POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS

Political institutions means the institute who rules the country or city.
There are many institutes who are working to rule the country effectively.
These institutes are controlled from a central institute called government.
Government
Definition
Government is an agency or machinery which formulate and impose laws for
the state called government.
OR
Agency through which the will of the state is formulated and expressed called
government.
Points to be noted
State is nothing if there is no government to make it real because without
government a state is a mere assemblage of people
Government is considered the head of the state.
State plans and act through government. It makes policy for the state and
organize people
Government has four branches or bodies from which it operate the whole
state or country.
A) Parliament or legislature
MEANING
Legislature means the place for law making
Legg ___________ law
Lature__________ the place
A synonym word to it as parliament which is derived from French word
(parley) which means to discuss/deliberation.
Definition
A deliberative assembly with the authority to make laws for a political entity
such as country or state through deliberation is called legislature.
OR
A body that is primarily concerned with law making for a political entity such as
country or city called legislature.
Function
In some countries like china, Afghanistan and Saudi Arabia actually legislature
doesn’t even exist. In country where legislature exist it perform various
functions which may vary from country to the country in some country it was
concentrated only with law making and in some it have much more functions
to perform.
Law making
The basic function of the legislature is to make laws, amend or either
abolishing laws…
It was basically for meeting with the needs.
Financial
Legislature also plays a vital role in finance and executive cannot collect taxes
to that time when it was not approved from the legislature. Because legislature
was the representative of people and they will just think about their welfare.
Impeachment of the president
Countries like United States of America and United Kingdom parliament can
impeach their president by a legalize way.
Administrative function
It also have a role in administrative function and actually it is a check on
administration when administration fail in his work thus the legislature present
lack of confidence and thus administrative have to resign when passed by the
majority members.

Rectify treaties
When president make a treaty with foreign countries that will be either
accepted when passed by the legislature but only in flexible legislature like
British….
Organization of the legislature
Regarding legislature there is differences in opinion some believe on single
house while some are in the favor of two houses.
Unicameral legislature
Meaning
Uni means one while cameral means house
Definition
The one house of legislator who makes legislature is called unicameral
legislature.
Merits
Less expensive
Speedy in action
Less time, energy and money consumer of nation (Laski is of opinion that a
single house can answer best to the need of this modern world.
Unicameralism are more democratic because we know that the will of the
state is one so there should be one house to express it which is democracy
(Benjamin franklin compared a bicameralism to a cart with a horse on two
sides both pulling in opposite direction).
Easy in organization
Demerits
No equal representation
Power goes in one hand (a poet said “che da cha zor wee da hagha shor
wee”).
Aggressive policies
The members have to do more works because member are less in number
No proper presentation for minorities and national interest
Bicameralism
Meaning
The word bi means two while cameral means houses
Definition
Bicameralism refers to the two houses for legislature.
Merits
Prevent hasty legislature means both houses have to review on the legislature
before passing.
Proper presentation of national interest and minorities rights.
Check on legislature despotism
Reduce pressure on work
Experience and able person came to assembly through election
Essential in federal form of government
Barometer of public opinion
Demerits
Less democratic
More time, energy, and money consumer of nation
Can lead to favoritism, corruption and mischievous.
Hard in organization means cumbersome and complex
Conclusion
Many writers and philosopher such as Leacock and w. e. h lecki was in favor
of bicameralism while some are in support of unicameralism.

Executive
Meaning
A body which execute is called executive.
Executive is taken in two senses
1) Executive include all the official of the state from highest to the lowest or
from president to a police man writ large or clerk.
2) From the head of the state such as prime minister in federal form of
government and his minister of the cabinet.
Definition
The branch of government that is primarily concerned with the execution and
enforcement of laws is called executive.
OR
The branch of government which is much more close with legislature and are
interconnected in the performance of governmental function such as policy
making, law making and enforcement.

Function
Law enforcement
To provide environment for rule of law
Specific appointment
Judiciary
Welfare of the people
Protection
Peace inside and outside country
Judiciary
Definition
The body that is primarily concerned with the law interpretation, defendant and
applied and protection of basic human rights are called judiciary.
Types
1) Civil judiciary
2) Crime judiciary
3) Army judiciary
4) Special judiciary
Function
Check and balance on both legislature and executive body
Protection of human rights
To maintain rule of law
Provide justice
Solve issues
Disputes
Media
Origin
It was originated in 20th century as the fourth pillar of the state because it
highlight and coverage the fact which is the work of executive and judiciary
thus counted as the fourth pillar of the state.
Definition
The fourth pillar of the state which fill the gap between government and public
is called media.
Media display facts and policies made by government
A source of informing citizen or public
It can bring both positive and negative effects.
Merits
Watchdog on institutions
It provide a check on activities of institutions such as legislature, executive
and judiciary.
Transparency and accountability
Provide access to information for everyone and held government accountable
Economic stability
Media offers various online platforms through which government can create
more jobs for the people that help to make economy
Policy making
This can help a government to make policy according to the wishes of the
people by highlighting their wishes
Offer platforms for candidates and people to express their opinions
Demerits
Can spread misinformation
Can influence public opinion
Government can censor it for their personal gain
Censorship or control over media of the influential person.

Theory of separation of power

Introduction
Theory of separation of power was expounded by the celebrated French
thinker montisque in 18th century. He present this theory as a safeguard for
the individual liberty. He lived in a time when his country was ruled by
absolutist and tyrannical kings and he was not in the favor of tyrannical
government. Once he visited England and there he saw that English man
have an individual liberty due to separation of power of the department without
any tyrannical government. Thus after the completion of his visit he expound
this theory in his famous book (spirit of law) in 1748.
Montisque theory
Statement
“In every government there are three sorts of power: legislative, executive and
judicial. The liberty of the individual required that neither all these power nor
any two of them should be placed in the hands of one man or one body of
men”.
Result when placed in the hand of one man or body of men:
When legislative and executive branch was given in the hand of one person
apprehension may arise because the king who is also the law maker, might
make and enforce the laws in a tyrannical manner
When legislator and judicial department were given in the hand of one person
there should be no life and liberty subject will expose to an orbitary control
Judicial and executive branch may cause oppression and violence when put in
one hand.
Thus he was given a title of “the champion of individual liberty”.
Appreciation of montisque theory
Based on liberty of the individual
To avoid oppression and violence
Check of one department over another when cross the power given
They should perform their own function thus country will run smoothly
Governments
Monarchy
Meaning
Mono_____________ one person
Archy_____________ rule
So etymologically it means the government of one person.
Monarch
The person who rule monarchy.
Definition
Monarchy is a government in which all the affairs of the state was in under one
person power are called monarchy.
OR
The rule of one person (takes over kinship).
Examples
Qatar, Oman, Saudi Arabia, Bahrain etc.
Types
Crowned monarchy
Definition
That monarchy in which president is just purely symbolic authority is called
crowned monarchy.
Example
Constitutional monarchy
Definition
That monarchy which is restricted by the constitution.
Example
Canada, Spain, Bulgaria, Denmark, Europe etc.
Absolute monarchy
Definition
That monarchy which have full authority and head of the state is more
powerful than house of the commons
Example
Saudi Arabia, Jordan, uae etc.
Merits
Economic stability
Progress
Rule of law
Quality of education
Social equality
Trade
Cultural presentation
Demerits
No liberty
Abuse of power
Aggressive foreign policy
Censorship of media
Not answerable to any institute
Aristocracy
Meaning
Aristos______________ few or nobles
Kratos________________ ruler
So etymologically it means the rule of few nobles or rich peoples are called
aristocracy.
Origin
It was originated in medieval Europe and ancient Greece where a few nobles
or citizen hold power due to their status, wealth and titles.
They were considered virtuous and capable person
Definition
That form of government or social structure where power is hold by a few
nobles, rich or virtuous is called aristocracy.
OR
The rule of few rich rulers who exercise supreme power for the well-being of
the people.

It may be good and may be bad depend on the nobles.

Characteristics
Perverted
Selfish
Oligarchy
Own interest rather than public interest
Merits
Bring stability because we know that nobles have access to good quality of
education which provide them more experience
Continuity in policies because of inheritance
Cultural preservation
Stable governance
Demerits
May lead to corruption because not answerable to any body
May bring uneducated and bad leaders to the front because of inheritance
May abuse power for personal gain
Social inequality
May use power arbitrary
This was aristocracy ……
Dictatorship
Etymology
Derived from Latin word which mean a person/official with absolute power
Dictator
A person who come into power without the consult of the people.
Definition
Dictatorship is a form of government which is established without the consult
of the people, and in it an individual or group of individual holds the absolute
power of government, against existing law.
Example
Pervez Musharraf, general Zia ul haq etc.
Historical background
The Greeks and roman called it tyranny and dictatorship.
Greek practice
The tyrant __dictator (1) captured the power by force (2) held it by force.
Roman practice
Dictator was appointed in the supreme office
. Under the law .by the consent of roman senate .specific period .to deal with
some emergency situation.
Modern times
Against law .by means of military coup .hold it is a long life affair.
Types
Fascist dictatorship
Communist dictatorship
Nationalist dictatorship
Military dictatorship
Merits
Product of crises
Suitable for emergency
Economic development
Defense of the state
Less expensive government
Focus on social services
Continuity in policies
National unity and integration
Infrastructure development
Demerits
Undemocratic
Violent policies
Compel media
Institution become weak
Coercion and violence
Aggressive method of decision making
Democracy
Meaning
Greek words
Demo’s ______________ the people
Kratos ______________ the rule
So etymologically it means the rule of the people.
The government of the majority.
A form of government in which people have the authority to choose their
governing legislature.\
Definition
Aristotle
“who dislike democracy’ democracy is the government of the mob and
condemned it”.
Sir Seeley
“A government in which everyone has a share”.
Abraham Lincoln
A government of the people’ for the people and by the people are called
democracy.
We may define it as like as
“That form of government in which majority of the people select their
representative who rule the whole country for a specific period”.
Condition for democracy
The following condition are needed for the implementation of democracy in a
country.
Enlightened citizen (means who have a sense of their right, they are good and
educated and can fight for their rights and can protect their liberty).
Tolerance against the policies and laws implemented by the government
Responsibility (means a citizen must pay their responsibility to the state).
Education (necessary for making good citizen, responsible citizen and can
create tolerance in them”.
Civic sense (it is the attitude, habit and character of an ordinary man toward
the state and public affairs that either they are interested or not in them.
Organization “democracy require organization and it is more important than
other conditions”.
Leadership “on leadership Islam make more power to obey their leaders”.
Common goal “they must have a common goal which is the implementation of
Islamic law in Pakistan, peace, progress and fighting against those who use
their power arbitrary.
These are condition necessary for democracy.

Types of democracy
Full democracy
That democracy which possess all institutions democratic are called full
democracy.
Example
United States of America, Europe etc.
Semi democracy
That democracy which possess both democratic and autocratic institutions are
called semi democracy.
Example
Yugoslavia, India and Thailand.
Pseudo democracy
That democracy which is just by name democratic and there is nothing in real.
Example
Pakistan and Stalinist Russia.
Kinds of democracy
Direct democracy
That democracy in which people express their well directly on public matter in
mass or people assembly are called direct democracy.
Conditions for direct democracy
1) Small area
2) Small population
Then this is physically possible for people to make laws and policies for a
country and express their well directly.
Example
City state and Switzerland of the modern time.
Indirect democracy
Definition
That democracy in which public select their representative for expressing their
well on public matter in an assembly are called indirect democracy.
Conditions for indirect democracy
Large area
Large population
This is needed for indirect democracy.
Example
Pakistan, India, America etc.
Criteria through which democratic government are distinguished from
undemocratic government.
Continuous election
Opposition strong party
Freedom of speech
Free press
Equality
Right to minority
Fundamental rights supervision
Critiques on democracy
Impracticable (means it is impossible to make democracy practible because
the reason and rational of every individual differs one may have a desire to
participate in public matters and other do not).
Ignorance (means that democracy is actually the government of fools,
incapable and the most ignorant.
Parodied Lincoln define it like as (government of the cattle by the cattle and
for the cattle).
Attack on liberty of person
Impossible because everywhere good citizen are not available
Modern democracies are capitalist and imperialist democracies
This is democracy…..
Totalitarianism
Totalitarianism is a political ideology that seek to control the whole society,
suppressing individual freedom and dissent.
Meaning
Totalitarianism is a system of government that has the complete control over
all aspect of the society such as political, economically, culture and individual
rights.
Origin
It was originated in 1920s in Europe to expose fascist regimes, such as Nazi
Germany and fascist Italy.
Definition
Totalitarianism is characterized by;
Propaganda and censorship
Basic human rights violation
Personality cult
Single party system
Dictatorial leadership
Suppressing opposition
Example
Nazi Germany under Adolf Hitler
China under communist party
Italy under fascist Italy
Korea under Kim dynasty
Advantages
Stability
Totalitarianism brings stability in governance
Order
Totalitarianism brings order through coercive force
Economic growth
Can increase economic production
Industrialization growth
Totalitarianism is a source of increasing industrialization
National identity and unity
Disadvantages
Basic rights violation
Violation of rule of law
No equal opportunity
Social inequality
Corruption
Favoritism

Totalitarianism brings a short term advantage but can be bad for a country and
more harmful for a country.
Authoritarianism
A political ideology that emphasis the authority of a centralized government or
leader, often at the expense of individual freedom and rights.
Definition
A system of government where a single person or group holds complete
control and make decision on the behalf of people, without constitutionally
responsible to them.
Origin
It was originated in Europe in 20th century after the fascist and national
regimes.
Examples
China under communist party
Nazi Germany under Adolf Hitler.
Advantages
Quick decisions
Keep order
Maintain stability
Promote National identity
Unity
Disadvantages
Limited individual rights
Stifle innovation
Lack of accountability
Corruption
Authoritarianism is consider poison for a country to destroy governance,
creativity and limited opportunity thus one have to introduce authoritarianism.
Fascism
Meaning
Fascism is a political ideology that emphasize:
Authoritarianism
Personality cult
Militarianism
Suppression of opposition
Propaganda
Censorship
Human rights violation
One party to rule
nationalism
Origin
It was originated in 20th century in Europe particularly in Italy and Germany. It
was first used by Benito Mussolini nationalist Italy fascist in 1919.
Etymology
Italian word (fascio) which mean bundle or union and ism means ideology.
Definition
Fascism was ideology that seek nationalism, authoritarianism and
suppression of political opposition.
Fascism was a movement of Benito Mussolini after World War 1 when they
were not given their rights thus he start a movement that I will make Italy the
great nation.
Benito Mussolini ideology and slogan
One party
One nation
One leader
One common goal
Advantages
Economic growth
Fast decision making
Stability and order
National identity and unity
Traditional value promotion
Disadvantages
Produce hate for one another
Propaganda
Suppression of the opposition
Banned media
Human rights violation
Thus fascism was ideology and movement held by Benito Mussolini to make
Italy a great nation.
Nazism
Meaning
Nazism was extreme National Socialism which was held by Adolf Hitler whose
mission was to make German the great nation.
Origin
It was originated in 20th century in Germany held by Adolf Hitler who was
extreme nationalist.
Definition
Nazism is characterized by;
Extreme nationalism
Totalitarianism
Authoritarianism
Racism
Socialism
Advantages
Stability and order
National identity and unity
Economic growth
Industrialization
Disadvantages
Political suppression
Rights violation
Corruption
Lack of accountability
Hate
Banned media
Nazi means national socialist.

Parliamentary form of government

Definition
That social system in which head of the state is president while head of the
government is prime minister is called parliamentary form of government.
OR
That government in which executive derive their democratic legitimacy from its
ability to command the confidence of the legislature.
Actually in parliamentary system head of the state is typically distinct from
head of the government.
Parliamentary system have two executive real and nominal executive whose
about there is a famous sentence that “who reigns but does not rule” and the
real who in real have all the power of the state.
Organization
It consist of four parts
President
Prime minister
Ministers of the cabinet
The parliament​
Merits of parliamentary form of government
Prevent hasty relation
May maintain peace
Order
Stability
Good governance
Check on executive of the parliament
Flexible in time of crises
Great educative value
Rule of able persons
Demerits of parliamentary form of government
May leads to instability of government because of ministry changes
Can lead to cabinet dictatorship
Suppression of opposition
Can violate separation of power
More expensive
Presidential form of government
Definition
That government in which head of the state and head of the government is
president called presidential form of government.
OR
A form of government in which the head of the executive is president called
presidential form of government.
This system is based on separation of power in which the executive and
legislative branches are separated from each other and are not interconnected
in the performance of governmental function.
Each branch works within its own sphere.
In this system head of the executive branch is responsible to the legislative
which is usually called congress.
Merits
Energetic and powerful government
Stable government
Cabinet are responsible to president himself
Continuity of policy left by old president
Can avail the service of the expert
Demerits
Can lead to hasty policy
Encourage autocracy
Rigid principles
Can lead to conflicts between executive and legislature leaves too much to the
president.

Constitution
The written and unwritten principles, established rules which runs the state of
all institution is called constitution.
OR
A body of laws, principles and obligation which run all the affairs of the state,
government and political system smoothly.
OR
A set of values provide a lawful framework for government to run all the
institutions of the state smoothly.
Sources of constitution
Tradition and customs
Mean cultural values and principles is a source of constitution.
Religious philosophy
We know that religious is a magic and can help in unity may be a source of
constitution.
International law
Which was made by international expert jurist can be beneficial and a source
of constitution.
Precedent and convention
Means a case solved by a jurist according to his expertise may be a source of
constitution.
State official documents and historical record
Types
Rigid constitution (USA, Great Britain and New Zealand).
Unrigged constitution (Pakistan, India and turkey).
Presidential constitution (USA).
Autocratic constitution (GREECE AND MEDIEVAL EUROPE).
Monarchial constitution (SAUDI ARABIA AND BULGHARIA).
Republican constitution (USA AND GREAT BRITAIN).
Written constitution (PAKISTAN AND INDIA).
Unwritten constitution (Italy and USA).
Reformation of constitution
Means to re write or reframe the new constitution.
Reformation in constitution should be to meet with the needs of the modern
world.
Every country has its own procedure and method by which they reform and
amend it they may add from another country constitution by asking for
permission to add.
Amendment methods of different countries
USA _--------------2/3 majority of congress while price ¾
India ___________ 2/3 of the profound
UK ____________ 51% majority
Constitution brings many things in country.
Self-autonomy
Separation of power
Frame work for government
Provisional autonomy
Everyone have to work in with its own sphere
Prevent conflicts
Check and balance
Welfare of the people
Political parties
Definition
A group of persons or citizen, more or less organized, who hold the same or
nearly the same opinion on issue confronting the state or country and who
seek to obtain control of government by winning elections in order to realize
their aims and interest.
OR
A body of men’s united for the purpose of promoting by their joints endeavors
the national interest upon some particular principle on which they all agreed.
Historical evolution of political parties
In the past autocracy and monarchies does not give way to the growth of
political parties.
Political parties was first introduced in England where two party system was
established.
One is called tory party who was in the favor of royal king or power now called
conservative party while another was in the favor of republican or parliament
power called Whig party now called liberal party.
Then cadre, brokerage and mass parties was famous in 19th century.
Brokerage party who was in the favor of industrial and landowning class.
Cadre party who was in the favor of national interest called cadre party
Mass party who was in the favor of mass interest.
Then in 20th centuries political parties came into existence in Asia and Africa.
Bnp, anp and Muslim league etc. political parties belongs to Pakistan.
Characteristics of political parties
An agreement on fundamental principles and ideas
Firstly group will be agreed upon some principle that aim was national interest
only.
Different opinions give rise to political party.
But when they agreed upon certain principle thus they form a political party.
Organization and leadership
Organization is the second step toward political party.
We know that in unity there is a strength.
Organization is best for achieving aims and interest
Then when they was led by an expert thus this was much more beneficial
Constitution method
This was according to the constitution
It is considered like and army but in political parties ballot was used in
opposition of bullet and heads are counted not broken.
Promotion of national interest
There fighting and struggle was just for national interest and welfare of the
people.
Kinds of political parties
Conservative a party that wish to preserve the old order unchanged
Example
British conservative party, Canadian conservative party.
Reactionary a party that wish to revert old way of doing thing are called
reactionary party
Rectionist a person who aims to adapt old way of life.
Example Donald trump is considered a rectionist politician.
Liberal those who advocate social progress, freedom and changes.
Example British liberal party.
Radical a party who aims to replace the principle of society through social
changes, freedom and progress similar to liberal party.
Example
Democrats are considered radicalism.