Concept One

Sustainability of Life in Ecosystems

From the Perspective of Scientific Integration

Chapter One: The Aquatic Ecosystem

Chapter Two: The Atmosphere

Chapter Three: Soil

Chapter Four: The Role of Science in Environmental Sustainability

 Chapter One: The Aquatic Ecosystem

Learning Outcomes

Upon completing the study of this chapter, the student will be able to:

1. Identify the water layer and its relationship with other layers on planet
Earth.

2. Explain the role of the water cycle in nature in causing various

environmental changes.

3. Describe the chemical interactions in the aquatic ecosystem and their

impact on water quality and the sustainability of marine life.

4. Illustrate the effect of the physical properties of water, such as specific heat,
and surrounding physical factors like temperature and pressure on the
distribution of living organisms and the sustainability of the aquatic
ecosystem.

5. Evaluate the biological adaptations of living organisms in the aquatic

environment and their role in the sustainability of the ecosystem.

Related Issues

1. Water pollution 2. Climate change 3. Sustainability of water resources

4. Conservation of biodiversity 5. Water resource management

6. Sustainability challenges in light of population growth.

Chemical Reactions and Their Impact on Water Quality

Every time you drink a glass of water, have you thought about the chemical
reactions that might occur within this vital liquid? Water is not just a
transparent liquid; it is a medium in which many chemical compounds can
react, affecting water quality and the health of living organisms that depend
on it. In this chapter, we will learn about the water cover and the water cycle
in nature, as well as some of the physical properties and basic chemical
reactions that occur in water, and how these properties and reactions can
affect environmental components.

Water is characterized by its unique

The Atmosphere
properties that support life, as it can
dissolve many chemical substances and The Biosphere

can exist in all three states of matter: solid,

liquid, and gas, within the known The water cover The rock cover

temperature ranges on the Earth's surface.

Water is essential for the continuation of
life on Earth. All forms of life have a membrane that separates the organism
from its environment. Water passes from the environment into the living cell
through this membrane, carrying the necessary materials for energy
production and also removing waste to the outside.
 The Different Covers on Planet Earth

The water cover distinguishes planet Earth from other planets in the solar
system and refers to water in its liquid state on the planet, covering about
70% of the Earth's surface. Approximately 97% of this liquid water is found
in oceans, seas, and salt lakes as saline water. The
remaining part represents fresh water found in
rivers, freshwater lakes, and groundwater.
Water vapor (water in its gaseous state) is
considered one of the components of the
atmosphere. There is also the ice cover, which
refers to frozen water in regions.

Egypt is characterized by the diversity of its water bodies, which include the
Nile River, the Gulf of Suez, the Gulf of Aqaba, the Red Sea, the
Mediterranean Sea, and many saline and freshwater lakes.

The Water Cycle in Nature

Water exists on the Earth's surface or near it in a constant state of change

between its three states, and it continuously moves from one place to another
through many different pathways, forming an almost closed system known as
the water cycle in nature or the hydrological cycle.
The water cycle as a system is capable of physically, chemically, and
biologically altering the Earth's surface.
The water cycle in nature primarily includes the process of evaporation, which
contributes to cloud formation, and the process of precipitation, whether rain
or snow. In addition to other processes such as biological processes like
transpiration in plants and respiration in plants and animals, and the
processes of water infiltration through the pores of soil and sedimentary rocks
to form groundwater.
Water vapor in the clouds may chemically react with compounds present in
the air, forming some acids that fall as acid rain, which contributes to the
weathering of rocks.
**Research Activity**

Through various sources, search for:

1. What are the different tools and instruments used by meteorologists to measure the
annual rainfall amounts that fall on a specific area of the Earth's surface?
2. Can scientists predict future changes in the water cycle on Earth?

**Chemical Composition of Water:**

Water is composed of two elements: hydrogen and oxygen in a volume ratio of

1:2, respectively, while oxygen accounts for 88.89% of the mass of a water
molecule and hydrogen accounts for 11.11%. The two hydrogen atoms are
bonded to the oxygen atom by two covalent bonds that form an angle of
approximately 104.5° between them.

**Chemical Properties of Water:**

Water does not exist on the Earth's surface in a pure form, as it contains many
ions and chemical substances that interact with it in various ways. We will
discuss three main properties of water:
 1. **Polarity of Water:**

The oxygen atom has a higher electronegativity than the hydrogen atom;
therefore, the electrons in the bond are
attracted toward the oxygen atom, creating a
partial negative charge on the oxygen atom and
a partial positive charge on the hydrogen atom.
This is known as the polarity of the water
molecule. The polarity of water molecules leads
to their interaction with other water molecules through hydrogen bonds or
with polar molecules of other substances, giving water the ability to dissolve
many salts and break them down into hydrated ions.

Example Dissolution of sodium chloride in water:

NaCl + H₂O (s) → Na⁺ (aq) + Cl⁻ (aq)

Example:
The ability of water molecules to form hydrogen bonds with each other is a
fundamental reason for the high boiling point of pure water, which reaches
100°C under normal atmospheric pressure, compared to the boiling point of
similar compounds like hydrogen sulfide, which boils at 61°C.
- Hydrolysis:
A small percentage of water molecules exist as hydrogen ions (H⁺) and
hydroxide ions (OH⁻). As a result of chemical reactions with various
compounds, hydrolysis occurs for some salts present in natural waters,
affecting the balance of these ions, leading to either acidity or basicity of the
water.

Practical example:
When table salt (NaCl) is added to water, it dissociates into sodium ions (Na⁺)
and chloride ions (Cl⁻), and the salt ions remain in the solution without
bonding with water ions, making the solution neutral since the concentration
of hydrogen ions (H⁺) equals the concentration of hydroxide ions (OH⁻). In the
case of sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO₃), hydrolysis occurs, leading to a
decrease in the concentration of hydrogen ions (H⁺) and an increase in the
concentration of hydroxide ions (OH⁻), making the salt solution basic.
Conversely, when ammonium chloride (NH₄Cl) is dissolved in water, it
undergoes hydrolysis, resulting in a decrease in the concentration of hydroxide
ions and an increase in the concentration of hydrogen ions, making the salt
solution acidic.
Acid-Base Balance

The acid-base balance depends on the relationship between the concentration

of hydrogen ions (H) and hydroxide ions (OH) in water. This relationship can
be identified through the value of what is called the pH of the solution, which
is a graduated scale ranging from 0 to 14. If the concentration of H increases,
the water becomes acidic, and the pH value is less than 7. If the concentration
of OH increases, the water becomes basic, and the pH value is greater than 14.
While if the concentrations of the two ions are equal, the water is neutral, and
the pH value equals 7.

The pH value

is a measure that expresses the acidity or basicity of water. Pure water has a
pH of about 7, which is considered neutral. However, this number may vary in
natural environments, affecting the living organisms that inhabit them.
 The pH value of water from different sources:

- Seawater:

The pH value of seawater generally ranges from 7.5 to 8.4, depending on the
region where the sea is located and the surrounding environmental factors.

- Freshwater:

The pH value of rivers and lakes usually ranges naturally between 6.5 and 8.5.

- Distilled water:

The pH value is about 7, as it is free from most impurities and ions that
contribute to the acidity or basicity of other natural water sources.

- Groundwater:

The pH value of groundwater varies from one area to another depending on

several factors, the most important of which is the geological composition of
the area. Groundwater can be either neutral or basic, and its pH value varies
due to exposure to calcium carbonate or magnesium carbonate rocks.
The pH of clouds is generally slightly acidic, with values ranging from 4.5 to 5,
due to the presence of dissolved carbon dioxide and other acidic gases in water
droplets.

These values can vary depending on different environmental factors and

human activities in the area that can affect the pH level during cloud
formation or rainfall.

Scientific Activity

Measuring pH Variation in Different Water Samples:

To measure the pH value of different water samples (sea water, river water,
and spring water), you can conduct the following experiment:

Required Materials

1. Water samples (sea water, river water, and spring water)

2. pH meter or pH test strips

3. Cups for samples

4. Distilled water for calibration

5. Stirring rod
Experimental Procedure:

1. Calibration: Calibrate the pH meter according to the manufacturer's

instructions using distilled water.

2. Sample Preparation: Label the cups according to the type of water sample
and add a small amount of each type to each cup.

3. Testing: Immerse the electrode of the calibrated pH meter into each sample
and record the reading once it stabilizes.

4. Measurement Using Test Strips: If using test strips, dip the strip into each
sample for a few seconds and then compare its color with the attached chart to
determine the approximate pH value.

Research Activity

Conduct a research project with a group of your colleagues, supported by

statistical data, showing the differences in pH levels of clouds and rain and the
reasons for that, in each of the following:

A. Industrial cities B. Agricultural areas C. Coastal cities

To reduce the potential negative effects on water quality and the health of
living organisms due to saline water decomposition and its impacts on water
chemistry, it is important to closely monitor salinity levels as well as changes
in ionic composition within natural water area

Proper waste disposal practices reduce the addition of harmful salts to water
bodies, maintaining water quality for wildlife habitats and human
consumption purposes.

Check Your Understanding

1. Multiple Choice Questions

Which of the following represents the percentage of freshwater on the surface

of the Earth?

A. 50% B. 3% C. 97% D. 70%

Explain how a change in the pH value of river water can affect the
surrounding ecosystem. Provide suggestions for improving the water quality
in this river.

Design an experiment to study the effect of different chemicals on water

quality, and specify how the results of this experiment can be used to preserve
aquatic environments.
 1-2 The Physical Properties of Water and Their Role in the Distribution of
Living Organisms

Water has unique physical properties that distinguish it from other fluids,
liquids, and gases, such as the decrease in its density upon reaching the
freezing point and its high specific heat, which affects many natural
phenomena and the distribution of living organisms in different environments.

Density:

It is the mass of a unit volume of a substance at a specific temperature. Since

matter is made up of molecules, the density of a
substance depends on the mass of the molecules and
the spaces between them. In the case of pure water, the
mass of 1 cm³ at 4°C is equal to 18, meaning that the
density of water at 4°C is 1 g/cm³, equivalent to 1000
kg/m³ in SI units. As the temperature of water decreases from 4°C to its
freezing point, its density decreases, as shown in the accompanying figure. The
ratio of the density of a specific substance to the density of pure water at the
same temperature is known as the relative density of the substance.
The density of liquids or their relative density is measured using a hydrometer,
which is a sealed hollow glass container with a wider bottom part for
buoyancy. It contains balls of lead (or mercury) that help maintain vertical
balance. Its container is connected to a long glass stem with a small diameter,
graduated in density units, where the
lower scale indicates the highest density
measured by the hydrometer and the
upper scale indicates the lowest density
measured by the hydrometer, as shown in
the accompanying figure.

Scientific Activity

Measuring the Density of Different Water Samples

Using a hydrometer to determine the density of water from different sources

(sea/rivers/canals/ponds/lakes/groundwater).

Discuss how a hydrometer can be used to predict the presence of dissolved

pollutants in a water sample.

Water Density and Ocean Currents

The density of ocean water is affected by both the pressure within it, the
amount of dissolved salt, and its temperature. As pressure increases with
depth, water molecules come closer together, thereby increasing density.
Density is also affected by the amount of dissolved salt (salinity) in the water.
The higher the salinity of the water, the higher its density. The normal salinity
level of ocean water is 35 grams per liter of water (or the equivalent of two
teaspoons per cup of water). Finally, the temperature of the water affects its
density; as the temperature decreases (down to 4°C), the molecules come
closer together, occupying less volume and thus increasing density.

Variations in water density are one of the reasons for ocean currents. Ocean
currents transport heat and salt from tropical regions to the polar regions of
the Earth, as well as nutrients from the depths of the ocean to the surface and
freshwater from rivers or melting glaciers to various locations during their
journey around the world.
 **Water Density in Polar Regions**

The density of water changes with temperature. Generally, the volume of a

liquid increases with rising temperature and
decreases with falling temperature. Water is
an exception to this rule. As the temperature
of pure water rises from (0°C) to (4°C), the
water contracts and thus its density
increases, reaching its maximum value of
(1000 kg/m³) at 4°C. Water expands with
rising temperatures above 4°C, and consequently, its density decreases.

This helps to understand why ice forms on the surface in polar regions instead
of at the bottom. When the air temperature is between 4°C and 0°C, the
surface water of the lake expands and becomes less dense than the water
below it. Eventually, the surface water freezes, and the ice remains on the
surface since the density of ice is less than that of water, while the water near
the bottom stays at 4°C. If this were not the case, fish and other marine life
would not survive.
 **Experiment: The Effect of Density Differences on Water Movement**

Make ice cubes by adding food coloring to the water before it freezes to
facilitate observing the melting process of the ice cubes
and the direction of water movement after they melt.
Place one ice cube in a quantity of fresh water and
another in an equal amount of salty water, where the
salt concentration is equivalent to that of ocean water
at room temperature.

In which case does the ice cube melt faster?

What are your observations on the water movement resulting from the
melting of each cube?

This is what actually happens in the ocean; when fresh water from melting
glaciers enters the ocean, this fresh water spreads on the surface and does not
sink. If this fresh water freezes, it forms an insulating layer between the...
 Check your understanding

.. Analyze the corresponding graph

and deduce what happens to the density
of water with changes in temperature.
illustrate how the change in temperature
and the density of water affects living organisms at in an aquatic environment.

Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide in the Aquatic Environment

It is natural for rivers and seas
to maintain sufficient levels of oxygen gas and
carbon dioxide gas for the continuation of
aquatic life, including plants, marine animals,
fish, and microscopic organisms like bacteria
and algae.
-- Oxygen is present in a small proportion in water, and its main source is the
atmospheric air.
In addition to the role played by phytoplankton, algae, and aquatic plants
through the process of photosynthesis in producing oxygen in water. In
seas and oceans, more oxygen dissolves in water due to waves and
disturbances within the environment, which can enhance gas exchange
between the atmosphere and water.
In general, these natural processes provide marine
creatures with the dissolved oxygen necessary for their survival.
 Solubility of the gases in water

The concentration of oxygen gas in the air is about 500 times higher than the
concentration of carbon dioxide gas, but oxygen gas is about 50 times less
soluble in water.
The solubility of gases in saline ocean water is about 20-30% lower than their
solubility in freshwater.

Generally, the solubility of gases decreases at higher temperatures; as the

temperature rises, the concentration of dissolved carbon dioxide in water
decreases at a greater rate than the concentration of oxygen in water. The
graph illustrates the relationship between the solubility of oxygen and carbon
dioxide in freshwater at different temperatures under the natural
composition of atmospheric air.

Effect of increased levels of dissolved oxygen in water:

1. Enhanced respiration: Aquatic organisms rely on dissolved oxygen in the

water for respiration. An increase in the amount of oxygen in the water
improves their respiratory capacity.

2. Improved metabolism: High levels of dissolved oxygen can support the

metabolic processes of aquatic organisms and enhance growth.

3. Increased activity: Adequate levels of dissolved oxygen stimulate aquatic

organisms to be more active in swimming, hunting, and reproduction.
4. Maintaining ecosystem balance: A healthy balance of dissolved oxygen in
water is crucial for sustaining a stable aquatic ecosystem by supporting
diverse populations of fish, invertebrates, and plants.

Research activity:

Investigate various sources regarding the factors that lead to a decrease in the
levels of dissolved oxygen in water and the implications of its deficiency.

Sources of carbon dioxide in the aquatic environment:

The atmosphere is the primary source of carbon dioxide (CO2) in water, as

carbon dioxide is exchanged between the atmosphere and water.

• Marine organisms produce carbon dioxide gas that dissolves in the

surrounding water as one of the waste products from metabolic processes.
Human activities such as industrial pollution and the decomposition of
organic materials carried by agricultural runoff.

The impact of increased carbon dioxide gas levels in water on aquatic

organisms:

An increase in carbon dioxide (CO2) levels in water can have several negative
effects on aquatic organisms, including:
- Acidification: When carbon dioxide levels are high in the atmosphere, it
can dissolve in greater concentrations in water, leading to an increase in
carbonic acid and a decrease in the pH value of the water. This acidification
can be harmful to many species of aquatic organisms, especially those that go
through sensitive life stages such as the egg and larval stages.

- Impaired respiration: High levels of carbon dioxide can lead to a decrease in

the dissolved oxygen levels in water, which is essential for the respiration of
aquatic organisms.

- Reduced calcification: Many marine organisms, such as corals, mollusks,

and some types of plankton, rely on calcium carbonate to form their shells or
skeletons. This substance is a poorly soluble solid in water, and an increase in
carbon dioxide levels converts it into calcium bicarbonate, which dissolves in
water, hindering these organisms' ability to build or maintain their
structures.

The impact of decreased carbon dioxide levels in water on aquatic organisms:

- Reduced photosynthesis: Aquatic plants and algae require carbon dioxide

for photosynthesis. A decrease in the availability of carbon dioxide can limit
their ability to produce energy, affecting the overall productivity of the
ecosystem.
- Impact on food chains.

The impact on food chains can be influenced by changes in the level of

carbon dioxide in water, affecting producer organisms such as phytoplankton
and algae, and consequently impacting organisms at higher levels of food
chains‫ذ‬.

pH imbalance: Low concentrations of carbon dioxide may lead to an

increase in pH, negatively affecting sensitive species that are adapted to a
specific pH range.

1-3 Biological Adaptations of Living Organisms in Aquatic

Environments:

In the world of aquatic creatures, each living organism possesses a set of

adaptations that help it survive in its aquatic environment, whether in deep
oceans or shallow lakes. How do fish adapt to changes in temperature? How
can organisms survive in saline or low-oxygen aquatic environments? In this
lesson, we will explore these physiological, behavioral, and structural
adaptations that allow aquatic organisms to live in diverse environmental
conditions.
 Physiological (Functional) Adaptation

Living organisms in aquatic environments develop specific physiological

adaptations that enable them to survive in their habitats. These adaptations
or modifications in the way they perform their essential functions, for
example, some deep-sea fish have special abilities to regulate breathing in
conditions of low oxygen. To adapt to the high water pressure at depths, deep-
sea fish have strong and resilient arteries and veins that withstand high
pressure. They also have the ability to effectively adjust their blood pressure
to remain consistent with external pressure.

One famous example of these fish is the Electric Eel, which lives at depths
reaching thousands of meters, where oxygen levels are extremely low. These
fish have developed very large gills, with tiny capillaries that increase the
efficiency of extracting the little oxygen available in the water. Additionally,
they can slow down their metabolism to reduce their oxygen needs.
 Osmosis and Osmotic Pressure

Osmosis is the phenomenon of the movement or diffusion of water from a

dilute solution to a concentrated solution through a semi-permeable
membrane that separates the two solutions as shown in the figure.

Osmotic pressure is the pressure resulting from the presence of a difference in

the concentration of the solution due to the presence of the solute, which leads
to the diffusion of water by osmosis.

Thus, the solution with a higher concentration has a higher osmotic pressure
than the solution with a lower concentration, which causes it to draw water
from the less concentrated solution as shown in the figure.
Scientific Activity

Tools:

Sugar solution, flower funnel, aluminum paper, glass cup with tap water

Rubber band, holder

Steps:

1. Secure the solivan paper tightly over the opening of the funnel with the
rubber band.

2. Fill the funnel with the sugar solution, then immerse it in the cup filled with
water and hold it vertically.

3. Mark the stem of the funnel at the level of the solution.

4. Leave the device for a sufficient period and observe what happens,
recording your observations.

We observe the rise in the level of the sugar solution in the stem of the funnel
due to the increase in its volume from the cup by osmosis, as the
concentration of sugar in it is higher than the concentration of sugar in the
water in the glass cup.
 Freshwater organisms physiologically adapt to low osmotic pressure.

The previous experiment clarified what can happen to a living organism that
resides in freshwater due to the osmotic pressure of the water being lower
than the osmotic pressure of the solutions in those organisms' bodies. In this
case, the bodies of those organisms absorb large amounts of water through
their contractile vacuoles, leading to their rupture and death.

So how do these organisms adapt to the characteristics of

freshwater environments?

Single-celled (unicellular ) organisms

such as amoeba, paramecium, and
euglena possess a structure called the
contractile vacuole, which collects excess
water within the cell and then expels it
through the cell membrane as shown in
the diagram.

As for multicellular organisms like fish, they

eliminate excess water that enters their bodies
through the skin, mouth, and gills via the
kidneys in the form of dilute urine. The kidneys
in fish are located in the abdominal cavity on
either side of the vertebral column as depicted
in the diagram.
Fish living in saltwater need to ingest large amounts of water to compensate
for water loss from their bodies through osmosis, and their source is the
highly saline seawater. They then excrete the excess salts through the kidneys
and specialized cells in the gills.

Among the physiological adaptations to cope with high salinity in oceans and
seas, we find that sharks maintain water and salt balance within their bodies
through a special mechanism that regulates the level of urea in their blood,
where urea is a nitrogenous compound excreted in the urine of many animals.
Sharks retain a high concentration of urea in their blood, which increases the

Osmotic pressure, to become close to the osmotic pressure of the surrounding

water. This helps reduce water loss from its body to the surrounding high-
salinity environment.

Behavioral adaptations

Behavioral adaptations include specific behaviors or actions that living

organisms undertake to avoid harsh conditions or to better exploit available
resources. For example, some fish migrate
between freshwater and saltwater for
breeding and survival. Salmon are born in
freshwater, then move to the sea where they
spend most of their adult lives before
returning to the rivers again to spawn.
When salmon eggs hatch, their young spend the first part of their lives in
freshwater.

During this stage, the young adapt to the freshwater environment. Upon
reaching a certain size, the fish undergo a biological process known as
"Smoltification," which prepares them for the transition to saltwater in the
sea. When salmon reach sexual maturity, they begin to return to the rivers
where they were born to spawn.

The salmon's ability to transition between different environments is due to its

capacity to make complex physiological adaptations. For example, its
circulatory system and respiratory system adapt to changes in salinity and
varying amounts of oxygen in freshwater and saltwater.

Structural adaptations

Structural adaptations involve changes in the physical structure of living

organisms that help them survive in their environments. For instance, fish
that live in the depths of the oceans have large eyes.
Their bodies compressed to withstand very high pressure in deep waters.

An example of compressed fish in the depths is the (ice fish) , which lives in
the cold southern oceans at depths of up to 2000 meters.

Among the general structural adaptations of

fish are the streamlined body that reduces water
resistance to the movement of the fish, and the
gills that enable it to extract dissolved oxygen
from the water. Its body is covered with scales
and mucus to be water-resistant and reduce
water resistance during swimming.
Additionally, the fins are the organs of
movement, and bony fish have a swim bladder or buoyancy sac that helps
them float in the water.

Gas exchange and cellular respiration

Gas exchange is the process by which an organism obtains oxygen from the
atmosphere or the surrounding environment and eliminates carbon dioxide.
Cellular respiration is a vital process carried out by living organisms to break
the bonds in food molecules, especially glucose, to obtain stored energy.
Single-celled organisms like amoebas obtain oxygen and eliminate carbon
dioxide through the cell membrane by diffusion.
Activity

Analyze the relationship between biological adaptations and the

aquatic environment.

Research on the internet to find the biological adaptations present in the

lionfish and the colored octopus.

Lionfish Colored octopus

Check your understanding

Choose the correct answer:

1. Which of the following is a physiological change in ocean fish?

A) Compressed body B) Strong arteries C) Increased blood pressure D) Large gills

2. Which of the following adaptations allows deep-sea fish to coexist with low oxygen
levels?

A) Slowing down the metabolic rate B) Compressed body

C) Increased salt concentration in cells D) Strong blood vessels

3. What type of osmotic adaptation do salmon have?

A) Behavioral adaptation B) Gas exchange organ

C) Structural adaptation D) Physiological and structural adaptation

4. Which of the following is a similarity between amoebas and fish?

A) Cellular respiration B) Physiological adaptation

C) Body complexity D) Physiological and structural adaptation

5. Which of the following helps reduce water resistance to fish movement in water?

A) Scales only B) Mucus only

C) Mucus and streamlined body D) Streamlined body, mucus, and scales

6. Physiological adaptations require structural adaptations to occur. Give one example of

this.

7. What challenges do deep-sea fish face and how do they adapt structurally?

8. What is the effect of freshwater on the osmotic pressure of freshwater organisms and
how do those organisms cope with that effect?

1- The Effect of Heat on the Marine Environment

Have you ever wondered how temperature affects marine organisms? Or why
oceans remain warm even after sunset? And why on a hot summer day, you
feel that the air around you has quickly become hot, while the water in lakes
and rivers remains cooler?

Heat and Temperature

Some people confuse the concepts of "heat" and "temperature" in everyday

conversation. Although they are related, there is a difference in their
meanings in physics. Any body or system consists of a vast number of
particles that are separated by spaces and are in a state of continuous motion.
The sum of the potential energy resulting from the position of the particles
relative to each other and the kinetic energy resulting from the motion of the
particles is called the internal energy of the body or system.
The concept of heat refers to the energy transferred from or to a body or
through it when there is a difference in temperature, and heat is measured in
joules (J).

On the other hand, temperature is a quantitative description of how hot or

cold a body or system is. It represents the average kinetic energy of the
particles of that body or system, and its international unit is the kelvin (K). To
find the value of temperature in kelvins corresponding to its value in degrees
Celsius, the relationship (T = 273 + °C) is used, knowing that an increase in
temperature by one degree Celsius (°C) is equivalent to an increase of one
kelvin (K).

When a body or system gains a quantity of thermal energy, the amplitude of

the vibrations of the particles increases, as well as their kinetic energy, and
thus its temperature rises.

The question here is: Do units of mass (1 kg) of different materials require the
same amount of heat to raise the temperature of each by one kelvin?

When thermal energy increases, the particles of the material move faster

Specific heat (c)

Specific heat (c) is the amount of heat that a substance gains. The specific
heat of a substance is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of
1 kg of the substance by 1 K. The specific heat of materials varies; for
example, the specific heat of aluminum is higher than that of glass.
The specific heats of some materials are as follows:
Material Specific heat Material Specific heat
j/Kg.K j/Kg.K
Zinc 388 Lead 130
Murcury ( liquid) 140 Copper 385
Alminum 897 Methanol 2450
Glass 840 Water vapour 2020
Carbon 710 Water 4180
Iron 540 Ice 2060

the amount of heat gained or lost by a body can be calculated using the
formula:

Q = mcΔT

where ΔT is the change in temperature of the body, and m is the mass of the
body.

Calculate the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 0.3 kg of copper
from 20 degrees Celsius to 70 degrees Celsius, knowing that the specific heat of
copper is 385 J/kg.K.
Solution:
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
 Example:
A piece of aluminum weighing 200 g and at a temperature of 80°C is placed in a quantity of
water at room temperature. If the final temperature of the system becomes 40°C, calculate the
amount of heat gained by the water, knowing that the specific heat of aluminum is 897 J/kg.K.
Solution:
According to the law of conservation of energy, the amount of heat gained by the water equals
the amount of heat lost by the piece of aluminum, assuming no heat energy escapes from the
system. Use SI units.

The negative sign here indicates that the aluminum piece has lost a quantity of heat to
gain it from the water sample, and therefore the amount of heat transferred to the water
is 7200j

Importance of the high specific heat of water:

The specific heat of water is high compared to other materials, approximately equal to
4200 kg K due to the hydrogen bonds between its molecules, which makes it partially
responsible for moderating the climate near large bodies of water. The temperature of a
large water body during the summer season is lower compared to the temperature of
sand and beach rocks. The air above the water surface heats up, causing its density to
decrease and rise. The cold air from above the water surface moves towards the land and
is called the sea breeze, replacing the hot air that has risen, as illustrated in the figure..
Analytical Activity
Analyze the data shown in the table and then answer the following questions:
1) What factors does the specific heat of a substance depend on?
2) Which of the three states of water has the highest specific heat value?
Substance Temperature State Physical specific heat (c)

Air 25oC Gas 1003.5

Lead 25oC Solid 129
Pure water 25oC Liquid 4181.3
Water vapour 100oC Gas 2020
Ice 0oC Solid 2029

The effect of temperature changes on marine organisms

Temperature changes in the oceans affect the distribution of marine organisms.

Organisms that live in warm surface waters may be unable to survive in cold depths. For
example, coral reefs require specific temperature ranges to survive, and temperature
changes due to climate change may lead to their death.

The high specific heat of water plays a significant role in the relative stability of water
temperatures in seas and oceans, as water can absorb a large amount of heat without a
significant change in its temperature. This makes oceans and lakes massive thermal
reservoirs, where water absorbs large amounts of solar energy during the day without a
significant increase in temperature, then slowly releases this energy at night, helping to
maintain stable temperatures in the surrounding marine environment. This thermal
balance is very important for the sustainability of marine life. This property helps
protect marine organisms from rapid temperature changes, especially cold-blooded
organisms (poikilotherms) that rely on the temperature of their surrounding
environment. For this reason, we often find these organisms in the depths of seas and
oceans where the temperature is stable.

Research and Inquiry

Research different sources on how to determine the specific heat of water using a Joule
calorimeter.

1. In light of the difference in specific heat between land and

seawater, explain the phenomenon of sea breeze.
2. Explain why the specific heat of water is a crucial factor in
the sustainability of marine life.
3. What factors does the amount of heat lost or gained depend
on when the temperature of a substance changes?

1-5 The Effect of Light and Solar Radiation on Marine Environments

Imagine diving into the sea, and noticing how the

intensity of light changes as you dive deeper into
the water.
You may have wondered how does this affect the
living organisms that inhabit the depths? Solar
radiation and light in the water are not merely aesthetic factors; they play a vital role in
the lives of marine organisms. How does light in the different layers of water affect
photosynthesis? What is the role of solar radiation in maintaining ecological balance in
the oceans?
Solar radiation refers to the energy produced by the sun, some of which reaches the
Earth. It represents the primary source of energy for most processes in the atmosphere,
hydrosphere, and biosphere. Through various technologies, solar radiation can be
converted into other forms of energy, such as heat and electricity. The technical and
economic feasibility of these technologies depends on the available solar resources.

Visible light (spectrum) is part of the electromagnetic spectrum, which spreads in the
form of electromagnetic waves that differ in wavelength and frequency. Visible light
represents a small part of this spectrum and consists of different wavelengths known as
the colors of the spectrum (red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet).
Classification of solar radiation that reach to the Earth
The solar radiation that reaches the Earth can be classified into two categories:
Direct solar radiation: This is the radiation that reaches the Earth's surface
without scattering before arriving.
Indirect radiation: This is the light that is scattered while passing through the
atmosphere.
The amount of solar radiation that reaches a location or object on the Earth's surface
depends on several factors, including geographic location, season, time of day, cloud
cover, and elevation above sea level.
Solar radiation and its effect on water:
Solar radiation is the primary source of energy on Earth and directly affects the various
layers of water. When sunlight penetrates the water's surface, part of it is absorbed by
the water, suspended materials, and aquatic plants, while the other part scatters in the
depths.
Light zones in water:
As the depth of the water increases, the intensity of light gradually decreases. This light
gradient determines different zones in the oceans, such as the illuminated zone (surface),
the twilight zone (mid-depth), and the dark zone (depths). Marine organisms live in each
of these zones according to their ability to adapt to the available light levels.
When sunlight falls on the ocean water, the
surface of the water reflects some of it back into
the atmosphere. The amount of energy that
penetrates the surface of the water depends on
the angle at which sunlight strikes the water's
surface. The amount of light that penetrates the
water surface is large when sunlight strikes it
perpendicularly, while the amount of light that penetrates the water surface decreases
when sunlight strikes at an angle. Water absorbs almost all the energy of infrared rays
from sunlight at a depth of 10 centimeters from the surface.

❖ The depth of the water not only affects the absorption of colors of light but also
affects the intensity of light, as the intensity of light gradually decreases as it travels. At
a depth of 10 meters, water absorbs more than 50% of the energy of visible light. Even in
clear tropical waters, only about 19% of visible light—mostly in the blue range—reaches
a depth of 100 meters.

Light penetration in the open ocean Light penetration in coastal waters.

This illustrative figure shows the difference between light penetration in shallow coastal
waters and in the open ocean. When different colors of the spectrum penetrate ocean
water, the water absorbs warm colors, such as red and orange (which have longer
wavelengths), and scatters cooler colors (which have shorter wavelengths).
 Photosynthesis in Aquatic Environments
Many autotrophic organisms, such as aquatic plants, algae, and phytoplankton, rely on
the process of photosynthesis to convert solar energy into chemical energy used in
building the organic materials necessary for growth and survival. This process heavily
depends on the availability of light, and thus occurs mainly in the surface layers of water
bodies, where light can reach these organisms.

Solar Radiation and Ecological Balance

Solar radiation is a vital factor in maintaining ecological balance in aquatic
environments. It not only affects the photosynthesis process, which is fundamental for
marine life, but it also directly impacts water temperature and the distribution of marine
organisms.

The Effect of Solar Radiation on Ecological Balance in Aquatic Environments

The Role of SolaR RadiaTion in The diSTRibuTion of MaRine oRganiSMS

Marine organisms are unevenly distributed in the water according to their light and
energy needs. Organisms that rely on photosynthesis, such as algae and phytoplankton,
are abundant in the surface layers of water where solar radiation is plentiful. For
example, coral reefs thrive in warm, shallow waters near the equator where solar
radiation is available year-round. This radiation stimulates the growth of symbiotic algae
that live within coral tissues and provide it with food.
The effecT of SolaR RadiaTion on WaTeR TeMpeRaTuReS:
Solar radiation directly affects water temperatures, which in turn influences the
distribution of marine organisms. The warm waters resulting from solar radiation in
tropical regions attract certain species of fish and marine animals that require specific
temperatures to survive and reproduce. For example, tropical fish like tuna and
barracuda live in warm waters, while other species like cod prefer the cold waters found
in areas farther from the equator.
Changes in Solar Radiation Intensity
Changes in solar radiation intensity due to
seasonal changes or climate change can lead to
disturbances in the ecological balance. For
example, in polar regions where solar radiation
is low or absent during winter periods,
photosynthesis rates significantly decrease,
affecting the availability of food for marine organisms. This can lead to a decline in the
numbers of organisms that rely on photosynthesis, thus impacting the entire food chain.
On the other hand, global warming causes water temperatures to rise, leading to coral
reef death, which significantly affects marine organisms that depend on them.
Effects of Solar Radiation on Ocean Currents
Solar radiation also contributes to the formation of ocean currents, which play a key role
in the distribution of heat and nutrients in the oceans. These currents affect the
distribution of marine life and make some areas rich in food resources. For example, the
( Gulf Stream ) carries warm water from the equator toward the North Atlantic,
leading to a temperate climate in areas like Western Europe and enhancing marine
biodiversity there.
ReSeaRch and inveSTigaTion
Measuring Light Intensity in Water

objecTive: The student tests the light intensity in water at different depths.
ToolS: Light intensity meter, large water tank, multiple light sources, ruler.
1. Place the light source above the water tank.
2. Use the light intensity meter to measure light intensity at different depths.
3. Record the results and discuss the effect of depth on light intensity.

check youR undeRSTanding

1. How does the light gradient affect the distribution of marine organisms at ocean
depths?
2. Why is the process of photosynthesis important for maintaining ecological balance in
the oceans?

1-6 The effecT of hydRoSTaTic pReSSuRe on living oRganiSMS

Organisms in the depths of the oceans face a harsh environment that requires
unique adaptations for survival, including living under immense water
pressure. How does hydrostatic pressure affect living organisms in the depths
of water? And how do these physiological adaptations help these organisms
survive under such immense pressure?
Fluids are materials characterized by their ability to flow, including liquids
and gases. While gases are easily compressible and occupy any space they are
in, liquids resist compression and thus maintain a nearly constant volume.
Pressure at a point in a static liquid
Liquids exert pressure. At any point within it, the pressure equals the weight
of the column of liquid above that point acting on the unit area around that
point. If there is a body at that point, it is affected by a force due to this
pressure, which is perpendicular to its surface.
The compressive force on a body, measured in newtons, is calculated from its
presence in the liquid using the relationship F = P × A, where P is the pre
ssure at that point in N/m² and A is the surface area in m²
exposed to that pressure.

The pressure of a liquid (P) at a point in its interior located

at a depth (h) is calculated using the equation Pliquid = p x g x h, where p is

the density of the liquid in kg/m³ and g is the acceleration due to gravity in
m/s². If the surface is exposed to atmospheric pressure (Pa), then the total
pressure acting on the point is:
Pa = Pa + Pliquid = Pa + pgh.
facToRS affecTing The value of liquid pReSSuRe aT a poinT in
iTS inTeRioR:
From the above, we conclude that:
1- The pressure of the liquid (P) at a point in its
interior increases with the depth of that point (h)
below the surface of the same liquid
2- The pressure also increases with the density of the
liquid

Pressure is measured in units of (N/m²) , which is equivalent to the Pascal

(Pascal). In practical fields, a larger unit is used, which is the bar (Bar).
1 Bar = 105 Pascal = 105 N/m².

Among the properties of liquid pressure:

1. The pressure at a point within a liquid acts equally in all directions. If the
pressure at a certain point in a specific direction is (P), then the pressure in
any other direction at that point is also (P).
All points located in a horizontal plane in a
stationary homogeneous liquid have equal
pressure.
This explains the property of the surface of connected vessels , where the
liquid rises in connected vessels to the same horizontal level regardless of
their shape or cross-section. It also explains why the water level in connected
seas and oceans takes the same horizontal level. The horizontal level of the
sea surface is taken as a reference level and is
called "Sea Level" to measure elevations
around the globe.

exaMple:
The base of a fish tank has an area of 1000 cm², and the tank contains water
weighing 4000 N.
What is the pressure of the water on the bottom of the tank?
Solution:
Pressure (P) = Weight (W) / Area (A)
= 4000 N / (1000 × 10-4 m²)
= 4 × 104 N/m²
exaMple 2
Calculate the total pressure acting on a swimmer at a depth of 10 meters from
the surface of a lake if the density of water is 1000 kg/m³, the acceleration due
to gravity is 10 m/s², and the atmospheric pressure at the surface of the lake is
1.013 × 10⁵ N/m².
Solution
P = P a+ P liquid = Pa + ρgh = 1.013 × 10⁵ + (1000 × 10 × 10) = 2.013 × 10⁵ N/m²
 hydRoSTaTic pReSSuRe
Hydrostatic pressure is the pressure exerted by water on any object beneath
the water surface. This pressure increases as
depth increases due to the increased weight of
water above the object. At sea level, the
pressure equals atmospheric pressure and is
approximately 1.013 × 10⁵ N/m², and the
water pressure increases by about one
atmosphere for every 10 meters below the surface. For example, at a depth of
100 meters, the pressure caused by water will be about 10 times the
atmospheric pressure. In the depths of the seas, the pressure is unimaginable;
however, many organisms can adapt to the high water pressure.
The effect of pressure on the biological adaptations of marine

organisms

First: Swim bladder

Surface organisms, which live near the surface of the water, experience
relatively low hydrostatic pressure, and therefore their physical structure is
less robust compared to organisms that live in the depths.
Organisms in intermediate depths: At depths of 200 to 1000 meters, such as in
organisms are more specialized to deal with the increasing pressure.
For example, some fish have swim bladders filled with gas that help them
control their buoyancy and balance in the water, such as tilapia, or they can
transition between different depths during their migration between seas and
rivers like salmon.

Creatures in deep depths (greater than 2000 meters) experience very high
water pressure. Organisms that live in these environments often have
compact body structures and protein components and internal fluids that
withstand high pressure. Additionally, some of these organisms do not have
gas bladders to ensure they do not collapse under this pressure, such as the
ray fish (which increase their body density to withstand high pressure). Or
they have a bladder containing fluids instead of gases and rely on a large liver
rich in oils to increase their buoyancy and control their depth.

Secondly: SkeleTal and caRTilaginouS STRucTuReS

Bony fish, such as tilapia and mullet, are characterized by having a
skeleton made of bones. This provides strong support for the fish's body and
stability under various pressures, such as water movement or water pressure.

Cartilaginous fish, such as sharks and rays, are a group of fish

characterized by having a cartilaginous structure instead of a bony skeleton.
Cartilage is a more flexible and lighter tissue compared to bones, which gives
cartilaginous fish flexibility that distinguishes them from bony fish.
ThiRdly: cellulaR MeMbRaneS
The cellular membranes of deep-sea organisms are characterized by the
presence of lipoproteins that enhance membrane flexibility and prevent
collapse. These proteins reduce the impact of pressure on cellular
membranes, preventing damage to cells and ensuring the continuation of vital
functions.

Check your understanding.

1. How does light gradient affect the distribution of marine organisms in the
depths of the ocean?
2. Why is the process of photosynthesis important for maintaining ecological
balance in the oceans?
 1-7 The Role of SoluTionS and concenTRaTionS in WaTeR
MoveMenT and diSTRibuTion of living oRganiSMS
Prepare
Have you ever wondered why the distribution of living organisms in oceans
and lakes differs?
How do the concentrations of dissolved substances in water affect the
properties of water and the movement of water and distribution of marine
organisms?
Water in water bodies is not pure; it is a mixture with several dissolved or
suspended substances.
These substances directly affect the density of water, leading to changes in
water stratification and the distribution of living organisms at different
depths.
1. aqueouS SoluTionS
A solution is a homogeneous mixture of a solvent and a solute. In the aquatic
environment, water is usually the solvent, while the solute can be a chemical
substance such as salts or other materials.
Concentration is the amount of solute in a specific volume of solvent.
2-The effecT of concenTRaTion on WaTeR denSiTy:
As the concentration of dissolved substances in water increases, the density of
the water increases. These changes in density can lead to different movements
of water, such as vertical currents that carry living organisms to different
depths or to the surface.
3-colligaTive pRopeRTieS of WaTeR:
These are properties of the solution that depend on the number of solute
particles, not on their type. The colligative properties include vapor pressure,
boiling point, freezing point, and osmotic pressure.
a- vapoR pReSSuRe of The liquid:
When a liquid and its vapor are in a state of dynamic equilibrium, the vapor
formed above the surface of the liquid from the evaporation process exerts
pressure on the surface of the liquid called the vapor pressure of the liquid.

In pure water
solute
the surface water molecules are capable of

escaping and turning into vapor. There are attractive forces between water

molecules, in addition to the attraction caused by the

hydrogen bond due to the polarity of the water

molecule. In solutions, water molecules are strongly

attracted to solute molecules, which reduces the

likelihood of water molecules evaporating. The attractive forces between

solute molecules and water molecules are stronger than the attractive forces

between water molecules themselves, thus decreasing the number of water

molecules that can evaporate, and lowering the vapor pressure of the liquid.

The decrease in the vapor pressure of the solution corresponds directly to the

number of solute molecules or ions in the solution.

b- boiling poinT:
A liquid boils when its vapor pressure reaches the value of the atmospheric
pressure at the surface of the liquid. Therefore, the boiling point of pure
liquid under normal atmospheric pressure is constant, and thus it is a
property from which the purity of liquids can be inferred.

The boiling point of the liquid varies if the atmospheric pressure acting on the
surface of the liquid changes. The boiling point of pure liquid increases with
an increase in the atmospheric pressure affecting its surface. The boiling
point of a solution is higher than the boiling point of pure water at normal
atmospheric pressure due to the attractive forces between solute and solvent
molecules, which increases the energy required to vaporize the liquid. The
increase in the boiling point of the solution corresponds directly to the
number of dissolved molecules or ions in the solution.
Practical Applications:
Can pure water boil at a temperature lower than 100°C? What do you expect
the boiling point of pure water to be in the following cases:
1 - At the peak of a high mountain?
2 - Inside a pressure cooker?

Exploratory Activity
Measuring the dominance degree of several solutions of different salts in pure
water with the same concentration, such as sodium chloride solution and
sodium bicarbonate solution.
ThiRdly: fReezing poinT:
The freezing point of the solution is always lower than the freezing point of
pure water because the attractive forces between the water molecules and the
solute molecules hinder the freezing process and prevent the liquid water
from turning into ice crystals.
Practical Applications
Salt is spread on roads in cold areas after rainfall so that the rainwater turns
into a saline solution, thus lowering its freezing point compared to that of
water. Consequently, the amount of ice formed on the roads decreases,
reducing the chances of accidents.
Scientific Activity
Measuring the freezing point of several solutions, all with the same
concentration of different salts: sodium chloride, calcium chloride,
magnesium sulfate.
diSTRibuTion of living oRganiSMS in aquaTic enviRonMenTS
baSed on concenTRaTion
Some living organisms adapt to certain concentrations of dissolved
substances. For example, marine organisms that live at great depths adapt to
the high densities of water due to the high concentrations of salts.
The distribution of living organisms in aquatic environments

is affected by the following factors:

1. Water availability
Freshwater versus saltwater; living organisms are distributed based on the
type of water. For example, freshwater fish cannot survive in saltwater, and
vice versa.
2- Osmotic adaptations
Living organisms require specific adaptations according to the concentration
of salts in their environment and osmotic pressure balance. Marine organisms
adapt to high salt levels, while freshwater organisms adapt to avoid excessive
water absorption, as illustrated in the figure.
3-Nutrient and pollutant concentrations
The concentration of nutrients and pollutants affects the diversity of living
organisms. Resource-rich environments support greater diversity, while
polluted environments may lead to decreased diversity.
4- Seasonal changes
The different seasons affect water availability, which in turn affects the
distribution of living organisms. For example, certain species may migrate to
new areas during droughts or floods.
5- Water currents
Variations in water bodies affect the distribution of oxygen and nutrients,
impacting the gathering and feeding areas of living organisms.

Check your understanding

1- How do dissolved substance concentrations affect water density?

2- What is the relationship between dissolved substance concentrations and
water current movement?
3- How do chemical solutions in water affect the distribution of marine
organisms?
1-8 The inTeR balance and The Role of huManS in aquaTic life
How human activities can affect aquatic ecosystems?
Human activities play a significant role in impacting aquatic life, from
overfishing to pollution.
Here, we will explore how ecological balance maintains the health of marine
environments, how human activities can lead to changes in this balance, and
we will learn about strategies to protect and sustain these systems.

The Importance of Ecological Balance in Aquatic Systems

Ecological balance is a state of dynamic stability that occurs when living
organisms in an ecosystem interact in a way that preserves the continuity of
life. This balance involves maintaining nutrient balance, biodiversity, and
energy flow through food webs.
1- Nutrient balance
in aquatic systems such as lakes and rivers must have a balance in nutrient
levels such as nitrogen and phosphorus. These elements are essential for the
growth of plants and algae that form the foundation of the food chain. If
nutrient levels increase excessively, it can lead to an unnatural algal bloom.
 2- The balance between living organisms
in aquatic systems involves each species interacting with others in multiple
ways, either as prey or predators over
resources. The presence of predatory fish in
the aquatic ecosystem helps maintain the
balance of prey fish and other organisms. For
example, in a marine environment with
different fish species, if the numbers of
predatory fish decline due to overfishing, the number of small fish may
increase excessively, leading to an unbalanced consumption of food resources
and a disruption in the ecosystem.

3- The flow of energy through the food web in the aquatic

ecosystem energy start flowing from producers (such as algae and plants
that perform photosynthesis) to consumers (such as herbivorous and
predatory fish). This natural flow of energy helps regulate the populations of
organisms at each level of the food chain. For example, if small fish that feed
on zooplankton are consumed in large quantities by predatory fish, it leads to
an increase in zooplankton populations, which affects the growth of algae,
and consequently disrupts the balance in the system.
Ecological balance in aquatic

systems:
Coral reefs and the marine ecosystem provide a
habitat for many marine organisms. Predatory
fish help maintain the balance of coral reefs by
controlling the populations of smaller organisms
like sea urchins, which can destroy the reefs if their numbers increase
unnaturally.
❖ Impact of human activities on aquatic life:
Have you ever thought about how human activities can affect aquatic
ecosystems? Human activities play a significant role in impacting aquatic life,
from overfishing to pollution.
polluTion Chemical pollution such as pesticides and heavy metals that
are discharged into the water, can affect water quality and harm the
health of living organisms.
oveRfiShing can lead to a decline in the populations of certain species
and affect ecological balance
Environmental destruction
is the destruction of natural habitats such as coral reefs and wetlands Loss is
caused biodiversity.
 The role of humans in maintaining ecological balance.
Humans are considered a significant factor in the changes that occur in the
environment, whether positive or negative. Therefore, they must take
responsibility for maintaining ecological balance and taking necessary
measures to reduce negative impacts.
Here are some roles that humans can play in maintaining ecological balance:

1. conSeRvaTion of naTuRal ReSouRceS:

Humans should handle natural resources such as water, forests, soil, and
wildlife with care. This can be achieved by using resources sustainably,
avoiding pollution, and preventing waste.
2. enviRonMenTal aWaReneSS and educaTion:
Humans should learn and understand the impact of their actions on the
environment and share this knowledge with others. This can be achieved
through awareness and environmental education activities, such as media
campaigns, workshops, and school education.
3. SuSTainable developMenT:
Maintaining ecological balance requires adopting sustainable development
models that meet the needs of the current generation without compromising
the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. Humans should
strive to develop and use clean and sustainable technologies, promote
sustainable agriculture, and enhance sustainability in industrial and urban
sectors.
4. paRTicipaTion in enviRonMenTal policieS:
Humans should actively participate in environmental decision-making and in
the development and implementation of environmental policies. This can be
done through participating in public dialogues and forums, engaging in
environmental organizations, and pressuring governments to take strong
actions to protect the environment.
5. TRanSiTion To eco-fRiendly pRacTiceS:
Humans can take small steps in their daily lives to contribute to maintaining
ecological balance, such as reducing water and energy consumption, sorting
waste, and using public transportation or bicycles for commuting.

Research and Investigation

Goal: Developing a Plan to Protect Aquatic Ecosystems Objective: Develop

a plan to protect ecosystems from degradation.
Tools: Worksheets with information on protection strategies.

Steps:
In this activity, you will learn how to protect aquatic ecosystems that are an
important part of our planet. First, you will choose a specific aquatic
ecosystem, such as a river, lake, or ocean. Then, you will review the challenges
faced by this system, such as pollution, climate change, or overexploitation of
resources. Finally, you will design a comprehensive plan to protect this
ecosystem, including specific actions and strategies you can implement to
safeguard it from degradation. You will use the worksheets provided to gather
information and document your plan in detail.

you can STudy The folloWing exaMple:

The Nile River is the backbone of life in Egypt, where millions rely on its
water for agriculture, drinking, and fishing. However, the river faces
significant challenges threatening its sustainability, including industrial
pollution, over-extraction of water, and the impacts of climate change. Urgent
actions must be taken to protect this vital ecosystem and ensure its
sustainability for future generations.
 Research Questions

❖ Industrial Pollution:
1. What are the main sources of industrial pollution in the Nile River?
2. How does industrial pollution affect water quality and aquatic life in the
Nile River?
3. What possible measures can be taken to reduce industrial pollution in the
Nile River?
4. Are there successful examples from other countries in reducing industrial
pollution in their rivers? How can they be applied in Egypt?

❖ Overexploitation of Water Resources

1. How does the overexploitation of water affect the water level of the Nile
River?
2. What modern agricultural techniques can be used to reduce water
consumption in agriculture?
3. What is the impact of dams and water diversion projects on the flow of the
Nile River?
4. How can water consumption be regulated among different users
(agriculture, industry, population) to ensure the sustainability of water
resources?
 ❖ Climate Change
1. How does climate change affect the Nile River in terms of water flow,
drought, and flooding?
2. What climate changes are expected in Egypt over the coming decades, and
how will they affect the Nile River?
3. What possible strategies are there for adapting to the impacts of climate
change on the Nile River?
4. How can technology be used to develop early warning systems for floods
and droughts in the Nile River?

❖ Ecosystem Protection:
1. What animal and plant species are endangered in the Nile River due to
current environmental challenges?
2. How can environmental awareness among the local community be
enhanced to participate in efforts to protect the Nile River?
3. What are the current government policies for protecting the Nile River, and
are they sufficient?
4. How can the local community and non-governmental organizations be
involved in efforts to protect the Nile River?
 Chapter 2

Atmosphere
 Chapter Two: The Atmosphere

Learning Outcomes
Upon completing the study of this chapter, the student will be able to:
1. Explain the structure of the atmosphere and its main components and their
effects on the Earth's surface.
2. Distinguish between the different layers of the atmosphere and describe the
characteristics of each layer.
3. Analyze the impact of physical factors in the atmosphere, such as temperature,
pressure, humidity, solar radiation, and wind speed on the distribution of living
organisms and climatic conditions.
4. Compare the effects of various physical factors on climate in different
geographical areas.
5. Evaluate the impact of chemical interactions in the atmosphere, such as ozone
formation and air pollution, on public health and the environment.
6. Explain how chemical interactions in the atmosphere affect air quality and
climate change.
7. Integrate the acquired knowledge to assess the practical effects of changes in the
atmosphere on daily life and the environment.
8. Propose practical solutions to air pollution and climate change problems based
on the information learned.
Issues Involved

1. Climate Change
2. Air Pollution
3. Resource Sustainability
 Lesson1
The Atmosphere
It's a layer of mixture of gases that surround the earth planet.
- It protects the earth from outer harmful rays
and rocks coming from outer space.
- it adjusts the temperature of the earth.
-its gaseous mixture provides the existence of
life on earth.
-its steadiness due to gravity

what will happen if the planet

doesn't surround by atmosphere.

Mercury has no atmosphere. So its temperature increases with

great value due to absorption of sunlight and when sun goes the
planet loses its heat very fast during its rotation.
Bec. It doesn't contain atmosphere

Components of Atmosphere:

1-Nitrogen N2: it occupies 78% from volume of atmosphere.

-it's slightly inactive bec. It's difficulty react with the other gases or
elements except under certain conditions of high temperature or
lightening So its oxides are rarely formed.
2-Oxygen O2: it occupies 21% of volume of atmosphere.
-It’s very important in respiration and combustion.
-It's an active gas in most of chemical reactions.
3-Argon gas Ar: inert gas occupies 0.93%
4- Carbon dioxide CO2: it occupies 0.04%
and it's important in photosynthesis process.
5-Watervapour H2O: its volume differs from place
to another in the surface near area and plays an
important role in weather phenomena and climatic changes.
6- Ozone gas O3:
-it exists at 10 - 55 km from sea level (earth surface)

Atmospheric Layers:
1- troposphere
2-stratosphere
3-mesosphere
4- Iono sphere
1-troposphere
-It's the nearest layer to earth's surface.
-its thickness is 18 km at equator and 8 km at the two poles.
Give reason: Increase thickness of troposphere at Equator?
Due to convection currents that carry and push the warm less
dense air upward.
-By increasing height the temp. decreases with one degree each
176 meter due to decrease in atmospheric pressure as air
molecules expand and need energy from kinetic energy of the air
molecules.
-Most weather phenomena occur in this layer. As clouds, rains and
wind currents.
Atmospheric pressure:
It's the weight of air column on unit area Change of
atmospheric pressure with change in height above sea
level

What is the effect of rising up above sea level on the air density?
The air pressure decrease from sea level to increase the length (weight)
column of air.
Isobar:
- It is the curved lines that join the points of equal pressure in
atmospheric pressure maps.
- the wind moves from the areas of high atmospheric pressure to the
areas of low atmospheric pressure.so wind direction is vertical.
-The Centre of low atm. pressure areas is represented by L
-The Centre of high atm. pressure areas is represented by H
-Tool used to measure atmospheric pressure:
BAROMETER and its unit bar and millibar
Normal atmospheric pressure is: 1013 mb

It measured at the sea level and it equals 760 mm Hg

Also it euals 101300 N/m2

2- stratosphere

Stratosphere is the second atmospheric layer, which is also called

( Ozone layer)
-its height is 50 Km above the sea level .
-Ozone layer is formed in this layer by effect of UV.
-temperature doesn't change in stratospheretill20 km so wind
direction is horizontal so pilots prefer to fly their aero planes in
lower part .
Then temp. begins to increase due to presence of ozone gas in
upper part.
 3-Meso sphere
-its thickness reaches 30 km
-Temp. decreases till -90oC
-Asteroids burn in this layer before
reaching earth surface.

4-Ionosphere
- It extends to 640 km above the sea level
It contains charged ions due to ionization
Of atoms of atmosphere.
It used in wireless communication for long
Distances Bec .it can reflects radio waves

Check your
understanding
 Exercise
Q1-Choose the correct answer:
1- Ozone gas exists in ………..layer.
a- troposphere b- stratosphere
c- mesosphere d- ionosphere
2- Most of weather phenomena occur in ….. layer.
a- meso sphere b- ionosphere
c- troposphere d- stratosphere
3- ………….layer is used in wireless communication.
a- meso sphere b- ionosphere
c- troposphere d- stratosphere
Q2:mention the importance of atmosphere?
……………………………………………………………………
Q3:How to protect ozone layer?
……………………………………………………………………
 Lesson 2-2

Physical Factors in the Atmosphere

The atmosphere is a dynamic system in which several physical factors

interact, affecting weather and climate, and consequently the distribution of
living organisms in various climatic regions. How do we explain the change in
weather from day to day? Or why are some areas warm and sunny while
others are cold and dry? In this lesson, we learn about the impact of various
physical factors such as heat, pressure, humidity, solar radiation, and wind
speed on our daily lives and on living organisms.

**Physical Factors and Their Impact on the Atmosphere:**

First: Heat:

Heat is considered one of the most important climatic factors because it affects
other factors such as atmospheric pressure, winds, humidity, condensation,
and consequently rainfall. The primary source of heat and light on Earth is
the sun. When sunlight reaches the Earth, it heats the surface of the land and
water more significantly, and then the heat is transferred to the gaseous
atmosphere surrounding the Earth. The temperature begins to rise, and the
layers of the atmosphere close to the Earth's surface are warmer than those
farther away. Sunlight does not heat all areas of the Earth's surface at the
same rate; areas where sunlight strikes vertically or nearly vertically receive a
greater amount of thermal energy per unit area than those where sunlight
strikes at an angle.
 ❖ Air temperature measurement

Meteorological agencies measure air temperature periodically, comparing it

with temperatures in other areas and also with temperatures recorded in
previous years during the same climatic season. These agencies use one of the
following measuring instruments:

1 - Celsius scale ( Co ) , which is the scale used in Egypt, for example.

2 - Fahrenheit scale ( Fo ), which is the scale used in the United States of
America,
- Kelvin scale (TK), which represents the absolute temperature scale used in
scientific fields.

The relationship between temperature scales

The relationship between the absolute temperature

scale TK and the Celsius scale tc:

Tk = tc + 273
The relationship between the Fahrenheit temperature scale tF and the Celsius
scale tc:
tF = (9/5 x tc) + 32
Training
Find the value of the freezing point of pure water and its boiling point on the
Kelvin and Fahrenheit scales, and record it in the corresponding table.

Temperature tc tF TK
Pure water
0o
freezing point
Pure water
100o
boiling point

Heat Transfer Mechanisms.

heat Is generally transferred In three ways:

1. Conduction:

Heat is transferred in a solid body or between two touching bodies, moving

from particles in the region of higher temperature to adjacent particles in
areas of lower temperatures without the transfer of those particles. Some
materials are characterized by good thermal conductivity, such as metals,
while others have low thermal conductivity, like wood.
 2. Convection:

Heat is transferred through fluids by convection, where the density of the

hotter parts of the fluid is less than that of the cooler parts, causing the less
dense hotter parts to rise and be replaced by denser parts.

Have you ever seen a bird soaring high without flapping its wings? This is not
just a beautiful sight, but a result of birds exploiting what is known as thermal
soaring. Thermal soaring is a technique used by birds to stay in the air for
long periods without needing to continuously flap their wings, thus conserving
energy. The bird glides over rising warm air currents through convection,
maintaining its altitude.

3. Radiation:

Heat is transferred in the form of electromagnetic radiation. Thermal

radiation spreads in all directions without the need for a physical medium. It
can propagate in a vacuum and through gases as well.
 Research Activity

In collaboration with your colleague, draw a diagram showing the ways heat
transfers from the sun to the Earth's surface and then to the atmosphere.
Which materials are considered the best in terms of thermal conductivity for
use in making cooking pots to save energy used in heating? Are there other
factors that influence your choice in finding the best cooking pots?

Secondly: Atmospheric Pressure:

r4r Atmospheric pressure affects weather and climate. In areas of low pressure,
the weather is usually stormy and rainy, while the weather in high-pressure
areas is stable and dry.
North Pole
The difference in atmospheric Polar wind

pressure causes winds to blow. At Head wind

the equator, warm equatorial Commercial wind

air rises in the atmosphere, equator

creating a low-pressure area. At Commercial wind

the same time, cooler and denser Head wind

air moves from the surface toward Polar wind

North Pole
the equator to replace the warm air.
Generally, this movement is from high-pressure areas to low-pressure areas.
There are several wind systems at the Earth's surface, including polar winds,
which are dry and cold winds blowing from high-pressure areas around the
North and South Poles to low-pressure areas in the subpolar regions.
Atmospheric pressure also affects the amount of oxygen available for
breathing. In areas of low atmospheric pressure, such as high altitudes, the
levels of oxygen available in the air are lower, requiring adaptations from
living organisms that thrive in low-pressure environments.

in those areas, such as the increased number of red blood cells. Mountain
climbers may suffer from the rupture of tiny blood vessels in the nose due to
the significant difference between the blood pressure inside them and the low
atmospheric pressure outside.

Third: Humidity

Humidity is the amount of water vapor present in the air. High humidity levels
in tropical areas affect cloud formation and rainfall, where rain is abundant
and supports the growth of dense forests.
Its percentage depends on
temperature and pressure; the higher
the air temperature, the greater the
amount of water vapor it can hold.
When the air contains the maximum
amount of water vapor it can hold at a
specific temperature and pressure, it is
said to be saturated with water vapor. The humidity level in the air is
measured by a hygrometer.
 The effect of humidity on living organisms:

Some vital processes in living organisms are affected by the humidity level in
the surrounding air. As the relative humidity of the air around the plant
increases, the rate of transpiration decreases, which reduces the rate of water
and salts being lifted from the roots to the leaves. In animals, the rate of sweat
evaporation decreases, reducing the efficiency of cooling their body

High humidity Low humidity

Water molecules in the

atmosphere
surrounding the leaf

Water vapor
molecules in
Water vapor
atmosphere
molecules in the air
 Fourth: Wind Speed
The movement of air from areas of high atmospheric pressure to areas of low
atmospheric pressure. Winds affect the distribution of heat and humidity in
the atmosphere, which in turn affects the climate in different regions. Strong
winds can lead to significant changes in weather.

The Impact of Climate Factors on Living Organisms

1-Cactus
The cactus adapts to desert conditions of water
scarcity and low humidity by storing water in its
stem and developing spines to reduce water loss.

2- Pine trees
Pine trees adapt to cold climates through the shape of their
needle-like leaves, which reduces water loss in icy conditions.

3- The penguin

The penguin adapts to the cold climate of Antarctica

thanks to a thick layer of fat and a feather coat that
retains heat.
4- The camel
The camel adapts to the desert environment by being able to withstand high
temperatures and water loss, and it can drink large amounts of water in a
short time.
5- Migratory birds
Migratory birds adapt to climate changes by
migrating to warmer areas in winter in search of
food and moderate temperatures.

6- The octopus
The octopus adapts to different marine environments by
changing its colors and shape to hide from predators.

7- The starfish
The starfish adapts to the oceans through its ability to survive in various
temperature and salinity conditions.

8- Ants:
Ants show various adaptations based on climate,
such as building nests underground to avoid heat
or cold.
Ants build nests underground to adapt to climatic
conditions.
 Research and Investigation

Activity 1: Measuring the Impact of Physical Factors

Objective: Understand the impact of physical factors on the atmosphere.

Tools: Thermometer, barometer, hygrometer, anemometer.
Steps:
1. Measure temperature, pressure, humidity, and wind speed in your area over
a full day.
2. Record the data and analyze how changes in these factors affect local
weather.

Activity 2: Analyzing Weather Data

Objective: Analyze weather data to understand the impact of
physical factors.
Tools: Local or global weather data.
Steps:
1. Choose two different geographical regions (such as tropical and
polar regions).
2. Compare temperature, pressure, humidity, and wind speed data
between the two regions.
3. Analyze how these factors affect the climate in each region.
 Check Your Understanding

1. What is the relationship between atmospheric pressure and temperature in

the atmosphere?
How do physical factors such as heat, pressure, and humidity affect daily
weather and long-term climate?

Research Activity

Using various resources, work with a group of your peers to prepare a

presentation on climate change and its impact on local and global ecosystems.
Can environmental changes be predicted and adapted to ensure the
sustainability of life on Earth?
Heat Transfer Mechanisms and Climate Factors Assessment

1. Which of the following is NOT a mechanism of heat transfer?

a. Conduction b. Convection c. Radiation d. Evaporation
2. In which heat transfer mechanism does energy move through a material without the
movement of particles?
a. Radiation b. Convection c. Conduction d. Sublimation
3. What is the primary method of heat transfer in fluids?
a. Radiation b. Conduction c. Convection d. Reflection
4. Which of the following best describes thermal radiation?
a. Transfer of heat through particle collisions
b. Movement of heated particles in a fluid
c. Electromagnetic waves that can travel through a vacuum
d. Heat transfer only possible in solids
5. Why do birds use thermal soaring?
a. To avoid predators b. To conserve energy
c. To increase their body temperature d. To find food more easily
6. Which material is generally considered to have good thermal conductivity?
a. Wood b. Plastic c. Metal d. Rubber
7. What causes winds to blow?
a. Differences in atmospheric pressure
b. Earth's rotation
c. Differences in humidity
d. Changes in ocean currents
8. How does atmospheric pressure typically affect weather in a region?
a. Low pressure areas usually have stable, dry weather
b. High pressure areas usually have stormy, rainy weather
c. Low pressure areas usually have stormy, rainy weather
d. Atmospheric pressure has no effect on weather
9. What adaptation do organisms living at high altitudes often develop?
a. Larger lung capacity
b. Increased number of red blood cells
c. Thicker skin
d. Enhanced night vision
10. How does humidity affect the rate of transpiration in plants?
a. Higher humidity increases transpiration rate
b. Higher humidity decreases transpiration rate
c. Humidity has no effect on transpiration
d. Only temperature affects transpiration
11. Which of the following is used to measure humidity levels in the air?
a. Barometer
b. Thermometer
c. Anemometer
d. Hygrometer
Lesson 3-2 Chemical Interactions in the Atmosphere
The atmosphere is not just a shield protecting the Earth; it is a stage for
complex chemical interactions that play a crucial role in our daily lives, from
the formation of ozone that protects the Earth from ultraviolet rays to air
pollution that threatens the health of humans and other living beings. These
chemical interactions in the atmosphere affect air quality, climate, and public
health. In this lesson, we will learn how these interactions occur and their
impacts on the environment and humans.

1. Ozone Formation
The ozone molecule (O3) consists of three oxygen
atoms. Ozone is formed in the stratosphere of the
atmosphere due to the effect of ultraviolet rays
coming from the sun on oxygen molecules (O2), as
follows:
A. Ultraviolet rays with a wavelength less than 240
nm cause the covalent bond in the oxygen molecule
(O2) to break, resulting in two individual oxygen atoms (O).
B. The individual oxygen atom combines with an oxygen molecule to form the
ozone molecule.
 **Importance of Ozone:**
Ozone acts as a shield protecting the Earth from harmful ultraviolet rays.
Without this layer, life on Earth would be severely damaged due to these rays.

The Negative Impact of Ozone in the Troposphere:

❖ Air Pollution:
Ozone gas in the troposphere is part of smog. This smog forms as a result of
the interaction of ozone, nitrogen oxides (NOx), sulfur dioxide (SO2), and fine
particles in the presence of sunlight.

❖ Health Problems:
Ozone can cause health issues such as irritation of the eyes, nose, and throat,
breathing problems, worsening of asthma, and lung damage.

❖ Environmental Effects:
Ozone can damage plants and agricultural crops, affecting their growth and
quality. It can also cause the deterioration of materials like plastic and rubber.

❖ Greenhouse Gas Effects:

Ozone is considered one of the greenhouse gases in the troposphere that
contribute to the greenhouse effect, which can lead to climate changes such as
rising temperatures and changes in weather patterns.
 2- Air Pollution:

Sources of air pollution can be natural, such as volcanoes and wildfires, or

human-made, such as factory smoke and vehicle emissions.

❖ Air Pollution and Climate Change:

Some air pollutants, like carbon dioxide (CO2) and other greenhouse gases,
contribute to the greenhouse effect, leading to significant climate changes
such as polar ice melting and rising sea levels.

❖ Air Pollution and Human Health:

Air pollution causes many respiratory diseases such as asthma, bronchitis,

and allergies, as well as cardiovascular diseases like heart and blood vessel

diseases.

• Exposure to air pollution can affect brain growth and child development.

• Some pollutants, such as benzene and arsenic, are linked to an increased

risk of certain types of cancer.

 ❖ Air pollution and ecosystems

can lead to the loss of biodiversity in ecosystems.

1. Its effect on plants: Ground-level ozone can burn plant leaves, reducing

their ability to photosynthesize. Consequently, it negatively affects plant

growth and productivity.

2. Its effect on animals: Birds and insects are affected by air pollution,

impacting their behavior and reproduction. For example, the decline in bee

populations due to air pollution affects the rate of plant pollination.

Strategies to reduce pollution:

1. Use public transportation to reduce car exhaust emissions.

2. Improve energy efficiency: Use energy-efficient technologies in homes and

factories.

Example: Use LED lights and high-efficiency electrical appliances.

3. Increase green spaces: Plant trees and public gardens to help improve air

quality.
Research and Investigation

Analyzing the impact of pollution on the environment

Objective: Understand the impact of air pollution on ecosystems.

Tools: Data on air quality in your area, plant samples.

Steps:

1. Collect data on air pollution levels in your area over a month.

2. Observe the impact of pollution on local plants (such as leaf damage or color changes).

3. Analyze the relationship between pollution levels and changes in plant health.

Choose the correct answer

1- Which of the following chemical reactions is considered one of the main

reasons for the formation of ozone in the stratosphere?

A) The reaction of nitrogen oxide with carbon dioxide.

B) The reaction of oxygen with ultraviolet rays.

C) The reaction of water vapor with carbon.

D) The reaction of ozone with sulfur oxide.

2- What chemical compound is considered responsible for the formation of

smog in major cities as a result of the reaction between nitrogen oxides and

hydrocarbons?

A) Ozone B) Nitrogen oxide C) Sulfur dioxide D) Carbon dioxide

3- What compound is produced by the reaction of nitrogen oxide with ozone in

the atmosphere that contributes to air pollution?

A) Nitrous oxide B) Nitric oxide C) Nitrogen dioxide D) Ozone

Lesson 4-2 Atmospheric Changes and Their Effects

Get Ready

The changes occurring in the atmosphere lead to numerous climatic changes.

Recently, a rise in summer temperatures has been observed year after year
due to the greenhouse effect, with air pollution being the primary cause.
Therefore, some scientists predict that if the deterioration of air quality
continues at the same rate in the future, living organisms may need to exist
within bubbles that protect them from pollution and radiation.
In thIs lesson , we will discuss how we can apply the knowledge we
have learned about the atmosphere to assess these effects and develop
sustainable solutions to environmental problems.
Learn Changes in the Atmosphere and Their Impact on Daily Life:

Our understanding of the atmosphere helps us recognize the importance of

protecting it. Continuous changes in the ratios of gas mixtures in the
atmosphere reduce its ability to maintain the Earth's surface at a suitable
temperature for the life and activity of living organisms and its ability to
protect the Earth from harmful solar radiation.

Climate Changes and Their Impact on Ecosystems:

A global climate conference is held where governments discuss the changes
occurring due to shifts in the climate map and how to mitigate climate change
and prepare for it in the future. Among these issues:
Global Warming
Global warming is defined as the continuous rise in the temperature of the air
adjacent to the Earth's surface. Emissions of greenhouse gases result from
burning fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and gas.

The greenhouse effect acts like a blanket surrounding the Earth, leading to the
trapping of heat in the atmosphere and raising
temperatures. Global warming causes significant
changes in the climate, melting polar ice, and rising
sea levels. The greenhouse gases that cause global
warming include carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous
oxide, chlorofluorocarbons, and water vapor.
The greenhouse gases in the atmosphere work on the same principle as a
greenhouse, as the atmosphere allows short-wavelength solar radiation to pass
through to the Earth, which in turn absorbs this radiation and then re-emits it
as long-wavelength thermal radiation. Greenhouse gases significantly prevent
this radiation from passing into outer space, leading to a gradual increase in
the Earth's surface temperature year after year.

**Negative Effects of Global Warming**

**Melting Ice: **

A large amount of freshwater is found frozen in glaciers and ice masses at the
poles. With the increase in Earth's temperature, ice masses are repeatedly
breaking off, threatening coastal flooding and leading to an environmental
disaster. Its features include:

1. The extinction of polar organisms due to the destruction of their natural

habitat, resulting in a decrease in biodiversity and an imbalance in the
ecosystem.
2. The occurrence of severe climate changes, such as hurricanes, floods,
droughts, and others.

**Solutions to Air Pollution and Climate Change**

1- Expanding the use of renewable energy:

Transitioning to clean energy sources such as solar energy, wind energy, and
hydropower can reduce greenhouse gas emissions.

2-Afforestation:

Have you noticed that the Egyptian state is concerned with having green
spaces and gardens in the establishment of new cities? Do you know the
reason?

The presence of a large amount of vegetation helps to increase the process of

photosynthesis carried out by
plants, which plays

a fundamental role in
absorbing carbon dioxide, the
main cause of global warming.
Therefore, afforestation is one
of the most important methods to reduce global warming.
How does the Earth retain atmospheric gases?
Escape Velocity
The molecules of each gas move at tremendous speeds that depend on the
mass of the gas molecule and the temperature.
Naturally, this speed is greater for lighter
molecules at higher temperatures. For any object
to escape a planet's gravity, it must gain a certain
speed called escape velocity (Ve), which is a
constant value for each planet. The escape
velocity from Earth's gravity is about 11.2
km/sec.

❖ The retention of a gas on a planet's surface is related to the relationship

between the effective speed of the gas molecules (Vrms) and the escape
velocity from the surface of that planet (Ve).
❖ If the effective speed of the gas molecules (V) is less than the escape
velocity, then the gas molecules cannot escape into space from the
planet's gravity, and the planet retains this gas on its surface.
❖ If the effective speed of gas particles is equal to or greater than the
escape velocity from the planet's gravity (Verms ≥V), then gas particles
can escape the planet's gravity into space. Consequently, this gas
becomes rare or nonexistent on the surface of this planet. This applies to
planets with low escape velocities, such as Mercury.
Have you now concluded why Earth retains its atmosphere?

The Impact of Atmospheric Changes on Living Organisms

1 - Changes in Temperature

Changes in the atmosphere affect the lives of living organisms. This includes
changes in temperature, atmospheric pressure, humidity, and air pollution.
Our understanding of how these changes affect daily life enables us to take
effective steps to adapt to these changes.

1- Changes in Temperature:

Temperatures directly affect the growth of many plants. For example,

tomatoes are plants that require certain temperatures to grow well. Increased
temperatures may negatively impact the production of certain crops, such as
wheat. Therefore, some crops are classified as summer crops and others as
winter crops.

2- Changes in Humidity:

Some plants, such as tropical plants, require high humidity for their growth,
while desert plants thrive better in low humidity.

3- Air Pollution

❖ Air pollution negatively affects human public health and causes many
respiratory diseases.
❖ Air pollution affects plants and animals, impacting wildlife, and may
lead to the extinction of some species.

Research and Investigation

Activity1 Developing Projects or Models for Environmental Solutions

objeCtIve: Apply scientific knowledge to develop practical solutions for

environmental problems.
tools: Environmental materials, miniature models, design programs.
steps:
1. Choose an environmental problem related to the atmosphere (such as air
pollution).
2. Design a model or project that contributes to solving this problem.
3. Present your model with a scientific explanation of how it works and its
potential impact.
Activity 2: Discussing Real Case Studies

objeCtIve: Understand real applications of technologies to mitigate air

pollution and climate change.
tools: Scientific articles, environmental reports.
steps:
1. Choose a case study related to a specific environmental problem.
2. Read the study and extract the main points.
3. Discuss in a group how solutions were applied in this case and how they
can be improved.

Activity3: Field Visit

Visit a weather station or environmental research center to understand how
changes in the atmosphere are measured.
**Axis One - Ecosystems and Sustainability of Life**

Check Your Understanding

1. How do changes in the atmosphere affect daily life?

2. What are some possible solutions to address climate change and air
pollution?

3. Why does Earth's gravity retain the atmosphere and not let it escape?

Integration of Sciences (Technology and Environmental Sciences)

Technology: How do modern technologies contribute to reducing air

pollution and improving quality of life?

Environmental Sciences: How can we assess the environmental impact of

human activities on the atmosphere and provide sustainable solutions?

Conclusion

The changes occurring in the atmosphere have long-term effects on our lives and on the planet as a
whole. By understanding these changes and working to develop practical solutions, we can contribute
to protecting the environment and ensuring the sustainability of life for future generations.
 Chapter Three
Soil

Learning Outcome s :

Upon completing the study of this chapter, the student will be able to :

1-Describe the composition of soil and its main components such as

minerals, organic matter, water, and air .

2-Explain the role of soil in supporting plants and maintaining the balance
of the ecosystem .

3-Relate different soil properties to their impact on plant health .

4-Illustrate the effect of acid rain on soil .

5-List soil measurements and explain conservation strategies .

6-Innovate methods to develop soil conservation plans .

Issues Involved :

1-Climate change

2-Reducing pollution

3-Environmental conservation

4-Sustainability
 Lesson 1-3 Soil Composition and Its Importance in the

Ecosystem
Why do plants grow well in certain soils while not thriving in others?
What makes soil so crucial for supporting plant life?
In this lesson,
-we will learn about soil composition, the elements it consists of,
-how its properties affect plant health,
-and its role in maintaining ecological balance.
Soil study is a branch of environmental sciences and agricultural
sciences that focuses on understanding soil
properties, its formation, and how it impacts
plants, animals, and the environment.
Most plants obtain nutrients from the soil,
which is the primary food source for humans
and animals.
Therefore, most living organisms depend on soil for their existence. Soil is a
valuable resource that requires careful scientific management because it
can be easily depleted and destroyed.
If we understand and manage soil properly,
we can avoid destroying one of the fundamental components of our
environment and food security.
Soil is not just a clayey material beneath our feet; it is a complex system
made up of several main components. Soil is the loose upper layer that
covers the Earth's surface and is formed from the weathering and
fragmentation of all types of igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks
due to various surface natural factors, and their interaction with different
environmental factors.
Soil Formation:
Soil is continuously formed, but very slowly,
through weathering processes that lead to
the fragmentation and decomposition of rocks.
Weathering occurs due to physical, chemical,
or biological processes. These processes can be extremely slow, taking tens
of thousands of years.

Physical weathering:
It occurs as a result of the fragmentation of rocks through

physical processes such as changes in temperature and the repeated

freezing and thawing of water in rock
crevices, or through mechanical processes
when rocks rub against each other during
transport by wind and water currents.
Gravity also plays a role in soil formation.
Chemical weathering: It occurs due to the
breakdown of the mineral components of rocks
in the presence of water through changes in their chemical composition,
where minerals react with air or other chemicals.
Biological weathering: It involves the fragmentation of rocks by living
organisms, where animals that burrow into rocks help water and air enter
the rocks. Plant roots can grow in the crevices of rocks, leading to cracking
and then fragmentation.
Components of soil: Soil consists of several main components, which are:
Minerals: Minerals are the largest component
of soil, most of which are silicate minerals.
The minerals found in soil can be classified
into two main types:
primary minerals: which result from the weathering of rocks by
physical factors, and are often irregular in shape and size and coarse.
secondary minerals: which are produced from various chemical and
biological weathering processes of primary minerals, and are more stable
minerals.
Organic matter:
This consists of a diverse array of plant
and animal remains such as insects, earthworms,
and microorganisms like fungi, bacteria, and other
living and dead organisms that mix with the soil
and are known as humus.
These organic materials affect the chemical,

physical, and biological properties

of the soil.
Water:

Water exists within the pores and

is considered an essential part of soil

components, as it is important for transporting nutrients to plants.

Gases:
Within the soil pores, there is an exchange of
atmospheric gases, including oxygen, which is
essential for the respiration of plant roots and
microorganisms in the soil, as well as carbon
dioxide and nitrogen, both of which are important for the functions of
organisms that aid in plant growth, such as
nitrogen-fixing bacteria.
Soil Profile:

Horizon A:
The vertical section of the soil illustrates
the different horizons or main parts of the soil,
which vary in thickness among different soil
types based on the type of parent rock from
which the soil was formed, as well as the
influence of living organisms, climate factors,
and the duration of exposure of the parent
rocks to weathering factors.
Most different soil types consist of three
main horizons below the surface:
Top soil or Horizon A: It is primarily composed of plant remains that
have accumulated on the soil surface and is rich in humus, where nutrients,
organic matter, and biological activity occur (most plant roots,
earthworms, insects, and microorganisms are active).
Horizon A is usually darker in color than the other horizons due to organic
matter.
Subsoil or Horizon B:
This layer is rich in clay and is often less fertile, retaining more moisture,
generally lighter in color, with a coarser texture and lower biological
activity compared to Horizon A.
Above the Parent Rock or Horizon C: This consists of cohesive or
loose rock materials from which Horizons A and B were formed, and plant
roots do not penetrate this layer.

Types of Soil and Their Physical Properties:

There are many types of soil that differ in their properties based on their
components and environment, such as

1- clay soil 2- silt soil 3-sand soil.

1- Clay Soil
-Clay soil consists of fine-sized sediments with the spaces between the
sediments being extremely small, making it dense and poorly aerated. -It
has a high capacity to retain water, and thus its drainage is very poor due
to the difficulty of water seeping through the clay sediments, which allows
it to hold moisture for long periods.
- It is observed that the soil expands when wet
and contracts due to dryness, leading to clay cracks.
2- Sandy Soil:
-Sandy soil is made up of relatively large and coarse sand sediments. --
There are large pores between the sediments, making it well-aerated, but
its ability to retain water is low, and water drains away quickly, making it
dry rapidly and unsuitable for farming
without regular irrigation.
- Sandy soil is often exposed to factors that affect it.

3- Silty Soil:
- Silty soil is a mixture of clay, sand, and fine silt, but slightly larger than
clay particles.
- It is moderately aerated and has a high capacity
to retain water, thus retaining moisture well; however,
it may become weak when saturated with water.
- Its drainage is average as it retains a reasonable amount of water but can
become saturated in wet conditions.
It has high fertility, making it ideal for agriculture.
The Role of Soil in the Ecosystem:
-Soil plays a vital and essential role in the ecosystem,
contributing to many environmental processes that
support life on Earth.
- Some of the most important roles that soil plays
in the ecosystem include:
• Supporting Plant Growth:
- Soil is a source of nutrients, providing plants with essential elements such
as nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium, which are crucial for growth.
- Soil acts as a medium for root stabilization, supporting the plant and
preventing it from being washed away or falling.
- Soil retains water and supplies it to plants as needed.
• Regulating the Water Cycle:
Soil absorbs rainwater and stores it, helping to provide water to plants
during dry periods. As water seeps through soil layers.
soil acts as a natural filter that removes impurities and pollutants from
water before it reaches groundwater.
• Nutrient Cycling:
Soil contains microorganisms such as bacteria and fungi that decompose
dead organic matter, converting it into nutrients that plants can use.
• Supporting Biodiversity and Ecological Balance:
-Soil provides a habitat for a wide range of living organisms such as
worms, insects, bacteria, and fungi.
- These organisms play vital roles in decomposing
organic matter, fixing nitrogen,
and aerating the soil.
-Soil supports plant biodiversity by providing
a suitable environment for various plant species,
which in turn supports wildlife.

Summary

Healthy soil plays an important role in mitigating the effects of - -

climate change by sequestering carbon, absorbing carbon dioxide, and

reducing greenhouse gas levels in the atmosphere.
-Through the restoration of degraded soil and the adoption of soil
conservation practices,
- greenhouse gas emissions can be reduced, carbon dioxide
absorption can be enhanced, and resilience to climate change can be
strengthened.
-Soil plays a critical role in regulating temperature as it absorbs heat and
stores it during the day, releasing it slowly at night, which helps mitigate
rapid temperature changes.
-Maintaining soil structure and preventing erosion
Plants growing in the soil help stabilize it and prevent erosion caused by
wind or water.
- Healthy soil that is planted with vegetation
helps prevent desertification and land degradation.
-Soil is an essential element of life,
supporting plants and contributing to many ecological processes.
Different types of soil vary in their properties
, making each type suitable for specific uses
and crops based on its composition
and ability to retain water and drain.

-Soil is not just a physical medium

it is a living,
- dynamic system that contributes
to the balance of ecosystems and
the sustainability of life on Earth.
Research and Investigation
Activity 1: Analyzing Soil Samples
1. Collect soil samples from different areas (garden, agricultural land,
roadside).
2. Analyze the samples to determine their composition in terms of mineral
content, organic matter, moisture, and air.
3. Compare the samples in terms of their physical properties and their
potential impact on plant growth by using the following points:
Texture observation:
Touch each soil sample; is it smooth, rough, or sticky?
Record your observations.
Water retention test:
• Place a small amount of soil in a strainer or on a piece of cotton cloth
inside a funnel.
• Slowly pour a specific amount of water onto the soil, and observe the rate
at which the water drains through the soil.
Does it drain quickly (like sandy soil) or retain water for a long time (like
clay soil)?
Water drainage test:
-Place a quantity of each soil sample in a transparent cup with identical
holes at the bottom,
-then add an equal amount of water to each.
-Observe the rate of water drainage from each type of soil.
-Compare the results and record observations about each tested property.
Activity 2: The Effect of Soil on Plant Growth
1. Plant seeds of the same type of plant in different types of soil (sandy,
clayey, loamy).
2. Observe the growth of the plants over two weeks and record
observations about the height of the plants, the color of the leaves,
and the germination rate.
3. Conclude which types of soil were most suitable for plant growth and
why.
Check Your Understanding
Choose the correct answer
1- The type of soil characterized by its ability to retain water but is poorly aerated is:
(A) Clay soil (B) Calcareous soil
(C) Sandy soil (D) Loamy soil
2- Which type of soil contains uniformly sized particles making it poor at retaining water?
(A) Clay soil (B) Sandy soil
(C) Humic soil (D) Loamy soil
3- Which soil horizons contain the largest amount of humus?
(A) Surface soil (B) Subsurface soil
(C) Weathered rock (D) Parent rock
4-……………….soil is rapidly drains water and well aerated.
(A) Clay soil (B) Calcareous soil
(C) Sandy soil (D) Loamy soil

Mention how soil keeps the balance of ecosystem?

…………………………………………………………………………………..

Differentiate between types of soil in: aeration- water drainage- retention

of soil – humus.
 Lesson2

The Impact of Human Practices on Soil

Soil is a vital part of the ecosystem, supporting plant growth and playing
an important role in the nutrient cycle. However, various human activities,
such as agriculture and industry, can lead to soil quality deterioration and
destruction.
In this lesson, we will learn how these activities affect soil and the ways we
can protect this vital resource.
Impact of Agricultural Activities on Soil Quality:
-Agricultural activities are one of the main reasons
affecting soil quality, which can lead to:
1. Soil Compaction:
-The excessive use of heavy agricultural machinery
in farming areas, such as tractors and large equipment,
leads to significant soil compaction , reducing its ability to absorb water
and air. This compaction results in the formation of hard rock-like layers
beneath the soil surface, which hinders the growth of plant roots and leads
to poor agricultural yields. Consequently, plants grown in compacted soil
struggle to access water and nutrients, resulting
in unhealthy growth and reduced crop
productivity.
For example, in wheat fields that have experienced soil compaction, you
may notice that the plants are short and weak, with a reduced number of
grains produced.
2. Salinization:
-This refers to the increase in salt levels in the soil.
Soil salinization occurs due to the accumulation
of excess salts, which can often be seen with
the naked eye on the soil surface. Groundwater containing salts rises to the
soil surface through capillary action, and when the water evaporates, the
salts precipitate on the soil surface.
In regions like the Nile Valley in Egypt, soil salinity increases due to
flooding irrigation or repeated irrigation over time, as most water contains
some dissolved salts that seep into the soil.
3. Nutrient Deficiency in Soil
-One of the biggest mistakes in agriculture is

the practice of growing a single crop on the

same soil repeatedly for consecutive years.
Although some economic benefits may be gained,
they are temporary, as this method leads to soil exhaustion and a
deficiency in essential nutrients necessary for plant growth.
Impact of Industrial Activities on Soil Quality
Industrial activities lead to soil contamination with chemicals and heavy
metals, causing serious environmental problems.
1. Soil Contamination with Heavy Metals
In many industrial areas around the world, high
levels of lead and mercury have been found in the
soil due to the discharge of industrial waste.
Heavy metals like lead and mercury are toxic
to plants and animals,
and plants growing in soil contaminated with these metals can become
toxic to humans and animals when consumed.
2. Soil Contamination with Toxic Chemicals:
-Toxic chemicals seep into the soil from industrial areas, such as those
around oil refineries and petrochemical plants, leading to soil
contamination, such as agricultural soil contamination with "gasoline" in
areas surrounding oil refineries.
This substance is carcinogenic and soil contamination with it may increase
the risk of cancer in individuals living in these areas.
3. Soil Contamination with Nitrate Compounds
In agricultural areas heavily reliant on
manufactured nitrogen fertilizers to increase
crop productivity, such as some areas
in the Egyptian Delta, excessive soil
contamination with nitrate compounds is observed. The increase in nitrate
levels in the soil hinders plants' absorption of other nutrients, leading to
poor growth.
These chemical compounds do not only contaminate the soil.
Ways to Preserve Soil:
-In order to maintain soil quality and protect it from degradation, the
following can be adopted:
- Sustainable agricultural practices such as organic farming, which relies
on the use of natural fertilizers and bio pesticides, by converting

agricultural waste and organic materials in garbage into organic compost.

- The use of crop rotation techniques and following agricultural cycles, as
well as planting cover crops to prevent soil erosion.
- The use of no-till farming techniques to preserve soil structure and reduce
erosion. This technique helps maintain soil moisture levels and improves its
fertility in the long term.
Research and Investigation
Look for sustainable farming techniques applied in your governorate.
Present a report on the environmental benefits of these techniques and how
they contribute to maintaining soil quality.
Check your understanding
First: Choose the correct answer from the following:
1- The use of petrochemical compounds to eliminate insects leads to:
(a) Children's cyanosis (b) Liver cancer
(c) Salt accumulation in the soil (d) Increased heavy metals in the soil
2- Growing tomato crops in the same soil for several consecutive years
leads to:
(a) Hindering plants' absorption of nutrients (b) Soil compaction
(c) Lack of nutrients in the soil (d) Increased soil salinity
Secondly: Answer the following:
(1) Explain how industrial activities can negatively affect soil quality.
Provide a practical example to support your answer.
(2) Why is the excessive use of pesticides and chemical fertilizers harmful
to the soil? How can we reduce this negative impact?
(3) Suggest an agricultural practice that can be used to protect the soil
from degradation.

Review the concepts you learned in this lesson.

Think about how to apply these concepts in your daily life, especially if you
live in an agricultural or industrial area. Write a brief report outlining the
steps you can take to protect the soil in your area.
3- The Impact of Acid Rain on Soil
Introduction
Acid rain is one of the negative environmental phenomena that
significantly affect ecosystems, especially soil and plants.
Acid rain occurs when pollutants in the atmosphere interact with water
vapor, leading to the formation of acids that fall as rain.
In this lesson, we will explore how acid rain is formed and its effects on soil
and plant health.
First: Acid Rain and Its Effect on Soil
Acid rain is an environmental phenomenon that occurs when air pollutants
such as
1-sulfur oxides (SO2)
2-nitrogen oxides (NO2) interact with water vapor in the atmosphere to
form acids (sulfuric acid and nitric acid).
These acids fall as rain, making the water more acidic and lowering the pH
of rain to below 5.6. When this rain falls on the soil,
it interacts with its components, such as carbonate salts and minerals,
leading to soil erosion and changes in its chemical composition.
The Impact of Acid Rain on Soil

1. Soil Degradation
- Erosion of essential minerals: Acid rain can lead to the erosion of
essential minerals in the soil such as calcium and magnesium, reducing soil
fertility.
- Release of toxic metals: Acid rain mobilizes toxic metals such as
aluminum to deposit in the soil, and trees and plants that absorb these
metals may suffer from poisoning, hindering plant growth and causing
death.

- The effect of acid rain on tree roots:

In some forests, acid rain has caused
soil acidification and the release of
dissolved aluminum, harming tree roots
and resulting in the death of many.
2. Impact on Plants:
The toxic effect of acid rain can negatively affect the health of plants by
eroding their roots and poisoning them with toxic metals.
- Reduced Growth: A decrease in the level of nutrients in the soil can
lead to reduced plant growth and weakened health.
- Reduced Yield: The deterioration of soil quality due to acid rain can
affect crops, resulting in decreased agricultural productivity.
- Crop Damage: Acid rain can cause direct damage to crops by
reducing their ability to absorb nutrients.
In addition to the negative impact on the ecological balance,

the effects of acid rain on plants and changes in soil and vegetation can lead
to an imbalance in ecosystems as a whole,
including other animals and plants that depend on healthy soil.

Reducing the Impact of Acid Rain on Plants and Soil:

- Reducing Emissions: Improving fuel combustion techniques and

adding purification devices to limit emissions of sulfur and nitrogen oxides.
- Using Alkaline Fertilizers: Alkaline fertilizers such as lime can be
used to neutralize the acidity levels in the soil.

- Implementing Environmental Policies: Enforcing laws to

regulate pollutant emissions.
- Increasing Awareness: Promoting environmental awareness about
the impact of acid rain and the importance of taking preventive measures.
Research and Investigation :
1. Conduct an experiment to measure the effect of diluted acid on a soil
sample. Observe the changes that occur in the soil and compare it to an
unexposed sample.
2. Collect soil samples from different areas (affected) and unaffected by
acid rain, and analyze their chemical properties using soil analysis tools.
Compare the results and discuss the environmental impact of acid rain.
Check Your Understanding
Choose the correct answer
1. What is the main reason for the formation of acid rain?
A) Evaporation of water from the oceans
B) The reaction of sulfur dioxide with water vapor
C) Air pollution with plastic pollutants
D) Accumulation of dust in the atmosphere

2. What is the effect of acid rain on plant soil?

A) Increased soil fertility
B) Improved soil structure and enhanced plant growth
C) Improved soil quality and increased nutrients
D) Erosion of essential minerals in the soil and release of toxic metals

3. Which of the following is considered a direct effect of acid rain on

agricultural crops?
A) Increased agricultural yields
B) Reduced quality and productivity of crops
C) Enhanced healthy growth of crops
D) Improved stability of crops under changing environmental conditions

4. Which of the following measures is preferred to counteract the effects of

acid rain on soil?
A) Adding chemical fertilizers in large quantities
B) Using lime fertilizers to neutralize acids
C) Increasing the use of pesticides
D) Removing contaminated soil and ignoring it
 Lesson 4 – 3

Soil Measurements and Conservation Strategies

Preparation
Soil plays a vital role in supporting life on our planet, serving as the
foundation for agriculture and ecosystems. Maintaining soil quality
requires a precise understanding of its characteristics and how to measure
them. In this lesson, we will learn how to measure soil moisture, acidity,
and mineral composition, and we will discuss strategies for soil
conservation and quality improvement to ensure its sustainability.
First: Techniques for Measuring Soil Moisture, Acidity, and
Mineral Composition
Understanding soil characteristics requires
the use of accurate measurement techniques.
Soil Moisture:
This term refers to the total amount of water present in the soil pores or on
its surface. Soil moisture is affected by environmental factors such as
rainfall, soil type, and the type of vegetation in the soil.
Soil moisture is a critical indicator in the agricultural process, as an
increase or decrease in water levels in the soil beyond a certain threshold
negatively impacts plants. Climate changes are a primary factor
responsible for the rate of soil moisture and its fluctuations throughout the
year.
 Measuring Moisture:
The water content in the soil is measured using devices such as a moisture
meter or by using weighing techniques before and after drying.
Factors Affecting Soil Moisture:
1. Salinity: As salinity increases in the soil, the water content decreases.

2. Particle Size: The larger the soil particles, the greater the porosity
(the ratio of pore volume to the volume of a soil sample) and permeability
(the ease of water movement between soil particles), leading to a decrease
in soil moisture.
3. Consistency of Particle Size: When soil particles vary in size (a
mixture of sand, clay, and silt, for example), porosity and permeability
decrease, resulting in an increase in soil moisture.

4. Temperature: As soil temperature rises,

moisture levels decrease.

The consequences of increased soil moisture:

Increasing the moisture content in the soil leads to root rot and their death.
Plant roots need water, but they also require air for their cells to breathe.
. If soil moisture increases, the air supply to the plant roots decreases,
causing root cells to die due to their inability to breathe.
Additionally, excess water provides an environment for the growth of
bacteria and decaying fungi, which thrive on dead roots and decompose
them.
Activity:

Objective: Measure the soil moisture content

Tools: A pot with a plant, a moisture meter

Steps:
1. Ensure that the metal probe of the device is clean and completely dry,
and that its indicator is at zero.
2. Insert the metal probe into the soil well near the plant roots, ensuring it
does not touch the bottom of the pot.
3. Record the reading immediately.
4. Compare the reading with the appropriate moisture level for the plant in
the irrigation process.
Activity:

Objective: Measure the soil moisture content using the weight technique

Tools: A plant pot containing a soil sample, a digital scale, a Bunsen

burner, a heating plate.
Steps:
1. Using the digital scale, determine the mass of the empty heating plate.
2. Place the soil sample in the heating plate over the flame until all the
water evaporates.
3. Using the digital scale, determine the mass of the plate and soil together.
4. Soil mass = mass of the plate and soil - mass of the empty plate.
5. Water the pot with a certain amount of water.
6. Using the digital scale, measure the mass of the soil after adding water to
it.
Use the relationship:
Moisture content = (mass of wet soil / mass of dry soil) × 100.

Activity

Measuring Acidity (pH):

The pH level of the soil is measured using a pH meter, which determines
the degree of acidity or alkalinity of the soil. The pH value is a key
indicator in selecting the type of soil suitable for growing certain crops. For
example, if the soil is very acidic, we may need to neutralize it using
alkaline materials such as lime.
Objective: Measure the soil acidity

Tools: Digital pH meter

Steps:
1. Place the metal probe in distilled water as shown, then clean it
thoroughly with a tissue to ensure it is free from any previous residues that
may affect the pH reading.
2. Insert the metal probe into the soil whose pH is to be determined without
touching the bottom.
3. Record the reading of the device directly.
Observation and Interpretation
A pH of 7 means the soil is neutral.
A pH greater than 7 means the soil is alkaline.
A pH less than 7 means the soil is acidic.
Measuring the Percentage of Minerals in Soil:
Soil can be analyzed using chemical methods to determine its content of
essential minerals, such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium,
represented by the symbols (NPK).
The process of soil analysis and measuring
the percentage of key elements (NPK) plays
an important role in agriculture, as:
1. Potassium (K) is essential for healthy plant growth and flower
formation.
2. Phosphorus (P) helps strengthen plant roots.
3. Nitrogen (N) is necessary for the greening of plant leaves.
Activity:

Objective: Determine the soil's content of NPK.

Tools: Soil sample, NPK reagents, test tubes, soil sample.

Steps:
NPK SOIL COLOR
1. Place a quantity of distilled water in a test tube.
2. Add a quantity of soil to the water and shake well, then let it settle until a
solution forms above the settled soil.
3. Take equal amounts of the solution and place them in new test tubes.
4. Add a reagent capsule for each element (K, P, N) in a separate tube and
let it sit for 10 minutes until the solution changes color.
5. Compare the color of each solution with the color chart for each element.

SOIL COLOR CHART

Phosphorus
Potassium
The color of the solution indicates the saturation level of the solution with
that element and helps in making decisions regarding suitable types of
agricultural fertilizers.

Secondly: Strategies for Soil Conservation and Quality

Improvement
To conserve soil and improve its quality, sustainable agricultural practices
must be applied.
- Vegetative Cover: Planting vegetation that covers the soil helps
prevent erosion or runoff and retains moisture, as plant roots lead to the
cohesion of soil particles, preventing their erosion by wind or rain.
Additionally, plants, especially trees, act as windbreaks that protect the soil
from desertification.
- Crop Rotation: Growing different crops in the same location over
seasons helps maintain soil fertility and reduce reliance on chemical
fertilizers. It is well-known that leguminous plants increase soil fertility
and replenish lost nutrients, as they host root nodule bacteria that fix
atmospheric nitrogen and convert it into nitrogenous compounds used by
the plant in protein synthesis.
- Adding Organic Matter: Improving soil quality can be achieved by
adding organic fertilizer or compost, which enhances soil fertility and
improves its structure.
- Application of Soil Quality

Measurement Techniques and Development of Conservation Plans:

After measuring soil properties in terms of moisture, acidity, and mineral
composition,
conservation plans can be developed based on these measurements. These
plans may include adjusting soil acidity,
improving water drainage,
developing irrigation methods,
and adding organic materials.
For example: If soil measurements show that moisture levels are low, steps
can be taken to improve drainage or use supplemental irrigation to ensure
that moisture levels remain adequate to support plant growth.
 Concept One

Chapter Four:

The Role of Science in Environmental

Sustainability
 Chapter Four: The Role of Science in Environmental

Sustainability

Learning Outcomes
Upon completing the study of this chapter, the student will be able to:
1. Explain the concept of sustainability and the importance of preserving the
environment for future generations.
2. Analyze how human activities impact the sustainability of natural
resources.
3. Evaluate environmental protection strategies such as waste reduction and
recycling.
4. Analyze the impact of chemical pollutants on the environment and the
health of living organisms.
5. Explain how to measure pollution levels and identify their sources.
6. Assess chemical solutions for addressing pollutants in the environment.
7. Explain the importance of biodiversity in maintaining ecosystem balance.
8. Analyze the impact of environmental changes on different species.
9. Evaluate strategies for protecting endangered species.
Issues Involved
1. Climate Change
2. Pollution Reduction
3. Environmental Conservation
4. Sustainability
 Lesson 1-4 Concept of Environmental Sustainability

The concept of sustainability has become increasingly important in our

current era, as the survival of future generations depends on our ability to
conserve natural resources and manage human activities in a way that
maintains ecological balance. In this lesson, we will learn about the concept of
sustainability, its importance, and the impact of human activities on natural
resources.

Concept of Sustainability:
It means using natural resources in a way that enables current generations to
meet their needs without affecting the ability of future generations to meet
theirs. In other words, it is achieving a balance between our current needs
and the conservation of resources and the environment for future
generations. This includes preserving biodiversity, reducing the use of non-
renewable resources, and protecting ecosystems.

First: The Importance of Sustainability and Environmental

Conservation for Future Generations

Protecting natural resources

such as water, soil, forests, and minerals is vital as these are limited
resources. Excessive or unsustainable use of these resources can lead to their
depletion. Through sustainability, we can ensure that these resources are
available for future generations.
Protecting Biodiversity:
Human activities such as deforestation, pollution, and overfishing lead to the
loss of many animal and plant species. Environmental conservation
contributes to protecting biodiversity, which is the foundation of ecosystem
health.

Combating Climate Change:

Emissions of greenhouse gases can have serious impacts on the environment.
Sustainability includes efforts to reduce emissions and adapt to the effects of
climate change, helping to protect the environment for future generations.

Improving Quality of Life:

Sustainability is not only about conserving resources but also about
enhancing the quality of life By adopting sustainable practices, we can
improve air and water quality, reduce pollution, and thus promote the health
and well-being of communities.
Enhancing Social Justice:
Sustainability also supports the concept of social justice by ensuring that
resources are distributed fairly and that communities with less capacity to
influence the environment receive appropriate protection.
Impact on Future Generations:
Commitment to sustainability reflects respect for future generations and
ensures them the opportunity to enjoy a clean and healthy environment.

Example:
The use of solar energy as an alternative to fossil fuels is an example of
resource sustainability, as it helps reduce reliance on non-renewable resources
and protects the environment from pollution.
By recognizing the importance of sustainability and applying it in our daily
lives, we can work together to ensure that the Earth remains a viable place
for future generations.

Secondly: The Impact of Human Activities on the Sustainability of

Natural Resources

Human activities have a significant impact on the sustainability of natural

resources, and these impacts depend on how we use and manage these
resources. Some of the most notable impacts include:

(A) Depletion of nAturAl resources

Metals and Energy:
The extraction of metals such as gold and copper, and fossil fuels such as coal
and oil, is done intensively, leading to the depletion of these natural resources
over time, which may make these resources scarce or difficult to access.
Water:
Pollution of rivers and lakes and the excessive use of water in agriculture,
industry, and household consumption leads to the depletion of water sources,
affecting the availability of fresh water.
The Impact of Natural Resource Depletion on Living Organisms and

Ecosystems:

1. The Impact of Water Depletion:

The depletion of water resources, whether from rivers, lakes, or
groundwater, significantly affects the living organisms that depend on these
sources. The decrease in freshwater threatens the lives of organisms living in
these environments and leads to the extinction of some species due to the loss
of their natural habitats. Additionally, water scarcity can affect agricultural
production, threatening the food security of living organisms, including
humans.
2. The Impact of Deforestation:
Deforestation, whether for agricultural purposes or timber extraction, leads
to the loss of natural habitats for millions of animal and plant species. The
destruction of forests results in a loss of biodiversity, as many living
organisms rely on forests for food and shelter. Furthermore, deforestation
leads to changes in local and global climate, increasing the environmental
challenges faced by living organisms.
 3-impact of Soil depletion
Intensive and unsustainable use of soil in agriculture leads to its degradation
and loss of fertility. This affects land productivity and reduces the quantity
and quality of food available to living organisms. Additionally, soil
degradation leads to desertification, a process that transforms fertile lands
into barren lands, reducing the earth's ability to support life.
4. The Impact of Resource Depletion
Excessive extraction of minerals and other natural resources leads to land
destruction and affects the surrounding ecosystems. Mining activities, for
example, can pollute water and soil, impacting the health of living organisms
that depend on these resources.
5-The Impact of Ocean Depletion:
Overexploitation of marine resources, such
as overfishing and pollution, threatens
marine life and leads to the collapse of ocean
ecosystems . The decline in fish populations
and other marine organisms as a result of
depletion affects the marine food chain, putting many species at risk of
extinction.
(B) environmentAl pollution
❖ Air:
Emissions from factories and
transportation, along with industrial
activities, release toxic gases and fine
particles into the air, leading to air
pollution and climate change.
❖ Water:
Discharge of untreated industrial waste
and sewage into water bodies causes water pollution, affecting aquatic life
and human health.
❖ Soil:
Intensive use of soil in agriculture without considering the soil's resting cycle
affects its fertility and causes erosion. Additionally, the use of fertilizers and
pesticides can lead to soil pollution, impacting its ability to support plants and
future agricultural activities.
 c) Destruction of nAturAl HABitAts
❖ Deforestation:
Cutting down trees and clearing forests for agricultural or industrial
purposes destroys natural habitats, leading to loss of biodiversity and
increased carbon dioxide emissions.
❖ Urban expansion:
Construction and land development affect natural habitats and lead to soil
erosion and destruction of natural habitats.

(D) climAte cHAnge

Human activities such as burning fossil fuels and deforestation increase the
concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, resulting in climate
change and rising global temperatures. This climate change affects weather
patterns, causes ice melting in polar regions, and leads to rising sea levels,
threatening coastal cities and biodiversity.

(e) loss of BioDiversity

❖ Overfishing:
Overfishing of wildlife and marine animals threatens the survival of many
species and leads to ecological imbalance, resulting in the disappearance of
certain fish species, which threatens marine sustainability.
 ❖ Destruction of natural habitats:
The destruction of natural habitats, such as forests and wetlands, reduces the
available habitats for living organisms, contributing to the loss of
biodiversity.
Third: Environmental Protection Strategies
To reduce these impacts, it is essential to adopt sustainable practices such as:
❖ Renewable Energy:
Transferring to renewable energy sources such as solar and wind to reduce
dependence on fossil fuels.
❖ Protecting Natural Habitats:
Establishing natural reserves and preserving natural habitats to protect
species and maintain biodiversity.
❖ Waste Reduction:
Reducing material consumption, reusing products, and seeking
environmentally friendly alternatives can decrease the amount of waste
produced.
Example:
Recycling paper can reduce the need for cutting down trees, helping to conserve forests
and natural resources.
By adopting these practices, we can lessen the negative impacts of human activities and
promote the sustainability of natural resources for future generations.
Research and Inquiry:
❖ Investigate local community recycling initiatives and how you can
participate; identify the types of waste that can be recycled and how
these initiatives can contribute to sustainability.
❖ Develop a plan to protect the environment in your school or home,
including reducing energy consumption, recycling, and raising
awareness about the importance of conserving natural resources.
Check Your Understanding
Choose the correct answer
1. What is the concept of sustainable development?
(a) Meeting the needs of current generations without considering the needs of
future generations
(b) Overusing resources without regard for environmental impacts
(c) Meeting the needs of current generations without compromising the
ability of future generations to meet their own needs
(d) Achieving rapid economic growth without considering environmental
consequences
2. What is the main goal of developing and using renewable energy sources?
(a) Increasing daily energy consumption
(b) Reducing dependence on fossil fuels and minimizing the impacts of
climate change
(c) Promoting greenhouse gas emissions
(d) Improving the quality of fossil fuels
3. Which of the following is considered a sustainable practice in agriculture?
(a) Using fertilizers and pesticides in large quantities
(b) Planting the same crop in the same soil every season
(c) Using organic farming techniques and crop rotation
(d) Deforestation to expand agricultural land
4. What is the goal of environmental protection within the concept of
sustainable development?
(a) Stopping all human activities
(b) Preserving and protecting ecosystems to ensure the continuity and balance
of life
(c) Increasing environmental pollution to accelerate economic growth
(d) Reducing green spaces and increasing urban construction
Lesson 2-4 The Impact of Pollutants on the Environment and Human

Health

First: The Impact of Chemical Pollutants on the Environment

and Living Organisms:

Chemical Pollutants: Toxic substances that can enter the environment

and cause harm. They include:
Pesticides: Chemical substances used to combat insects and the diseases
they cause, such as dieldrin and chlordane.
Heavy metals like lead, mercury, and cadmium, which accumulate in the
environment and in the cells of living organisms.
Volatile Organic Compounds: Such as benzene, formaldehyde, and
chloroform, which can evaporate into the air and pollute it.

Mercury is one of the chemical pollutants that can accumulate in fish and
transfer to humans through the food chain, leading to serious poisoning that
affects the nervous system.
The Impact of Pollutants on the Environment

• Water Pollution
Example: The runoff of pesticides from farms into waterways can lead to the
death of fish and aquatic animals.
Soil Pollution
Example: The accumulation of heavy metals like lead and mercury in the soil
due to industrial waste or the use of fossil fuels can affect plant growth and
render the soil unsuitable for agriculture.
Air Pollution
Example:
Emissions from factories and cars, such as nitrogen oxides and fine particles,
can contribute to the formation of smog that affects the health of plants and
animals.
Impact of Pollutants on Human Health
• Respiratory diseases
Example:
Inhaling air polluted with ozone or particulate matter can lead to
respiratory diseases such as asthma, bronchitis, and pneumonia.
• Nervous System Disorders
Example:
Exposure to heavy metals like mercury and lead can affect the central
nervous system, leading to neurological disorders.
Chronic Diseases such as Cancer
Example:
Exposure to toxic chemicals like benzene and formaldehyde can increase the
risk of cancer.
seconDly: How to meAsure pollution levels AnD iDentify sources
Chemical analysis is a process used to determine the concentration of
pollutants in water, air, and soil. Various techniques are used for this purpose,
including:
A. wAter AnAlysis
Analytical Techniques

1. Chromatographic analysis:
Used to separate and analyze organic compounds such as pesticides.
2. Spectroscopic analysis:
Used to identify heavy metals such as lead and mercury. For example, atomic
absorption spectroscopy can be used to measure mercury concentrations in
water samples.
B. Air AnAlysis:
Analytical Techniques
1- Ultraviolet spectroscopic analysis:
Used to measure nitrogen oxides and ozone in the air. For example,
concentrations of nitric oxide and ozone can be measured using
spectrometers.
2- Gas chromatography
is used to analyze volatile organic compounds such as benzene and
formaldehyde. Air samples are taken and analyzed to determine the
concentrations of these compounds.
c -soil AnAlysis
Analytical Techniques
1. Wet chemical analysis
is used to extract and measure heavy metals such as lead and cadmium from
soil samples.
2. Spectroscopic analysis
to determine heavy metal concentrations in soil.
Third: Chemical Solutions for Treating Environmental

Pollutants

1- Chemical Treatment of Water

Use of Activated Carbon

• Activated carbon is a material with a high capacity to absorb organic
substances and chemical pollutants. When water is passed through filters
containing activated carbon, pollutants bind to the carbon and are removed
from the water.
Example:
In drinking water treatment plants, activated carbon can be used to remove
chemicals such as benzene and chloroform from water.
Use of Ozone
• Ozone is a powerful oxidizing gas that can break down many organic and
inorganic pollutants in water. Ozone reacts with pollutants to form harmless
substances.
Example:
In industrial wastewater treatment, ozone can be used to break down toxic
organic compounds and eliminate foul odors.
2- Biological Treatment

Use of Microorganisms:
• Biological treatment relies on the use of bacteria, fungi, and other microbes
to decompose organic pollutants and convert them into less harmful or
harmless substances.
Example:
In sewage treatment, special bacteria are used to break down organic
materials and convert them into simple substances such as water and carbon
dioxide.

3- Recycling and Waste Management

Recycling Chemical Waste

• Recycling chemical waste involves collecting chemical waste, processing it,
and reusing it or converting it into new products .
For example,
In the electronics industry, electronic waste is collected and processed to re-
extract valuable metals such as gold and silver.
Proper waste management
• Waste management includes safely storing it
• and processing it correctly, avoiding disposal methods that lead to
environmental pollution.
Example:
In industrial facilities, special tanks are used to store chemical waste and
dispose of it safely through methods such as thermal degradation or chemical
degradation.
Research and Investigation

First: Conduct a simple experiment to measure water pollution levels using

chemical indicators and compare the results with permissible pollution levels.
Steps:
• Collect water samples from the source you wish to test, ensuring the use of
clean, covered bottles to avoid contamination - prepare the indicators -
conduct the indicator test.
Phosphate Test
1. Add a specific amount of the indicator to a test tube containing a water
sample.
2.Mix the solution well and let it sit for a few minutes according to the
indicator instructions.
3.Compare the resulting color with the color chart provided with the
indicator to determine the phosphate level.
Chlorine Test
1. Use chlorine test strips that change color when exposed to chlorine.
2. Immerse the test strip in the water sample and follow the instructions to
read the results.
3. Record the results for each test, such as the concentration of phosphate or
chlorine in the different samples.
Check Your Understanding
Choose the correct answer
1. What is the main effect of lead exposure on human health?
(A) Increased physical ability
(B) Development of nervous system problems
(C) Improved bone health
(D) Reduced cancer incidence
2. What is the most common purpose of using activated carbon in water
treatment?
(A) Neutralizing acids
(B) Removing organic matter and chemical pollutants
(C) Adding nutrients
(D) Sterilizing water using ultraviolet light
3-What is the main source of phosphates that can cause water pollution in
agricultural areas?
(A) Organic solvents
(B) Pesticides
(C) Agricultural fertilizers
(D) Industrial waste

Summary
By the end of this lesson, we can conclude that chemical pollutants
significantly affect the environment and the health of living organisms. Water,
soil, and air pollution leads to serious environmental damage, while exposure
to pollutants affects human health in multiple ways, including respiratory
diseases, nervous system disorders, and serious illnesses such as cancer. It is
important to take steps to reduce pollution and maintain the health of the
environment and human health.
Lesson 3-4 Biodiversity and Species Protection

Biodiversity
refers to the great diversity of living organisms on the planet, including
• genetic diversity,
• diversity among species (such as animals, plants, bacteria, and fungi),
• ecological diversity (the variety of environments and natural habitats
that support these species).
This diversity contributes to the sustainability of life on Earth.

First: The Importance of Biodiversity in Maintaining the

Balance of Ecosystems:

Chemical pollutants: Toxic substances that can enter the environment and
cause harm. These include:
- Pesticides: Chemicals used to combat insects and the diseases they cause,
such as dieldrin and chlordane.
• Heavy metals such as lead, mercury, and cadmium, which accumulate in
the environment and in the cells of living organisms.
Volatile organic compounds such as benzene, formaldehyde, and
chloroform, which can evaporate into the air and pollute it.

1. **Stability of Ecosystems**
Biodiversity enhances the stability of ecosystems by providing a complex
network of interactions among different species. For example, in
tropical forests, the diversity of trees contributes to soil stability and
prevents erosion, while also providing habitats for a wide range of other
animals and plants.

2.**Supporting Food Chains:**

In ecosystems, one organism relies on another as a food source.
Biodiversity ensures a variety of food resources, helping to maintain
food chains. For instance, tigers in forests depend on a variety of prey
such as deer and wild boars; in the absence of this diversity, the food
chain may become disrupted.

3. **Disease Resistance:**
Ecosystems with high biodiversity are more resistant to diseases. If there
are a large number of species in the ecosystem, the likelihood of disease
spread decreases, as the disease may affect one species without rapidly
spreading to others.
 4. **Pollination and Seed Dispersal**
Many plants rely on animals to transfer pollen and seeds. For example,
bees and butterflies play a crucial role in pollinating plants, contributing
to the production of fruits and seeds that nourish many other organisms.

5. **Climate Regulation**
Biodiversity contributes to regulating local and global climates through
the role of plants in absorbing carbon dioxide and releasing oxygen.

**strAtegies for protecting enDAngereD species**

To protect endangered species, a set of strategies has been developed
aimed at preserving biodiversity and ensuring the survival of threatened
species. These strategies include:
1- Establishing Natural Reserves
Establishing natural reserves is one of the most important means of
protecting endangered species. For example, the Maasai Mara Reserve in
Kenya provides a safe haven for many wildlife species such as lions and
elephants, protecting them from illegal hunting and habitat loss, as well as the
Muhammad Reserve and the Tiran and Sanafir Islands Reserve in South
Sinai.
 2- Captive Breeding Programs:
These programs aim to breed endangered species in designated centers and
then release them into the wild when conditions are favorable. For example,
the southern white rhinoceros breeding program has contributed to
increasing its numbers after being threatened with extinction.

3- Laws and Legislation

Enacting laws to protect endangered species and prevent illegal hunting and
deforestation. The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species
of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) is an example of international efforts to
prevent illegal trade in endangered animals and plants.

4- Awareness and Education:

Raising awareness among people about the importance of conserving
endangered species and encouraging them to adopt sustainable practices.
Awareness programs in schools and communities help spread awareness
about the importance of biodiversity and species protection.

5- Restoration of Natural Habitats

Restoring damaged areas such as forests or coral reefs to help recover
endangered species. For example, reforestation efforts in the Amazon
rainforest help restore the natural habitats of local species.
exAmples of successful conservAtion strAtegies
1. The Bald Eagle
The bald eagle in the United States was threatened with extinction due to the
use of the pesticide DDT, which affected bird reproduction. Thanks to laws
that banned the use of DDT and conservation programs, the number of eagles
has increased significantly, and it has been removed from the endangered
species list.
2. Southern White Rhinoceros
Thanks to conservation and captive breeding efforts, the population of the
Southern White Rhinoceros has increased after being close to extinction,
demonstrating the effectiveness of these strategies.
Research and Investigation
Activity 1: Research Project
Students are divided into groups and asked to research a type of endangered species in Egypt, and
present a report on the reasons for its threat and possible protection strategies.
Activity 2: Presentation
Prepare a presentation on the importance of biodiversity that includes facts and figures, and examples
of threatened species.
Activity 3: Practical Experiment
Conduct a simple experiment demonstrating the impact of environmental changes (such as
temperature) on the growth of plants or microorganisms.
Activity 4: Field Trip
Organize a visit to a nature reserve or wildlife research center to understand the conservation efforts
being made.
Check Your Understanding
Choose the correct answer
1- What is meant by genetic diversity?
A) Differences in colors among plants
B) Genetic differences among individuals within a specific species
C) The number of species in a specific area
D) Differences in species among different environments

2- How does biodiversity contribute to improving soil quality?

A) By increasing the amount of rainfall
B) Through the decomposition of organic matter and nutrient recycling
C) Through rapid climatic changes
D) By absorbing only carbon dioxide

3- What is the impact of deforestation on biodiversity?

A) It leads to an increase in the number of species
B) It increases the natural fertility of the soil
C) It causes habitat loss and threatens species survival
D) It leads to a reduction of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere

4- How does biodiversity contribute to climate regulation?

A) By reducing genetic diversity
B) Through carbon dioxide absorption by plants
C) By reducing diversity among species
D) By directly lowering the Earth's temperature
5- Explain the importance of biodiversity in supporting life and sustaining ecosystems.
Provide 10 illustrative examples.

6- How do environmental changes, such as climate change and pollution, affect different
species? Discuss examples.

7- What strategies are employed to protect endangered species? How can they be applied
in our daily lives?
Assessment
After studying the importance of biodiversity and the impact of environmental changes
on species, develop a plan to protect a specific endangered species in your local
environment. Present a report that outlines the plan and shows the actions that can be
taken to prevent this species from extinction, focusing on collaboration between
individuals and the community.
Summary
By the end of this lesson, students should recognize the importance of biodiversity and its
role in maintaining the balance of ecosystems, as well as the challenges facing species and
ways to protect them. Through raising awareness and collective action, we can all
contribute to protecting our planet.