which
between 9 and 13 million people died.[79] The Guangxu Emperor drafted a reform plan in 1898
to establish a modern constitutional monarchy, but these plans were thwarted by the Empress
Dowager Cixi. The ill-fated anti-foreign Boxer Rebellion of 1899–1901 further weakened the
dynasty. Although Cixi sponsored a program of reforms known as the late Qing reforms, the
Xinhai Revolution of 1911–1912 ended the Qing dynasty and established the Republic of China.
[80]
Puyi, the last Emperor, abdicated in 1912.[81]
:
 Establishment of the Republic and
World War II
On 1 January 1912, the Republic of China was established, and Sun Yat-sen of the Kuomintang
(KMT) was proclaimed provisional president.[82] In March 1912, the presidency was given to
Yuan Shikai, a former Qing general who in 1915 proclaimed himself Emperor of China. In the
face of popular condemnation and opposition from his own Beiyang Army, he was forced to
abdicate and re-establish the republic in 1916.[83] After Yuan Shikai's death in 1916, China was
politically fragmented. Its Beijing-based government was internationally recognized but
virtually powerless; regional warlords controlled most of its territory.[84][85] During this period,
China participated in World War I and saw a far-reaching popular uprising (the May Fourth
Movement).[86]

Chiang Kai-shek and Mao Zedong

toasting together in 1945 following the
end of World War II

In the late 1920s, the Kuomintang under Chiang Kai-shek was able to reunify the country under
its own control with a series of deft military and political maneuverings known collectively as
the Northern Expedition.[87][88] The Kuomintang moved the nation's capital to Nanjing and
implemented "political tutelage", an intermediate stage of political development outlined in
Sun Yat-sen's Three Principles of the People program for transforming China into a modern
democratic state.[89][90] The Kuomintang briefly allied with the Chinese Communist Party
(CCP) during the Northern Expedition, though the alliance broke down in 1927 after Chiang
violently suppressed the CCP and other leftists in Shanghai, marking the beginning of the
Chinese Civil War.[91] The CCP declared areas of the country as the Chinese Soviet Republic
(Jiangxi Soviet) in November 1931 in Ruijin, Jiangxi. The Jiangxi Soviet was wiped out by the
KMT armies in 1934, leading the CCP to initiate the Long March and relocate to Yan'an in
Shaanxi. It would be the base of the communists before major combat in the Chinese Civil War
ended in 1949.
:
 In 1931, Japan invaded and occupied Manchuria. Japan invaded other parts of China in 1937,
precipitating the Second Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945), a theater of World War II. The war
forced an uneasy alliance between the Kuomintang and the CCP. Japanese forces committed
numerous war atrocities against the civilian population; as many as 20 million Chinese civilians
died.[92] An estimated 40,000 to 300,000 Chinese were massacred in Nanjing alone during the
Japanese occupation.[93] China, along with the UK, the United States, and the Soviet Union,
were recognized as the Allied "Big Four" in the Declaration by United Nations.[94][95] Along
with the other three great powers, China was one of the four major Allies of World War II, and
was later considered one of the primary victors in the war.[96][97] After the surrender of Japan
in 1945, Taiwan, along with the Penghu, were handed over to Chinese control; however, the
validity of this handover is controversial.[98]

People's Republic

The founding ceremony of the People's

Republic of China was held at 3:00 pm
on 1 October 1949. The picture above
shows Mao Zedong's announcement of
the founding of the People's Republic of
China in Tiananmen Square.[99]

China emerged victorious but war-ravaged and financially drained. The continued distrust
between the Kuomintang and the Communists led to the resumption of civil war. Constitutional
rule was established in 1947, but because of the ongoing unrest, many provisions of the ROC
constitution were never implemented in mainland China.[98] Afterwards, the CCP took control
of most of mainland China, and the ROC government retreated offshore to Taiwan.

On 1 October 1949, CCP Chairman Mao Zedong formally proclaimed the People's Republic of
China in Tiananmen Square, Beijing.[100] In 1950, the PRC captured Hainan from the ROC[101]
:
 and annexed Tibet.[102] However, remaining Kuomintang forces continued to wage an
insurgency in western China throughout the 1950s.[103] The CCP consolidated its popularity
among the peasants through the Land Reform Movement, which included the state-tolerated
executions of between 1 and 2 million landlords by peasants and former tenants.[104] Though
the PRC initially allied closely with the Soviet Union, the relations between the two communist
nations gradually deteriorated, leading China to develop an independent industrial system and
its own nuclear weapons.[105]

The Chinese population increased from 550 million in 1950 to 900 million in 1974.[106] The
historical consensus is that the policies of the Mao-era significantly reduced poverty.[107]
However, the Great Leap Forward, an idealistic massive industrialization project, resulted in an
estimated 15 to 55 million deaths between 1959 and 1961, mostly from starvation.[108][109] In
1964, China detonated its first atomic bomb.[110] In 1966, Mao and his allies launched the
Cultural Revolution, sparking a decade of political recrimination and social upheaval that lasted
until Mao's death in 1976. In October 1971, the PRC replaced the ROC in the United Nations,
and took its seat as a permanent member of the Security Council.[111]

Reforms and contemporary history

The 1989 Tiananmen Square protests

was ended by a military-led massacre.

After Mao's death, the Gang of Four were arrested by Hua Guofeng and held responsible for
the Cultural Revolution. The Cultural Revolution was rebuked, with millions rehabilitated. Deng
Xiaoping took power in 1978, and started the reform and opening up, instituting large-scale
political and economic reforms, together with the "Eight Elders", most senior and influential
members of the party. The government loosened its control and the communes were gradually
disbanded.[112] Agricultural collectivization was dismantled and farmlands privatized. While
foreign trade became a major focus, special economic zones (SEZs) were created. Inefficient
:
 state-owned enterprises (SOEs) were restructured and some closed. This marked China's
transition away from planned economy.[113] China adopted its current constitution on 4
December 1982.[114]

In 1989, there were protests such those in Tiananmen Square, and then throughout the entire
nation.[115] Jiang Zemin was elevated to become the CCP general secretary, becoming the
paramount leader. Jiang continued economic reforms, closing many SOEs and trimming down
"iron rice bowl" (life-tenure positions).[116][117][118] China's economy grew sevenfold during this
time.[116] British Hong Kong and Portuguese Macau returned to China in 1997 and 1999,
respectively, as special administrative regions under the principle of one country, two systems.
The country joined the World Trade Organization in 2001.[116]

Belt and Road Initiative and related

projects

At the 16th CCP National Congress in 2002, Hu Jintao succeeded Jiang as the general
secretary.[116] Under Hu, China maintained its high rate of economic growth, overtaking the
United Kingdom, France, Germany and Japan to become the world's second-largest economy.
[119]
However, the growth also severely impacted the country's resources and environment,
[120][121]
and caused major social displacement.[122][123] Xi Jinping succeeded Hu as
paramount leader at the 18th CCP National Congress in 2012. Shortly after his ascension to
power, Xi launched a vast anti-corruption crackdown,[124] that prosecuted more than 2 million
officials by 2022.[125] During his tenure, Xi has consolidated power unseen since the initiation
of economic and political reforms.[126]

Geography
:
 Topographic map of China

China's landscape is vast and diverse, ranging from the Gobi and Taklamakan Deserts in the
arid north to the subtropical forests in the wetter south. The Himalaya, Karakoram, Pamir and
Tian Shan mountain ranges separate China from much of South and Central Asia. The Yangtze
and Yellow Rivers, the third- and sixth-longest in the world, respectively, run from the Tibetan
Plateau to the densely populated eastern seaboard. China's coastline along the Pacific Ocean
is 14,500 km (9,000 mi) long and is bounded by the Bohai, Yellow, East China and South China
seas. China connects through the Kazakh border to the Eurasian Steppe.

The territory of China lies between latitudes 18° and 54° N, and longitudes 73° and 135° E.
The geographical center of China is marked by the Center of the Country Monument at
35°50′40.9″N 103°27′7.5″E (https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=China&pa
rams=35_50_40.9_N_103_27_7.5_E_region:CN-62_type:landmark&title=Geographical+center
+of+China). China's landscapes vary significantly across its vast territory. In the east, along the
shores of the Yellow Sea and the East China Sea, there are extensive and densely populated
alluvial plains, while on the edges of the Inner Mongolian plateau in the north, broad
grasslands predominate. Southern China is dominated by hills and low mountain ranges, while
the central-east hosts the deltas of China's two major rivers, the Yellow River and the Yangtze
River. Other major rivers include the Xi, Mekong, Brahmaputra and Amur. To the west sit major
mountain ranges, most notably the Himalayas. High plateaus feature among the more arid
landscapes of the north, such as the Taklamakan and the Gobi Desert. The world's highest
point, Mount Everest (8,848 m), lies on the Sino-Nepalese border.[127] The country's lowest
point, and the world's third-lowest, is the dried lake bed of Ayding Lake (−154 m) in the Turpan
Depression.[128]

Climate
:
 Köppen-Geiger climate classification map for mainland
China[129]

China's climate is mainly dominated by dry seasons and wet monsoons, which lead to
pronounced temperature differences between winter and summer. In the winter, northern
winds coming from high-latitude areas are cold and dry; in summer, southern winds from
coastal areas at lower latitudes are warm and moist.[130]

A major environmental issue in China is the continued expansion of its deserts, particularly the
Gobi Desert.[131] Although barrier tree lines planted since the 1970s have reduced the
frequency of sandstorms, prolonged drought and poor agricultural practices have resulted in
dust storms plaguing northern China each spring, which then spread to other parts of East
Asia, including Japan and Korea. Water quality, erosion, and pollution control have become
important issues in China's relations with other countries. Melting glaciers in the Himalayas
could potentially lead to water shortages for hundreds of millions of people.[132] According to
academics, in order to limit climate change in China to 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) electricity generation
from coal in China without carbon capture must be phased out by 2045.[133] With current
policies, the GHG emissions of China will probably peak in 2025, and by 2030 they will return
to 2022 levels. However, such pathway still leads to three-degree temperature rise.[134]

Official government statistics about Chinese agricultural productivity are considered

unreliable, due to exaggeration of production at subsidiary government levels.[135][136] Much
of China has a climate very suitable for agriculture and the country has been the world's
largest producer of rice, wheat, tomatoes, eggplant, grapes, watermelon, spinach, and many
other crops.[137] In 2021, 12 percent of global permanent meadows and pastures belonged to
China, as well as 8% of global cropland.[138]

Biodiversity
:
 A giant panda, China's most famous
endangered and endemic species, at the
Chengdu Panda Base in Sichuan

China is one of 17 megadiverse countries,[139] lying in two of the world's major biogeographic
realms: the Palearctic and the Indomalayan. By one measure, China has over 34,687 species of
animals and vascular plants, making it the third-most biodiverse country in the world, after
Brazil and Colombia.[140] The country is a party to the Convention on Biological Diversity;[141]
its National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan was received by the convention in 2010.[142]

China is home to at least 551 species of mammals (the third-highest in the world),[143] 1,221
species of birds (eighth),[144] 424 species of reptiles (seventh)[145] and 333 species of
amphibians (seventh).[146] Wildlife in China shares habitat with, and bears acute pressure
from, one of the world's largest population of humans. At least 840 animal species are
threatened, vulnerable or in danger of local extinction, due mainly to human activity such as
habitat destruction, pollution and poaching for food, fur and traditional Chinese medicine.[147]
Endangered wildlife is protected by law, and as of 2005, the country has over 2,349 nature
reserves, covering a total area of 149.95 million hectares, 15 percent of China's total land area.
[148]
Most wild animals have been eliminated from the core agricultural regions of east and
central China, but they have fared better in the mountainous south and west.[149][150] The Baiji
was confirmed extinct on 12 December 2006.[151]

China has over 32,000 species of vascular plants,[152] and is home to a variety of forest types.
Cold coniferous forests predominate in the north of the country, supporting animal species
such as moose and Asian black bear, along with over 120 bird species.[153] The understory of
moist conifer forests may contain thickets of bamboo. In higher montane stands of juniper and
yew, the bamboo is replaced by rhododendrons. Subtropical forests, which are predominate in
central and southern China, support a high density of plant species including numerous rare
endemics. Tropical and seasonal rainforests, though confined to Yunnan and Hainan, contain a
quarter of all the animal and plant species found in China.[153] China has over 10,000 recorded
species of fungi.[154]
:
 Environment

The Three Gorges Dam is the largest

hydroelectric dam in the world.

In the early 2000s, China has suffered from environmental deterioration and pollution due to
its rapid pace of industrialization.[155][156] Regulations such as the 1979 Environmental
Protection Law are fairly stringent, though they are poorly enforced, frequently disregarded in
favor of rapid economic development.[157] China has the second-highest death toll because of
air pollution, after India, with approximately 1 million deaths.[158][159] Although China ranks as
the highest CO2 emitting country,[160] it only emits 8 tons of CO2 per capita, significantly lower
than developed countries such as the United States (16.1), Australia (16.8) and South Korea
(13.6).[161] Greenhouse gas emissions by China are the world's largest.[161] The country has
significant water pollution problems; only 89.4% of China's national surface water was graded
suitable for human consumption by the Ministry of Ecology and Environment in 2023.[162]

China has prioritized clamping down on pollution, bringing a significant decrease in air
pollution in the 2010s.[163] In 2020, the Chinese government announced its aims for the
country to reach its peak emissions levels before 2030, and achieve carbon neutrality by 2060
in line with the Paris Agreement,[164] which, according to Climate Action Tracker, would lower
the expected rise in global temperature by 0.2–0.3 degrees – "the biggest single reduction
ever estimated by the Climate Action Tracker".[164] According to China's government, the
forest coverage of the country grew from 10% of the overall territory in 1949 to 25% in 2024.
[165]

China is the world's leading investor in renewable energy and its commercialization, with
$546 billion invested in 2022;[166] it the world's leading manufacturer of renewable energy
technologies and invests heavily in local-scale renewable energy projects.[167][166][168] Long
heavily relying on non-renewable energy sources such as coal, China's adaptation of
renewable energy has increased significantly in recent years.[169] In 2024, 58.2% of China's
electricity came from coal (largest producer in the world), 13.5% from hydroelectric power
:
 (largest), 9.8% from wind (largest), 8.3% from solar energy (largest), 4.4% from nuclear
energy (second-largest), 3% from natural gas (fifth-largest), and 2.1% from bioenergy
(largest); in total, 38% of China's energy came from clean energy sources.[170] Despite its
emphasis on renewables, China remains deeply connected to global oil markets and next to
India, has been the largest importer of Russian crude oil in 2022.[171][172]

Political geography

Map depicting territorial disputes

between the PRC and neighboring
states. For a larger map, see here.

China is the third-largest country in the world by land area after Russia, and the third- or
fourth-largest country in the world by total area.[s] China's total area is generally stated as
being approximately 9,600,000 km2 (3,700,000 sq mi).[173] Specific area figures range from
9,572,900 km2 (3,696,100 sq mi) according to the Encyclopædia Britannica,[12] to
9,596,961 km2 (3,705,407 sq mi) according to the UN Demographic Yearbook,[5] and The
World Factbook.[4]

China has the longest combined land border in the world, measuring 22,117 km (13,743 mi) and
its coastline covers approximately 14,500 km (9,000 mi) from the mouth of the Yalu River
(Amnok River) to the Gulf of Tonkin.[4] China borders 14 nations and covers the bulk of East
Asia, bordering Vietnam, Laos, and Myanmar in Southeast Asia; India, Bhutan, Nepal,
Pakistan[t] and Afghanistan in South Asia; Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan and Kazakhstan in Central
Asia; and Russia, Mongolia, and North Korea in Inner Asia and Northeast Asia. It is narrowly
separated from Bangladesh and Thailand to the southwest and south, and has several
maritime neighbors such as Japan, Philippines, Malaysia, and Indonesia.[174]
:
 China has resolved its land borders with 12 out of 14 neighboring countries, having pursued
substantial compromises in most of them.[175][176][177] China currently has a disputed land
border with India[178] and Bhutan.[179] China is additionally involved in maritime disputes with
multiple countries over territory in the East and South China Seas, such as the Senkaku Islands
and the entirety of South China Sea Islands.[180][181]

Government and politics

The Great Hall of the People

where the National People's Congress
convenes

The Zhongnanhai, headquarters of the

Chinese government and Chinese
Communist Party

The People's Republic of China is a one-party state governed by the Chinese Communist Party
(CCP). The CCP describes itself as guided by socialism with Chinese characteristics, which is
Marxism adapted to Chinese circumstances.[182] The Chinese constitution states that the PRC
"is a socialist state governed by a people's democratic dictatorship that is led by the working
class and based on an alliance of workers and peasants"; that the state institutions "shall
practice the principle of democratic centralism";[183] and that "the defining feature of
socialism with Chinese characteristics is the leadership of the Chinese Communist Party."[184]
:
 The PRC officially characterizes itself as a democracy—more specifically, a whole-process
people's democracy.[185] However, the country is commonly described as an authoritarian
one-party state and a dictatorship,[186][187] with some of the world's heaviest restrictions in
many civil areas, most notably against freedom of the press, freedom of assembly, free
formation of social organizations, freedom of religion and free access to the Internet.[188]
China has consistently been ranked amongst the lowest as an "authoritarian regime" by the
Economist Intelligence Unit's Democracy Index, ranking at 145th out of 167 countries in 2024.
[189]
Other sources suggest that terming China as "authoritarian" does not sufficiently account
for the multiple consultation mechanisms that exist in the Chinese governmental system.[190]

Chinese Communist Party

The Chinese Communist Party is the

founding and governing political party of
the People's Republic of China.

According to the CCP constitution, its highest body is the National Congress held every five
years.[191] The National Congress elects the Central Committee, who then elects the party's
Politburo, Politburo Standing Committee and the general secretary (party leader), the top
leadership of the country.[191] The general secretary holds ultimate power and authority over
party and state and serves as the informal paramount leader.[192] The current general
secretary is Xi Jinping, who took office on 15 November 2012.[193] At the local level, the
secretary of the CCP committee of a subdivision outranks the local government level; CCP
committee secretary of a provincial division outranks the governor while the CCP committee
secretary of a city outranks the mayor.[194]
:
 Government

Xi Jinping Li Qiang
CCP General Secretary Premier
and President

Zhao Leji Wang Huning

Congress Chairman CPPCC Chairman

The government in China is under the sole control of the CCP.[195] The CCP controls
appointments in government bodies, with most senior government officials being CCP
members.[195]

The National People's Congress (NPC), with nearly 3,000-members, as the highest organ of
state power holds the unified powers of the state,[183] though observers often describe it as a
"rubber stamp" body.[196] The NPC meets annually, while the NPC Standing Committee,
around 150 members elected from NPC delegates, meets every couple of months.[196]
Elections are indirect and not pluralistic, with nominations at all levels being controlled by the
CCP.[185] The NPC is dominated by the CCP, with another eight minor parties having nominal
representation under the condition of upholding CCP leadership.[197]

The NPC elects the president. The presidency is the ceremonial state representative, not the
:
 constitutional head of state. The incumbent president is Xi Jinping, who is also the general
secretary of the CCP and the chairman of the Central Military Commission, making him China's
paramount leader and supreme commander of the Armed Forces. The premier is the head of
government, with Li Qiang being the incumbent. The premier is officially nominated by the
president and then elected by the NPC, and has generally been either the second- or third-
ranking member of the Politburo Standing Committee (PSC). The premier presides over the
State Council, China's cabinet, composed of four vice premiers, state councillors, and the
heads of ministries and commissions.[183] The Chinese People's Political Consultative
Conference (CPPCC) is a political advisory body that is critical in China's "united front"
system, which aims to gather non-CCP voices to support the CCP. Similar to the people's
congresses, CPPCCs have subdivisions; the National Committee of the CPPCC is chaired by
Wang Huning, the fourth-ranking member of the PSC.[198]

The governance of China is characterized by a high degree of political centralization but

significant economic decentralization.[199]: 7 Policy instruments or processes are often tested
locally before being applied more widely, resulting in a policy that involves experimentation and
feedback.[200]: 14 Generally, central government leadership refrains from drafting specific
policies, instead using the informal networks and site visits to affirm or suggest changes to the
direction of local policy experiments or pilot programs.[201]: 71 The typical approach is that
central government leadership begins drafting formal policies, law, or regulations after policy
has been developed at local levels.[201]: 71

Administrative divisions
The PRC is constitutionally a unitary state divided into 23 provinces,[u] five autonomous
regions (each with a designated minority group), four direct-administered municipalities—
collectively referred to as "mainland China"—as well as the special administrative regions
(SARs) of Hong Kong and Macau.[202] The PRC regards the island of Taiwan as its Taiwan
Province, Kinmen and Matsu as a part of Fujian Province, and islands the ROC controls in the
South China Sea as a part of Hainan Province and Guangdong Province, even though all these
territories are governed by the Republic of China (ROC).[203][30] Geographically, all 31
provincial divisions of mainland China can be grouped into six regions: North China, East
China, Southwestern China, South Central China, Northeast China, and Northwestern China.
[204]
:
 List of administrative divisions in the PRC

Anhui (安徽省)
Fujian (福建省)
Gansu (⽢肃省)
Guangdong (⼴东省)
Guizhou (贵州省)
Hainan (海南省)
Hebei (河北省)
Heilongjiang (⿊⻰江省)
Henan (河南省)
Hubei (湖北省)
Hunan (湖南省)
Provinces (省)
Jiangsu (江苏省)
Jiangxi (江⻄省)
Jilin (吉林省)
:
 Jilin (吉林省)
Liaoning (辽宁省)
Qinghai (⻘海省)
Shaanxi (陕⻄省)
Shandong (⼭东省)
Shanxi (⼭⻄省)
Sichuan (四川省)
Yunnan (云南省)
Zhejiang (浙江省)

Claimed Province Taiwan (台湾省), governed by the Republic of China

Guangxi (⼴⻄壮族⾃治区)
Inner Mongolia / Nei Menggu (内蒙古⾃治区)
Autonomous
Ningxia (宁夏回族⾃治区)
regions (⾃治区)
Tibet / Xizang (⻄藏⾃治区)
Xinjiang (新疆维吾尔⾃治区)

Beijing (北京市)
Municipalities Chongqing (重庆市)
(直辖市) Shanghai (上海市)
Tianjin (天津市)

Special
administrative Hong Kong / Xianggang (⾹港特别⾏政区)
regions Macau / Aomen (澳⻔特别⾏政区)
(特别⾏政区)

Foreign relations

Diplomatic relations of China

:
 The PRC has diplomatic relations with 179 United Nations member-states and maintains
embassies in 174. As of 2024, China has one of the largest diplomatic networks of any country
in the world.[205] In 1971, the PRC replaced the ROC as the sole representative of China in the
United Nations and as one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security
Council.[206] It is a member of intergovernmental organizations including the G20,[207] the
SCO,[208] the BRICS,[209] the East Asia Summit,[210] and the APEC.[211] China is also a former
member and leader of the Non-Aligned Movement and still considers itself an advocate for
developing countries.[212]

The PRC officially maintains the one China principle: the view that there is only one sovereign
state with the name "China"—represented by the PRC—and that Taiwan is part of that China.
[213]
The unique status of Taiwan has led to countries formally recognizing the PRC to maintain
unique "one China policies" that differ from each other; some countries explicitly recognize the
PRC's claim over Taiwan, while others, including the U.S. and Japan, only acknowledge the
claim.[213] Chinese officials have protested on numerous occasions when foreign countries
have made diplomatic overtures to Taiwan,[214] especially in the matter of armament sales.[215]
Most countries have switched recognition from the ROC to the PRC since the latter replaced
the former in the UN in 1971.[216]

Chinese President Xi Jinping at the 16th

BRICS summit in Kazan, Russia, 23
October 2024

Much of current Chinese foreign policy is reportedly based on Premier Zhou Enlai's Five
Principles of Peaceful Coexistence, as well as by the concept of "harmony without uniformity",
which encourages diplomatic relations between states despite ideological differences.[217]
This policy may have led China to support or maintain close ties with states that are regarded
as dangerous and repressive by Western nations, such as Sudan,[218] North Korea and Iran.
[219]
China's close relationship with Myanmar has involved support for its ruling governments
as well as for its ethnic rebel groups,[220] including the Arakan Army.[221] China has a close
political, economic and military relationship with Russia,[222] and the two states often vote in
unison in the UN Security Council.[223][224] China provided Russia with economic and
diplomatic support during the Russian invasion of Ukraine.[225][226] China's relationship with
the United States is complex, and includes deep trade ties but significant political differences.
[227]
:
 Since the early 2000s, China has followed a policy of engaging with African nations for trade
and bilateral co-operation.[228][229][230] It maintains extensive and highly diversified trade links
with the European Union, and became its largest trading partner for goods.[231] China is
increasing its influence in Central Asia[232] and South Pacific.[233] The country has strong
trade ties with ASEAN countries[234] and major South American economies,[235] and is the
largest trading partner of Brazil, Chile, Peru, Uruguay, Argentina, and several others.[236]

In 2013, China initiated the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI), a large global infrastructure building
initiative with funding on the order of $50–100 billion per year.[237] BRI could be one of the
largest development plans in modern history.[238] It expanded significantly over the next six
years and, as of April 2020, included 138 countries and 30 international organizations. In
addition to intensifying foreign policy relations, the focus is particularly on building efficient
transport routes, especially the maritime Silk Road with its connections to East Africa and
Europe. However many loans made under the program are unsustainable and China has faced
a number of calls for debt relief from debtor nations.[239][240]

Military

Chengdu J-20 5th generation stealth

fighter

The People's Liberation Army (PLA) is considered one of the world's most powerful militaries
and has rapidly modernized in the recent decades.[241] Since 2024, it consists of four services:
the Ground Force (PLAGF), the Navy (PLAN), the Air Force (PLAAF) and the Rocket Force
(PLARF). It also has four independent arms: the Aerospace Force, the Cyberspace Force, the
Information Support Force, and the Joint Logistics Support Force, the first three of which were
split from the disbanded Strategic Support Force (PLASSF).[242] Its nearly 2.2 million active
duty personnel is the largest in the world. The PLA holds the world's third-largest stockpile of
nuclear weapons,[243][244] and the world's second-largest navy by tonnage.[245] China's
:
 official military budget for 2024 totalled US$229 billion (1.67 trillion Yuan), the second-largest
in the world, though SIPRI estimates that its real expenditure that year was US$314 billion,
making up 12% of global military spending and accounting for 1.7% of the country's GDP.[246]
According to SIPRI, its military spending from 2012 to 2021 averaged US$215 billion per year
or 1.7 per cent of GDP, behind only the United States at US$734 billion per year or 3.6 per cent
of GDP.[247] The PLA is commanded by the Central Military Commission (CMC) of the party
and the state; though officially two separate organizations, the two CMCs have identical
membership except during leadership transition periods and effectively function as one
organization. The chairman of the CMC is the commander-in-chief of the PLA.[248]

Sociopolitical issues and human

rights
The situation of human rights in China has attracted significant criticism from foreign
governments, foreign press agencies, and non-governmental organizations, alleging
widespread civil rights violations such as detention without trial, forced confessions, torture,
restrictions of fundamental rights, and excessive use of the death penalty.[188][249] Since its
inception, Freedom House has ranked China as "not free" in its Freedom in the World survey,
[188]
while Amnesty International has documented significant human rights abuses.[249] The
Chinese constitution states that the "fundamental rights" of citizens include freedom of
speech, freedom of the press, the right to a fair trial, freedom of religion, universal suffrage,
and property rights. However, in practice, these provisions do not afford significant protection
against criminal prosecution by the state.[250][251] China has limited protections regarding
LGBT rights.[252]
:
 In Xinjiang, China has been accused of
committing genocide against Uyghurs
and detaining more than one million
Uyghurs and other ethnic minorities in
camps.[253]

Although some criticisms of government policies and the ruling CCP are tolerated, censorship
of political speech and information are amongst the harshest in the world and routinely used to
prevent collective action.[254] China has the most comprehensive and sophisticated Internet
censorship regime in the world called the Great Firewall, with numerous websites being
blocked.[255] The government suppresses popular protests and demonstrations that it
considers a potential threat to "social stability".[256] China additionally uses a massive
surveillance network of cameras, facial recognition software, sensors, and surveillance of
personal technology as a means of social control of persons living in the country.[187]

2019–20 Hong Kong protests

China is regularly accused of large-scale repression and human rights abuses in Tibet and
Xinjiang,[257][258][259] where significant numbers of ethnic minorities reside, including violent
police crackdowns and religious suppression.[260][261] Since 2017, the Chinese government
has been engaged in a harsh crackdown in Xinjiang, with around one million Uyghurs and other
ethnic and religion minorities being detained in internment camps aimed at changing the
political thinking of detainees, their identities, and their religious beliefs.[262] According to
Western reports, political indoctrination, torture, physical and psychological abuse, forced
sterilization, sexual abuse, and forced labor are common in these facilities.[263] According to a
2020 Foreign Policy report, China's treatment of Uyghurs meets the UN definition of genocide,
[264]
while a separate UN Human Rights Office report said they could potentially meet the
:
 definitions for crimes against humanity.[265] The Chinese authorities have also cracked down
on dissent in Hong Kong, especially after the passage of a national security law in 2020.[266]

In 2017 and 2020, the Pew Research Center ranked the severity of Chinese government
restrictions on religion as being among the world's highest, despite ranking religious-related
social hostilities in China as low in severity.[267][268] The Global Slavery Index estimated that in
2016 more than 3.8 million people (0.25% of the population) were living in "conditions of
modern slavery", including victims of human trafficking, forced labor, forced marriage, child
labor, and state-imposed forced labor. The state-imposed re-education through labor (laojiao)
system was formally abolished in 2013, but it is not clear to what extent its practices have
stopped.[269] The much larger reform through labor (laogai) system includes labor prison
factories, detention centers, and re-education camps; the Laogai Research Foundation has
estimated in June 2008 that there were nearly 1,422 of these facilities, though it cautioned that
this number was likely an underestimate.[270]

Public views of government

Political concerns in China include the growing gap between rich and poor and government
corruption.[271] Nonetheless, international surveys show the Chinese public have a high level of
satisfaction with their government.[199]: 137 These views are generally attributed to the material
comforts and security available to large segments of the Chinese populace as well as the
government's attentiveness and responsiveness.[199] : 136 According to the World Values
Survey (2022), 91% of Chinese respondents have significant confidence in their government.
[199]: 13
A Harvard University survey published in July 2020 found that citizen satisfaction with
the government had increased since 2003, also rating China's government as more effective
and capable than ever in the survey's history.[272]

Economy
China has the world's second-largest economy in terms of nominal GDP,[273] and the world's
largest in terms of purchasing power parity (PPP).[274] As of 2022, China accounts for around
18% of the global economy by nominal GDP.[275] China is one of the world's fastest-growing
major economies,[276] with its economic growth having been almost consistently above 6
:
 percent since the introduction of the reform and opening up policy in 1978.[277] According to
the World Bank, China's GDP grew from $150 billion in 1978 to $17.96 trillion by 2022.[278] It
ranks 64th by nominal GDP per capita, making it an upper-middle income country.[279] Of the
world's 500 largest companies, 135 are headquartered in China.[280] As of at least 2024, China
has the world's second-largest equity markets and futures markets, as well as the third-largest
bond market.[281]: 153

China was one of the world's foremost economic powers throughout the arc of East Asian and
global history. The country had one of the largest economies in the world for most of the past
two millennia,[282] during which it has seen cycles of prosperity and decline.[51][283] Since
economic reforms began in 1978, China has developed into a highly diversified economy and
one of the most consequential players in international trade. Major sectors of competitive
strength include manufacturing, retail, mining, steel, textiles, automobiles, energy generation,
green energy, banking, electronics, telecommunications, real estate, e-commerce, and
tourism. China has three out of the ten largest stock exchanges in the world[284]—Shanghai,
Hong Kong and Shenzhen—that together have a market capitalization of over $15.9 trillion, as
of October 2020.[285] China has three out of the world's ten most competitive financial centers
according to the 2024 Global Financial Centres Index—Shanghai, Hong Kong, and Shenzhen.
[286]

China and other major developing

economies by GDP per capita at
purchasing-power parity, 1990–2013.
The rapid economic growth of China
(blue) is readily apparent.[287]

Modern-day China is often described as an example of state capitalism or party-state

capitalism.[288][289] The state dominates in strategic "pillar" sectors such as energy
production and heavy industries, but private enterprise has expanded enormously, with around
30 million private businesses recorded in 2008.[290][291][292] According to official statistics,
privately owned companies constitute more than 60% of China's GDP.[293]

China has been the world's largest manufacturing nation since 2010, after overtaking the U.S.,
which had been the largest for the previous hundred years.[294][295] China has also been the
second-largest in high-tech manufacturing country since 2012, according to US National
Science Foundation.[296] China is the second-largest retail market after the United States.[297]
:
 China leads the world in e-commerce, accounting for over 37% of the global market share in
2021.[298] The Chinese automotive industry is regarded as one of the most competitive and
innovative in the world.[168] China is the world's leader in electric vehicle consumption and
production, manufacturing and buying half of all the plug-in electric cars (BEV and PHEV) in
the world as of 2022.[299] China is also the leading producer of batteries for electric vehicles
as well as several key raw materials for batteries.[300]

Tourism

The Forbidden City is one of the most

popular tourist attractions in the world

China received 65.7 million international visitors in 2019,[301] and in 2018 was the fourth-most-
visited country in the world.[301] It also experiences an enormous volume of domestic tourism;
Chinese tourists made an estimated 6 billion travels within the country in 2019.[302] China
hosts the world's second-largest number of World Heritage Sites (60) after Italy, and is one of
the most popular tourist destinations (first in the Asia-Pacific).

Wealth
:
 Skyline of Lujiazui in Shanghai

China accounted for 18.6% of the world's total wealth in 2022, second highest in the world
after the U.S.[303] China brought more people out of extreme poverty than any other country in
history[304][305]—between 1978 and 2018, China reduced extreme poverty by 800 million.
[199]: 23
From 1990 to 2018, the proportion of the Chinese population living with an income of
less than $1.90 per day (2011 PPP) decreased from 66.3% to 0.3%, the share living with an
income of less than $3.20 per day from 90.0% to 2.9%, and the share living with an income of
less than $5.50 per day decreased from 98.3% to 17.0%.[306]

From 1978 to 2018, the average standard of living multiplied by a factor of twenty-six.[307]
Wages in China have grown significantly in the last 40 years—real (inflation-adjusted) wages
grew seven-fold from 1978 to 2007.[308] Per capita incomes have also risen significantly –
when the PRC was founded in 1949, per capita income in China was one-fifth of the world
average; per capita incomes now equal the world average itself.[307] China's development is
highly uneven; its major cities and coastal areas are far more prosperous than its rural and
interior regions.[309] It has a high level of economic inequality,[310] which has increased quickly
since the economic reforms.[311] Income inequality decreased in the 2010s,[312] and China's
Gini coefficient was 0.357 in 2021.[10]

In March 2024, China ranked second in the world, after the U.S., in total number of billionaires
and total number of millionaires, with 473 Chinese billionaires[313] and 6.2 million millionaires.
[303]
In 2019, China overtook the U.S. as the home to the highest number of people who have a
net personal wealth of at least $110,000, according to the global wealth report by Credit
Suisse.[314][315] China had 85 female billionaires as of January 2021, two-thirds of the global
total.[316] China has had the world's largest middle-class population since 2015;[317] the
middle-class grew to 500 million by 2024.[318]
:
 China in the global economy
China has been a member of the WTO since 2001 and is the world's largest trading power.[319]
By 2016, China was the largest trading partner of 124 countries.[320] China became the world's
largest trading nation in 2013 by the sum of imports and exports, as well as the world's largest
commodity importer, accounting for roughly 45% of maritime's dry-bulk market.[321][322]

China's foreign exchange reserves reached US$3.246 trillion as of March 2024, making its
reserves by far the world's largest.[323] In 2022, China was amongst the world's largest
recipient of inward foreign direct investment (FDI), attracting $180 billion, though most of
these were speculated to be from Hong Kong.[324] In 2021, China's foreign exchange
remittances were $US53 billion making it the second-largest recipient of remittances in the
world.[325] China also invests abroad, with a total outward FDI of $147.9 billion in 2023,[326]
and a number of major takeovers of foreign firms by Chinese companies.[327]

Economists have argued that the renminbi is undervalued, due to currency intervention from
the Chinese government, giving China an unfair trade advantage.[328] China has also been
widely criticized for manufacturing large quantities of counterfeit goods.[329][330] The U.S.
government has also alleged that China does not respect intellectual property (IP) rights and
steals IP through espionage operations.[331] In 2023, Harvard University's Economic
Complexity Index ranked complexity of China's exports 16th in the world, up from 24th in 2010.
[332]

The Chinese government has promoted the internationalization of the renminbi in order to
wean itself off its dependence on the U.S. dollar as a result of perceived weaknesses of the
international monetary system.[333] The renminbi is a component of the IMF's special drawing
rights and the world's fourth-most traded currency as of 2023.[334] However, partly due to
capital controls that make the renminbi fall short of being a fully convertible currency, it
remains far behind the Euro, the U.S. Dollar and the Japanese Yen in international trade
volumes.[335]

Science and technology

:
 Historical

Earliest known written formula for

gunpowder, from the Wujing Zongyao of
1044 CE

China was a world leader in science and technology until the Ming dynasty.[336] Ancient and
medieval Chinese discoveries and inventions, such as papermaking, printing, the compass,
and gunpowder (the Four Great Inventions), became widespread across East Asia, the Middle
East and later Europe. Chinese mathematicians were the first to use negative numbers.[337]
[338]
By the 17th century, the Western World surpassed China in scientific and technological
advancement.[339] The causes of this early modern Great Divergence continue to be debated
by scholars.[340]

After repeated military defeats by the European colonial powers and Imperial Japan in the 19th
century, Chinese reformers began promoting modern science and technology as part of the
Self-Strengthening Movement. After the Communists came to power in 1949, efforts were
made to organize science and technology based on the model of the Soviet Union, in which
scientific research was part of central planning.[341] After Mao's death in 1976, science and
technology were promoted as one of the Four Modernizations,[342] and the Soviet-inspired
academic system was gradually reformed.[343]

Modern era
Since the end of the Cultural Revolution, China has made significant investments in scientific
research[344] and is quickly catching up with the U.S. in R&D spending.[345][346] China
officially spent around 2.7% of its GDP on R&D in 2024, totaling to around $496 billion.[347]
According to the World Intellectual Property Indicators, China received more applications than
the U.S. did in 2018 and 2019 and ranked first globally in patents, utility models, trademarks,
industrial designs, and creative goods exports in 2021.[348][349][350] It was ranked 11th in the
:
 Global Innovation Index in 2024, a considerable improvement from its rank of 35th in 2013.[351]
[352][353]
Chinese supercomputers ranked among the fastest in the world.[354][v] Its efforts to
develop the most advanced semiconductors and jet engines have seen delays and setbacks.
[355][356]

China is developing its education system with an emphasis on science, technology,

engineering, and mathematics (STEM).[357] Its academic publication apparatus became the
world's largest publisher of scientific papers in 2016.[358][359][360] In 2022, China overtook the
US in the Nature Index, which measures the share of published articles in leading scientific
journals.[361][362]

Space program

Launch of Shenzhou 13 by a
Long March 2F rocket. China is
one of the only three countries
with independent human
spaceflight capability.

The Chinese space program started in 1958 with some technology transfers from the Soviet
Union. However, it did not launch the nation's first satellite until 1970 with the Dong Fang Hong
I, which made China the fifth country to do so independently.[363]

In 2003, China became the third country in the world to independently send humans into
space with Yang Liwei's spaceflight aboard Shenzhou 5. As of 2023, eighteen Chinese
nationals have journeyed into space, including two women. In 2011, China launched its first
space station testbed, Tiangong-1.[364] In 2013, a Chinese robotic rover Yutu successfully
touched down on the lunar surface as part of the Chang'e 3 mission.[365]
:
 In 2019, China became the first country to land a probe—Chang'e 4—on the far side of the
Moon.[366] In 2020, Chang'e 5 successfully returned Moon samples to the Earth, making China
the third country to do so independently.[367] In 2021, China became the third country to land a
spacecraft on Mars and the second one to deploy a rover (Zhurong) on Mars.[368] China
completed its own modular space station, the Tiangong, in low Earth orbit on 3 November
2022.[369][370][371] On 29 November 2022, China performed its first in-orbit crew handover
aboard the Tiangong.[372][373]

In May 2023, China announced a plan to land humans on the Moon by 2030.[374] To that end,
China has been developing a lunar-capable super-heavy launcher, the Long March 10, a new
crewed spacecraft, and a crewed lunar lander.[375][376] China sent Chang'e 6 on 3 May 2024,
which conducted the first lunar sample return from Apollo Basin on the far side of the Moon.
[377]
This is China's second lunar sample return mission, the first was achieved by Chang'e 5
from the lunar near side 4 years ago.[378] It also carried a Chinese rover called Jinchan to
conduct infrared spectroscopy of lunar surface and imaged Chang'e 6 lander on lunar surface.
[379]

Infrastructure
After a decades-long infrastructural boom,[380] China has produced numerous world-leading
infrastructural projects: it has the largest high-speed rail network,[381] the most supertall
skyscrapers,[382] the largest power plant (the Three Gorges Dam),[383] the most extensive
ultra-high-voltage transmission network and innovation infrastructure,[384][385] and a global
satellite navigation system with the largest number of satellites.[386]

Telecommunications
:
 China Mobile built a 5G station to cover
summit of Mount Everest in 2020

China is the largest telecom market in the world and currently has the largest number of active
cellphones of any country, with over 1.7 billion subscribers, as of February 2023. It has the
largest number of internet and broadband users, with over 1.1 billion Internet users as of
December 2024—equivalent to around 78.6% of its population.[387] By 2018, China had more
than 1 billion 4G users, accounting for 40% of world's total.[388] China is making rapid
advances in 5G—by late 2018, China had started large-scale and commercial 5G trials.[389] As
of December 2023, China had over 810 million 5G users and 3.38 million base stations
installed.[390] China requires a real-name system for Internet services and online platforms.
[391]

China Mobile, China Unicom and China Telecom, are the three large providers of mobile and
internet in China. China Telecom alone served more than 145 million broadband subscribers
and 300 million mobile users; China Unicom had about 300 million subscribers; and China
Mobile, the largest of them all, had 925 million users, as of 2018.[392] Combined, the three
operators had over 3.4 million 4G base-stations in China.[393] Several Chinese
telecommunications companies, most notably Huawei and ZTE, have been accused of spying
for the Chinese military.[394]

China has developed its own satellite navigation system, dubbed BeiDou, which began offering
commercial navigation services across Asia in 2012[395] as well as global services by the end
of 2018.[396] Beidou followed GPS and GLONASS as the third completed global navigation
satellite.[397]

Transport
:
 The Duge Bridge is the highest bridge in
the world.

A Fuxing high-speed train running near

the Beijing CBD

Since the late 1990s, China's national road network has been significantly expanded through
the creation of a network of national highways and expressways. In 2022, China's highways
had reached a total length of 177,000 km (110,000 mi), making it the longest highway system in
the world.[398] China has the world's largest market for automobiles,[399][400] having
surpassed the United States in both auto sales and production. The country is the world's
largest exporter of cars by number as of 2023.[401][402] A side-effect of the rapid growth of
China's road network has been a significant rise in traffic accidents.[403] In urban areas,
bicycles remain a common mode of transport, despite the increasing prevalence of
automobiles – as of 2023, there are approximately 200 million bicycles in China.[404]

China's railways, which are operated by the state-owned China State Railway Group Company,
are among the busiest in the world, handling a quarter of the world's rail traffic volume on only
6 percent of the world's tracks in 2006.[405] As of 2023, the country had 159,000 km
(98,798 mi) of railways, the second-longest network in the world.[406] The railways strain to
meet enormous demand particularly during the Chinese New Year holiday, when the world's
largest annual human migration takes place.[407] China's high-speed rail (HSR) system started
construction in the early 2000s. By the end of 2024, high speed rail in China had reached
48,000 kilometers (29,826 miles) of dedicated lines alone, making it the longest HSR network
in the world.[408] Services on the Beijing–Shanghai, Beijing–Tianjin, and Chengdu–Chongqing
lines reach up to 350 km/h (217 mph), making them the fastest conventional high speed
railway services in the world. With an annual ridership of over 3.3 billion passengers in 2024, it
:
 is the world's busiest.[409] The network includes the Beijing–Guangzhou high-speed railway,
the single longest HSR line in the world, and the Beijing–Shanghai high-speed railway, which
has three of longest railroad bridges in the world.[410] The Shanghai maglev train, which
reaches 431 km/h (268 mph), is the fastest commercial train service in the world.[411] Since
2000, the growth of rapid transit systems in Chinese cities has accelerated.[412] As of
December 2023, 55 Chinese cities have urban mass transit systems in operation.[413] As of
2020, China boasts the five longest metro systems in the world with the networks in Shanghai,
Beijing, Guangzhou, Chengdu and Shenzhen being the largest.

The civil aviation industry in China is mostly state-dominated, with the Chinese government
retaining a majority stake in the majority of Chinese airlines. The top three airlines in China are
Air China, China Southern Airlines, and China Eastern Airlines,[414] which collectively made up
71% of the market in 2018, are all state-owned. Air travel has expanded rapidly in the last
decades, with the number of passengers increasing from 16.6 million in 1990 to 551.2 million in
2017.[415] China had approximately 259 airports in 2024.[416]

China has over 2,000 river and seaports, about 130 of which are open to foreign shipping.[417]
Of the fifty busiest container ports, 18 are located in China, of which the busiest is the Port of
Shanghai, also the busiest port in the world.[418] The country's inland waterways are the
world's sixth-longest, and total 27,700 km (17,212 mi).[419]

Water supply and sanitation

Water supply and sanitation infrastructure in China is facing challenges such as rapid
urbanization, as well as water scarcity, contamination, and pollution.[420] According to the
Joint Monitoring Program for Water Supply and Sanitation, 93% of rural households had
access to basic sanitation in 2022 (up from 77% in 2015).[421] The ongoing South–North Water
Transfer Project intends to abate water shortage in the north.[422]

Demographics
:
 Population density map of the People's
Republic of China (2000)

The 2020 Chinese census recorded the population as approximately 1,411,778,724. About
17.95% were 14 years old or younger, 63.35% were between 15 and 59 years old, and 18.7%
were over 60 years old.[423] Between 2010 and 2020, the average population growth rate was
0.53%.[423]

Given concerns about population growth, China implemented a two-child limit during the
1970s, and, in 1979, began to advocate for an even stricter limit of one child per family.
Beginning in the mid-1980s, however, given the unpopularity of the strict limits, China began
to allow some major exemptions, particularly in rural areas, resulting in what was actually a
"1.5"-child policy from the mid-1980s to 2015; ethnic minorities were also exempt from one-
child limits.[424] The next major loosening of the policy was enacted in December 2013,
allowing families to have two children if one parent is an only child.[425] In 2016, the one-child
policy was replaced in favor of a two-child policy.[426] A three-child policy was announced on
31 May 2021, due to population aging,[426] and in July 2021, all family size limits as well as
penalties for exceeding them were removed.[427] In 2023, the total fertility rate was reported to
be 1.09, ranking among the lowest in the world.[428] In 2023, National Bureau of Statistics
estimated that the population fell 850,000 from 2021 to 2022, the first decline since 1961.[429]

According to one group of scholars, one-child limits had little effect on population growth[430]
or total population size.[431] However, these scholars have been challenged.[432] The policy,
along with traditional preference for boys, may have contributed to an imbalance in the sex
ratio at birth.[433][434] The 2020 census found that males accounted for 51.2% of the total
population.[435] However, China's sex ratio is more balanced than it was in 1953, when males
accounted for 51.8% of the population.[436]
:
 Urbanization

Map of the ten largest cities in China

(2010)

China has urbanized significantly in recent decades. The percent of the country's population
living in urban areas increased from 20% in 1980 to over 67% in 2024.[437][438][439] China has
over 160 cities with a population of over one million,[440] including the 18 megacities as of
2024[441][442] (cities with a population of over 10 million) of Chongqing, Shanghai, Beijing,
Chengdu, Guangzhou, Shenzhen, Tianjin, Xi'an, Suzhou, Zhengzhou, Wuhan, Hangzhou, Linyi,
Shijiazhuang, Dongguan, Qingdao, Changsha and Hefei.[443][444] The total permanent
population of Chongqing, Shanghai, Beijing and Chengdu is above 20 million.[445] Shanghai is
China's most populous urban area[446][447] while Chongqing is its largest city proper, the only
city in China with a permanent population of over 30 million.[448] The figures in the table below
are from the 2020 census, and are only estimates of the urban populations within
administrative city limits; a different ranking exists for total municipal populations. The large
"floating populations" of migrant workers make conducting censuses in urban areas difficult;
[449]
the figures below include only long-term residents.
:
 Largest cities or municipalities in China
China Urban Construction Statistical Yearbook 2020 Urb
Population and Urban Temporary Population [450][n
Rank Name Province Pop. Rank Name
1 Shanghai SH 24,281,400 11 Hong Kong
2 Beijing BJ 19,164,000 12 Zhengzhou
3 Guangzhou GD 13,858,700 13 Nanjing
4 Shenzhen GD 13,438,800 14 Xi'an
5 Tianjin TJ 11,744,400 15 Jinan
6 Chongqing CQ 11,488,000 16 Shenyang
7 Dongguan GD 9,752,500 17 Qingdao
8 Chengdu SC 8,875,600 18 Harbin
9 Wuhan HB 8,652,900 19 Hefei
10 Hangzhou ZJ 8,109,000 20 Changchun

1. Population of Hong Kong as of 2018

estimate[451]
2. The data of Chongqing in the list is the
data of "Metropolitan Developed
:
 Economic Area", which contains two
parts: "City Proper" and "Metropolitan
Area". The "City proper" are consist of
9 districts: Yuzhong, Dadukou,
Jiangbei, Shapingba, Jiulongpo,
Nan'an, Beibei, Yubei, & Banan, has
the urban population of 5,646,300 as
of 2018. And the "Metropolitan Area"
are consist of 12 districts: Fuling,
Changshou, Jiangjin, Hechuan,
Yongchuan, Nanchuan, Qijiang, Dazu,
Bishan, Tongliang, Tongnan, &
Rongchang, has the urban population
of 5,841,700.[452] Total urban
population of all 26 districts of
Chongqing are up to 15,076,600.
:
 Ethnic groups

Ethnolinguistic map of China in 1967.

China legally recognizes 56 distinct ethnic groups, who comprise the Zhonghua minzu. The
largest of these nationalities are the Han Chinese, who constitute more than 91% of the total
population.[423] The Han Chinese – the world's largest single ethnic group[453] – outnumber
other ethnic groups in every place excluding Tibet, Xinjiang,[454] Linxia,[455] and autonomous
prefectures like Xishuangbanna.[456] Ethnic minorities account for less than 10% of the
population of China, according to the 2020 census.[423] Compared with the 2010 population
census, the Han population increased by 60,378,693 persons, or 4.93%, while the population
of the 55 national minorities combined increased by 11,675,179 persons, or 10.26%.[423] The
2020 census recorded a total of 845,697 foreign nationals living in mainland China.[457]

Languages
:
 A sign at a high school in Jianshui,
Yunnan, written in Hani using the Latin
alphabet, Nisu using the Yi script, and
Chinese.

There are as many as 292 living languages in China.[458] The languages most commonly
spoken belong to the Sinitic branch of the Sino-Tibetan language family, which contains
Mandarin (spoken by 80% of the population),[459][460] and other varieties of Chinese
language: Jin, Wu, Min, Hakka, Yue, Xiang, Gan, Hui, Ping and unclassified Tuhua (Shaozhou
Tuhua and Xiangnan Tuhua).[461] Languages of the Tibeto-Burman branch, including Tibetan,
Qiang, Naxi and Yi, are spoken across the Tibetan and Yunnan–Guizhou Plateau. Other ethnic
minority languages in southwestern China include Zhuang, Thai, Dong and Sui of the Tai-Kadai
family, Miao and Yao of the Hmong–Mien family, and Wa of the Austroasiatic family. Across
northeastern and northwestern China, local ethnic groups speak Altaic languages including
Manchu, Mongolian and several Turkic languages: Uyghur, Kazakh, Kyrgyz, Salar and Western
Yugur.[462] Korean is spoken natively along the border with North Korea. Sarikoli, the language
of Tajiks in western Xinjiang, is an Indo-European language.[463] Taiwanese indigenous
peoples, including a small population on the mainland, speak Austronesian languages.[464]

Standard Chinese, a variety based on the Beijing dialect of Mandarin, is the national language
of China, having de facto official status.[2] It is used as a lingua franca between people of
different linguistic backgrounds.[465] In the autonomous regions of China, other languages
may also serve as a lingua franca, such as Uyghur in Xinjiang, where governmental services in
Uyghur are constitutionally guaranteed.[466]

Religion
:
 Geographic distribution of religions in China:
[467][468][469][470]

■ Chinese folk religion (including Confucianism,

Taoism, and groups of Chinese Buddhism)
■ Buddhism tout court
■ Islam
■ Ethnic minorities' indigenous religions
■ Mongolian folk religion
■ Northeast China folk religion influenced by Tungus
and Manchu shamanism; widespread Shanrendao

Freedom of religion is guaranteed by China's constitution, although religious organizations that

lack official approval can be subject to state persecution.[183] The government of the country
is officially atheist, and the Chinese Communist Party requires its members to be atheist.[471]
Religious affairs and issues in the country are overseen by the National Religious Affairs
Administration, under the CCP's United Front Work Department.[472]

Taoist temple on top of Wudang

Mountains in Hubei, China.

Over the millennia, the Chinese civilization has been influenced by various religious
movements. The "three doctrines" of Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism have historically
shaped Chinese culture,[473][474] enriching a theological and spiritual framework of traditional
religion which harks back to the early Shang and Zhou dynasty. Chinese folk religion, which is
framed by the three doctrines and by other traditions,[475] consists in allegiance to the shen,
who can be deities of the surrounding nature or ancestral principles of human groups,
:
 concepts of civility, culture heroes, many of whom feature in Chinese mythology and history.
[476]
Amongst the most popular cults of folk religion are those of the Yellow Emperor,
embodiment of the God of Heaven and one of the two divine patriarchs of the Chinese people,
[477][478]
of Mazu (goddess of the seas),[477] Guandi (god of war and business), Caishen (god
of prosperity and richness), Pangu and many others. In the early decades of the 21st century,
the Chinese government has been engaged in a rehabilitation of folk cults—formally
recognizing them as "folk beliefs" as distinguished from doctrinal religions,[479] and often
reconstructing them into forms of "highly curated" civil religion[480]—as well as in a national
and international promotion of Buddhism.[481] China is home to many of the world's tallest
religious statues, representing either deities of Chinese folk religion or enlightened beings of
Buddhism; the tallest of all is the Spring Temple Buddha in Henan.

Taoism has served as a state religion

several times throughout Chinese
history.

Statistics on religious affiliation in China are difficult to gather due to complex and varying
definitions of religion and the diffusive nature of Chinese religious traditions. Scholars note
that in China there is no clear boundary between the three doctrines and local folk religious
practices.[473] Chinese religions or some of their currents are also definable as non-theistic
and humanistic, since they do not hold that divine creativity is completely transcendent, but
that it is inherent in the world and in particular in the human being.[482] In 2023, according to
surveys done by Pew Research, 93% of respondents were formally unaffiliated with any
religion. However, in terms of practices, 75% visit family graveyards each year, 47% believe in
feng shui, 33% believe in buddha, 26% burn incense to deities each year and 18% believe in
taoist deities. These are not exclusive beliefs and often these will overlap as the respondents
will have multiple beliefs at the same time. For example, of those 33% who believe in buddha,
a significant portion also believe in figures such as Taoist immortals, Jesus Christ, Catholic
God and Allah.[483] Chinese folk religion also comprises a variety of salvationist doctrinal
organized movements which emerged since the Song dynasty.[484] There are also ethnic
minorities in China who maintain their own indigenous religions, while major religions
characteristic of specific ethnic groups include Tibetan Buddhism among Tibetans, Mongols
and Yugurs,[485] and Islam among the Hui, Uyghur, Kazakh,[486] and Kyrgyz peoples, and other
:
 ethnicities in the northern and northwestern regions of the country.

Education

Beijing's Peking University, one of the

top-ranked universities in China[487][488]

Compulsory education in China comprises primary and junior secondary school, which
together last for nine years from the age of 6 and 15.[489] The Gaokao, China's national
university entrance exam, is a prerequisite for entrance into most higher education institutions.
Vocational education is available to students at the secondary and tertiary level.[490] More than
10 million Chinese students graduated from vocational colleges every year.[491] In 2023, about
92.0 percent of students continued their education at a three-year senior secondary school,
while 60.8 percent of secondary school graduates were enrolled in higher education.[492]

China has the largest education system in the world,[493] with about 287 million students and
18.85 million full-time teachers in over 470,300 schools in 2023.[492] Annual education
investment went from less than US$50 billion in 2003 to more than US$817 billion in 2020.
[494][495]
However, there remains an inequality in education spending. In 2010, the annual
education expenditure per secondary school student in Beijing totalled ¥20,023, while in
Guizhou, one of the poorest provinces, it only totalled ¥3,204.[496] China's literacy rate has
grown dramatically, from only 20% in 1949 and 65.5% in 1979,[497] to 97% of the population
over age 15 in 2020.[498]

As of 2024, China has over 3,117 universities, with over 47.6 million students enrolled in
mainland China, giving China the largest higher education system in the world.[499][500] As of
2025, China had the world's highest number of top universities.[501][502][503] Currently, China
trails only the United States and the United Kingdom in terms of representation on lists of the
top 200 universities according to the 2024 Aggregate Ranking of Top Universities, a
:
 composite ranking system of three world-most followed university rankings (ARWU+QS+THE).
[504]
China is home to two of the highest-ranking universities (Tsinghua University and Peking
University) in Asia and emerging economies, according to the Times Higher Education World
University Rankings[505] and the Academic Ranking of World Universities.[506] These
universities are members of the C9 League, an alliance of elite Chinese universities offering
comprehensive and leading education.[507]

Health

Chart showing the rise of China's Human

Development Index from 1970 to 2010

The National Health Commission, together with its counterparts in the local commissions,
oversees the health needs of the population.[508] An emphasis on public health and preventive
medicine has characterized Chinese health policy since the early 1950s. The Communist Party
started the Patriotic Health Campaign, which was aimed at improving sanitation and hygiene,
as well as treating and preventing several diseases. Diseases such as cholera, typhoid and
scarlet fever, which were previously rife in China, were nearly eradicated by the campaign.[509]

After Deng Xiaoping began instituting economic reforms in 1978, the health of the Chinese
public improved rapidly because of better nutrition, although many of the free public health
services provided in the countryside disappeared. Healthcare in China became mostly
privatized, and experienced a significant rise in quality. In 2009, the government began a
three-year large-scale healthcare provision initiative worth US$124 billion.[510] By 2011, the
campaign resulted in 95% of China's population having basic health insurance coverage.[511]
By 2022, China had established itself as a key producer and exporter of pharmaceuticals,
producing around 40 percent of active pharmaceutical ingredients in 2017.[512]
:
 As of 2024, the life expectancy at birth exceeds 79 years.[513] As of 2023, the infant mortality
rate is 5 per thousand.[514] Both have improved significantly since the 1950s.[w] Rates of
stunting, a condition caused by malnutrition, have declined from 33.1% in 1990 to 4.5% in
2024.[517][518] Despite significant improvements in health and the construction of advanced
medical facilities, China has several emerging public health problems, such as respiratory
illnesses caused by widespread air pollution,[519] hundreds of millions of cigarette smokers,
[520]
and an increase in obesity among urban youths.[521][522] In 2010, air pollution caused 1.2
million premature deaths in China.[523] Chinese mental health services are inadequate.[524]
China's large population and densely populated cities have led to serious disease outbreaks,
such as SARS in 2003, although this has since been largely contained.[525] The COVID-19
pandemic was first identified in Wuhan in December 2019;[526][527] pandemic led the
government to enforce strict public health measures intended to completely eradicate the
virus, a goal that was eventually abandoned in December 2022 after protests against the
policy.[528][529]

Culture and society

A moon gate in a Chinese garden

Since ancient times, Chinese culture has been heavily influenced by Confucianism. Chinese
culture, in turn, has heavily influenced East Asia and Southeast Asia.[530] For much of the
country's dynastic era, opportunities for social advancement could be provided by high
performance in the prestigious imperial examinations, which have their origins in the Han
dynasty.[531] The literary emphasis of the exams affected the general perception of cultural
refinement in China, such as the belief that calligraphy, poetry and painting were higher forms
of art than dancing or drama. Chinese culture has long emphasized a sense of deep history
and a largely inward-looking national perspective.[532] Examinations and a culture of merit
remain greatly valued in China today.[533]
:
 Fenghuang County, an ancient town that
harbors many architectural remains of
Ming and Qing styles[534]

Today, the Chinese government has accepted numerous elements of traditional Chinese
culture as being integral to Chinese society. With the rise of Chinese nationalism and the end
of the Cultural Revolution, various forms of traditional Chinese art, literature, music, film,
fashion and architecture have seen a vigorous revival,[535][536] and folk and variety art in
particular have sparked interest nationally and even worldwide.[537] Access to foreign media
remains heavily restricted.[538]

Architecture
Chinese architecture has developed over millennia in China and has remained a vestigial
source of perennial influence on the development of East Asian architecture,[539][540][541]
including in Japan, Korea, and Mongolia.[542] and minor influences on the architecture of
Southeast and South Asia including the countries of Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia, Sri Lanka,
Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, Vietnam and the Philippines.[543][544]

Chinese architecture is characterized by bilateral symmetry, use of enclosed open spaces,

feng shui (e.g. directional hierarchies),[545] a horizontal emphasis, and an allusion to various
cosmological, mythological or in general symbolic elements. Chinese architecture traditionally
classifies structures according to type, ranging from pagodas to palaces.[546][542]
:
 Tiananmen Square, a city square in the
city center of Beijing. Tiananmen is the
entrance gate of the Forbidden City.

Chinese architecture varies widely based on status or affiliation, such as whether the
structures were constructed for emperors, commoners, or for religious purposes. Other
variations in Chinese architecture are shown in vernacular styles associated with different
geographic regions and different ethnic heritages, such as the stilt houses in the south, the
Yaodong buildings in the northwest, the yurt buildings of nomadic people, and the Siheyuan
buildings in the north.[547]

Literature

The stories in Journey to the West are

common themes in Peking opera.

Chinese literature has its roots in the Zhou dynasty's literary tradition.[548] The classical texts
of China encompass a wide range of thoughts and subjects, such as the calendar, military,
astrology, herbology, and geography, as well as many others.[549] Among the most significant
early works are the I Ching and the Shujing, which are part of the Four Books and Five Classics.
These texts were the cornerstone of the Confucian curriculum sponsored by the state
throughout the dynastic periods. Inherited from the Classic of Poetry, classical Chinese poetry
:
 developed to its floruit during the Tang dynasty. Li Bai and Du Fu opened the forking ways for
the poetic circles through romanticism and realism respectively. Chinese historiography began
with the Shiji, the overall scope of the historiographical tradition in China is termed the Twenty-
Four Histories, which set a vast stage for Chinese fictions along with Chinese mythology and
folklore.[550] Pushed by a burgeoning citizen class in the Ming dynasty, Chinese classical
fiction rose to a boom of the historical, town and gods and demons fictions as represented by
the Four Great Classical Novels which include Water Margin, Romance of the Three Kingdoms,
Journey to the West and Dream of the Red Chamber.[551] Along with the wuxia fictions of Jin
Yong and Liang Yusheng,[552] it remains an enduring source of popular culture in the Chinese
sphere of influence.[553]

In the wake of the New Culture Movement after the end of the Qing dynasty, Chinese literature
embarked on a new era with written vernacular Chinese for ordinary citizens. Hu Shih and Lu
Xun were pioneers in modern literature.[554] Various literary genres, such as misty poetry, scar
literature, young adult fiction and the xungen literature, which is influenced by magic realism,
[555]
emerged following the Cultural Revolution. Mo Yan, a xungen literature author, was
awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature in 2012.[556]

Music
Chinese music covers a highly diverse range of music from traditional music to modern music.
Chinese music dates back before the pre-imperial times. Traditional Chinese musical
instruments were traditionally grouped into eight categories known as bayin (⼋⾳). Traditional
Chinese opera is a form of musical theatre in China originating thousands of years and has
regional style forms such as Beijing and Cantonese opera.[557] Chinese pop (C-Pop) includes
mandopop and cantopop. Chinese hip hop and Hong Kong hip hop have become popular.[558]

Fashion
Hanfu is the historical clothing of the Han people in China. The qipao or cheongsam is a
popular Chinese female dress.[559] The hanfu movement has been popular in contemporary
times and seeks to revitalize Hanfu clothing.[560] China Fashion Week is the country's only
:
 national-level fashion festival.[561]

Media
The mass media of China primarily consists of television, newspapers, radio, and magazines.
State media outlets operate under the control of the CCP. The largest media organizations are
the People's Daily, Xinhua News Agency, and the China Media Group consisting of China
Central Television, China National Radio and China Radio International.[562]

Cinema was first introduced to China in 1896 and the first Chinese film, Dingjun Mountain, was
released in 1905.[563] China has had the largest number of movie screens in the world since
2016;[564] China became the largest cinema market in 2020.[565][566] The top three highest-
grossing films in China as of 2025 were Ne Zha 2 (2025), The Battle at Lake Changjin (2021),
and Wolf Warrior 2 (2017).[567]

Cuisine

Map showing major regional cuisines of

China

Chinese cuisine is highly diverse, drawing on several millennia of culinary history and
geographical variety, in which the most influential are known as the "Eight Major Cuisines",
including Sichuan, Cantonese, Jiangsu, Shandong, Fujian, Hunan, Anhui, and Zhejiang
cuisines.[568] Chinese cuisine is known for its breadth of cooking methods and ingredients.
[569]
China's staple food is rice in the northeast and south, and wheat-based breads and
:
 noodles in the north. Bean products such as tofu and soy milk remain a popular source of
protein. Pork is now the most popular meat in China, accounting for about three-fourths of the
country's total meat consumption.[570] There is also the vegetarian Buddhist cuisine and the
pork-free Chinese Islamic cuisine. Chinese cuisine, due to the area's proximity to the ocean
and milder climate, has a wide variety of seafood and vegetables. Offshoots of Chinese food,
such as Hong Kong cuisine and American Chinese cuisine, have emerged in the Chinese
diaspora.

Sports

Go is an abstract strategy board game

for two players, in which the aim is to
surround more territory than the
opponent, and which was invented in
China more than 2,500 years ago.

China has one of the oldest sporting cultures. There is evidence that archery (shèjiàn) was
practiced during the Western Zhou dynasty. Swordplay (jiànshù) and cuju, a sport loosely
related to association football[571] date back to China's early dynasties as well.[572]

Physical fitness is widely emphasized in Chinese culture, with morning exercises such as
qigong and tai chi widely practiced,[573] and commercial gyms and private fitness clubs are
gaining popularity.[574] Basketball is the most popular spectator sport in China.[575] The
Chinese Basketball Association and the American National Basketball Association also have a
huge national following amongst the Chinese populace, with native-born and NBA-bound
Chinese players and well-known national household names such as Yao Ming and Yi Jianlian
being held in high esteem.[576] China's professional football league, known as Chinese Super
:
 League, is the largest football market in East Asia.[577] Other popular sports include martial
arts, table tennis, badminton, swimming and snooker. China is home to a huge number of
cyclists, with an estimated 470 million bicycles as of 2012.[578] China has the world's largest
esports market.[579] Many more traditional sports, such as dragon boat racing, Mongolian-
style wrestling[580][581] and horse racing are also popular.

China has participated in the Olympic Games since 1932, although it has only participated as
the PRC since 1952. China hosted the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing, where its athletes
received 48 gold medals – the highest number of any participating nation that year.[582] China
also won the most medals at the 2012 Summer Paralympics, with 231 overall, including 95
gold.[583][584] In 2011, Shenzhen hosted the 2011 Summer Universiade. China hosted the 2013
East Asian Games in Tianjin and the 2014 Summer Youth Olympics in Nanjing, the first country
to host both regular and Youth Olympics. Beijing and its nearby city Zhangjiakou
collaboratively hosted the 2022 Winter Olympics, making Beijing the first dual Olympic city by
holding both the Summer Olympics and the Winter Olympics.[585][586] China hosted the Asian
Games in 1990 (Beijing), 2010 (Guangzhou), and 2023 (Hangzhou).[587]

See also

China
portal

Outline of China

Notes

a. The size of Chongqing Municipality is

about that of the country of Austria.
University of Washington professor
:
 University of Washington professor
Kam Wing Chan argued that
Chongqing's status is more akin to
that of a province rather than a city.[1]
b. Paramount leader of China, who holds
the titles of:
General Secretary of the Chinese
Communist Party
President of China
Chairman of the Central Military
Commission
c. Chairman of the Chinese People's
Political Consultative Conference
d. While not an upper house of the
legislature, the Chinese People's
Political Consultative Conference
exists as an advisory body. However,
much of the parliamentary functions
:
 much of the parliamentary functions
are held by the Standing Committee of
the National People's Congress when
ordinary congress is not in session.
e. UN figure for mainland China, which
excludes Hong Kong, Macau, and
Taiwan.[5] It also excludes the Trans-
Karakoram Tract (5,180 km2
(2,000 sq mi)), Aksai Chin
(38,000 km2 (15,000 sq mi)) and
other territories in dispute with India.
The total area of China is listed as
9,572,900 km2 (3,696,100 sq mi) by
the Encyclopædia Britannica.[6]
f. Excluding residents of Hong Kong,
Macao, Taiwan and foreigners living in
the 31 provinces, autonomous regions
:
 and municipalities.
g. GDP figures exclude Taiwan, Hong
Kong, and Macau.
h. The Hong Kong dollar is used in Hong
Kong and Macau, while the Macanese
pataca is used in Macau only.
i. Chinese: 中国; pinyin: Zhōngguó
j. Chinese: 中华⼈⺠共和国; pinyin:
Zhōnghuá rénmín gònghéguó
k. China's border with Pakistan is
disputed by India, which claims the
entire Kashmir region as its territory.
China is tied with Russia as having the
most land borders of any country.
l. The total area ranking relative to the
United States depends on the
measurement of the total areas of both
:
 measurement of the total areas of both
countries. See list of countries and
dependencies by area for more
information. The following two primary
sources represent the range of
estimates of China's and the United
States' total areas.
1. The Encyclopædia Britannica
lists China as world's third-
largest country (after Russia
and Canada) with a total area
of 9,572,900 km2,[6] and the
United States as fourth-largest
at 9,525,067 km2.[12]
2. The CIA World Factbook lists
China as the fourth-largest
country (after Russia, Canada
and the United States) with a
:
 and the United States) with a
total area of 9,596,960 km2,[4]
and the United States as the
third-largest at 9,833,517 km2.
[13]

Both sources exclude both Taiwan and

coastal and territorial waters from the
area of China. However, the CIA World
Factbook includes the United States
coastal and territorial waters, while
Encyclopædia Britannica excludes
them.
Notably, the Encyclopædia Britannica
specifies the United States' area
(excluding coastal and territorial
waters) as 9,525,067 km2, which is
less than either source's figure given
for China's area.[12] Therefore, it is
:
 for China's area. Therefore, it is
unclear which country has a larger
area including coastal and territorial
waters.
The United Nations Statistics
Division's figure for the United States
is 9,833,517 km2 (3,796,742 sq mi)
and China is 9,596,961 km2
(3,705,407 sq mi). These closely
match the CIA World Factbook figures
and similarly include coastal and
territorial waters for the United States,
but exclude coastal and territorial
waters for China.
m. Excluding the disputed Taiwan
Province. See § Administrative
divisions.
n. "... Next into this, is found the great
:
 n. "... Next into this, is found the great
China, whose king is thought to be the
greatest prince in the world, and is
named Santoa Raia".[15][16]
o. "... The Very Great Kingdom of China".
[17] (Portuguese: ... O Grande Reino da
China ...).[18]
p. Its earliest extant use is on the ritual
bronze vessel He zun, where it
apparently refers to only the Shang's
immediate demesne conquered by the
Zhou.[24]
q. Its meaning "Zhou's royal demesne" is
attested from the 6th-century BC
Classic of History, which states
"Huangtian bestowed the lands and
the peoples of the central state to the
ancestors" (皇天既付中國⺠越厥疆⼟于
:
 ancestors" (皇天既付中國⺠越厥疆⼟于
先王).[25]
r. Owing to Qin Shi Huang's earlier
policy involving the "burning of books
and burying of scholars", the
destruction of the confiscated copies
at Xianyang was an event similar to the
destructions of the Library of
Alexandria in the west. Even those
texts that did survive had to be
painstakingly reconstructed from
memory, luck, or forgery.[50] The Old
Texts of the Five Classics were said to
have been found hidden in a wall at
the Kong residence in Qufu. Mei Ze's
"rediscovered" edition of the Book of
Documents was only shown to be a
forgery in the Qing dynasty.
:
 forgery in the Qing dynasty.
s. According to the Encyclopædia
Britannica, the total area of the United
States, at 9,522,055 km2
(3,676,486 sq mi), is slightly smaller
than that of China. Meanwhile, the CIA
World Factbook states that China's
total area was greater than that of the
United States until the coastal waters
of the Great Lakes was added to the
United States' total area in 1996. From
1989 through 1996, the total area of
US was listed as 9,372,610 km2
(3,618,780 sq mi) (land area plus
inland water only). The listed total area
changed to 9,629,091 km2
(3,717,813 sq mi) in 1997 (with the
Great Lakes areas and the coastal
:
 Great Lakes areas and the coastal
waters added), to 9,631,418 km2
(3,718,711 sq mi) in 2004, to
9,631,420 km2 (3,718,710 sq mi) in
2006, and to 9,826,630 km2
(3,794,080 sq mi) in 2007 (territorial
waters added).
t. China's border with Pakistan and part
of its border with India falls in the
disputed region of Kashmir. The area
under Pakistani administration is
claimed by India, while the area under
Indian administration is claimed by
Pakistan.
u. The People's Republic of China claims
the islands of Taiwan and Penghu,
which it does not control, as its
disputed 23rd province, i.e. Taiwan
:
 disputed 23rd province, i.e. Taiwan
Province; along with Kinmen and
Matsu Islands as part of Fujian
Province. These are controlled by the
Taipei-based Republic of China (ROC).
See § Administrative divisions for more
details.
v. Some of the chips used were not
domestically developed until Sunway
TaihuLight in 2016. China has not
submitted newer entries to TOP500
amid tensions with the United States.
w. The national life expectancy at birth
rose from about 31 years in 1949 to 75
years in 2008,[515] and infant mortality
decreased from 300 per thousand in
the 1950s to around 33 per thousand
in 2001.[516]
:
 in 2001.[516]

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