atmosphere

Article
Status of Air Pollution during COVID-19-Induced Lockdown in
Delhi, India
Harikesh Singh 1,2 , Gowhar Meraj 3,4 , Sachchidanand Singh 2 , Vaibhav Shrivastava 1,2 , Vishal Sharma 1,2 ,
Majid Farooq 3,4 , Shruti Kanga 5 , Suraj Kumar Singh 6 and Pankaj Kumar 7, *

1 Indian Institute of Remote Sensing, Dehradun 248001, India

2 RBased Services Private Limited, Delhi 110086, India
3 Centre for Climate Change & Water Research, Suresh Gyan Vihar University, Jaipur 302017, India
4 Department of Ecology, Environment and Remote Sensing, Government of Jammu and Kashmir,
Srinagar 190018, India
5 Department of Geography, School of Environment and Earth Sciences, Central University of Punjab,
VPO-Ghudda, Bathinda 151401, India
6 Centre for Sustainable Development, Suresh Gyan Vihar University, Jaipur 302017, India
7 Institute for Global Environmental Strategies, Hayama 240-0115, Kanagawa, Japan
* Correspondence: kumar@[Link]

Abstract: To monitor the spread of the novel coronavirus (COVID-19), India, during the last week
of March 2020, imposed national restrictions on the movement of its citizens (lockdown). Although
India’s economy was shut down due to restrictions, the nation observed a sharp decline in particulate
matter (PM) concentrations. In recent years, Delhi has experienced rapid economic growth, leading
to pollution, especially in urban and industrial areas. In this paper, we explored the linkages between
air quality and the nationwide lockdown of the city of Delhi using a geographic information system
(GIS)-based approach. Data from 37 stations were monitored from 12 March, 2020 to 2 April, 2020 and
Citation: Singh, H.; Meraj, G.; Singh, it was found that the Air Quality Index for the city was almost reduced by 37% and 46% concerning
S.; Shrivastava, V.; Sharma, V.; Farooq, PM2.5 and PM10, respectively. The study highlights that, in regular conditions, the atmosphere’s
M.; Kanga, S.; Singh, S.K.; Kumar, P.
natural healing rate against anthropogenic activities is lower, as indicated by a higher AQI. However,
Status of Air Pollution during
during the lockdown, this sudden cessation of anthropogenic activities leads to a period in which
COVID-19-Induced Lockdown in
the natural healing rate is greater than the induced disturbances, resulting in a lower AQI, and thus
Delhi, India. Atmosphere 2022, 13,
proving that this pandemic has given a small window for the environment to breathe and helped the
2090. [Link]
atmos13122090
districts of Delhi to recover from serious issues related to bad air quality. If such healing windows are
incorporated into policy and decision-making, these can prove to be effective measures for controlling
Academic Editors: Regina Duarte
air pollution in heavily polluted regions of the World.
and Chuen-Jinn Tsai

Received: 28 September 2022 Keywords: air quality index (AQI); COVID-19; lockdown; PM2.5 ; PM10; interpolation of AQ parame-
Accepted: 8 December 2022 ters; satellite remote sensing; GIS
Published: 12 December 2022

Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral

with regard to jurisdictional claims in
published maps and institutional affil-
1. Introduction
iations. Air pollution is a major concern worldwide; according to the World Health Orga-
nization (WHO) survey, 14 out of 15 of India’s most polluted cities have been affected.
Air pollution, particularly in megacities, has an unfavorable impact on daily human life.
Delhi has experienced rapid economic growth in recent years, which has led to pollution,
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors. especially in urban and industrial areas. In Delhi, the main contributors to PM10 con-
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
taminants are road dust (56%), concrete batching (10%), industrial-level sources (10%),
This article is an open access article
and automobiles (9%) [1]. Air quality management in urban environments is required to
distributed under the terms and
safeguard human health, reduce industrial losses, maximize workers’ productivity, and
conditions of the Creative Commons
enhance indoor air quality. In this regard, air quality monitoring, networks of Continuous
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
Air Quality Monitoring (CAQM) stations, satellite datasets, and geographic information
[Link]/licenses/by/
system (GIS) technology play a crucial role.
4.0/).

Atmosphere 2022, 13, 2090. [Link] [Link]

Atmosphere 2022, 13, 2090 2 of 17

In India, since 1974, the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) has been responsible
for air quality monitoring [2]. In major cities, networks were developed for air quality
calculations. CPCB and other state pollution control boards currently maintain and manage
a network of 133 ground stations, Continuous Air Quality Monitoring Stations (CAQM),
and 37 CAQM stations within the Delhi area. The Government of Delhi has sought to
regulate air pollution through vehicle enforcement laws such as the odd-even formula,
the prohibition of 10-year-old diesel vehicles, the introduction of Compressed Natural
Gas (CNG) vehicles, public incentives for carpooling, etc. Delhi’s major contaminants in
the atmosphere are particulate matter (PM2.5 and PM10), nitrogen oxides, sulfur dioxide,
carbon monoxide, ozone, benzene, toluene, xylene, carbonaceous and organic aerosols,
metals, and volatile organic compounds [3]. The research published in May 2014 by the
WHO used datasets from 2008–2013 and ranked Delhi as the most polluted city in the
World, with an average yearly PM2.5 concentration of 153 µg/m3 .
Many studies have been performed earlier on GIS techniques to track air pollution.
This technology provides a detailed overview of the city, identifies the significant sources
of pollution and the distribution pattern, helps decide where to make efforts to reduce
pollution rates, and agrees on any relation between city characteristics and air pollution
distribution. A GIS-based methodology has been established [4–7] and is increasingly
utilized in the natural environment’s measurement, analysis, perception, simulation, and
management [8–12]. The statistical interpolation process also uses GIS to create ‘virtual
stations’ [13]. In light of this, on 14 April 2020, the Government of India extended the
lockdown that had been put in place on 24 March, 2020 until 3 May, 2020. This action
was taken to combat the virus’s lethality through social isolation and other measures, as
recommended by the WHO [14]. India has developed a far-reaching strategy to address
the pandemic and its economic woes properly. Zoning the COVID-19 epicenters is one
such method. The federal government and the individual states are dividing the country
into zones of varying danger; the zone with the greatest number of confirmed cases will be
quarantined for a lengthy period of time [10].
During the first week of February 2020, the novel coronavirus (COVID-19) epidemic
broke out in India. After monitoring its propagation, India imposed a nationwide lockdown
from 24 March, 2020, leading to major declines in economic activities and related emissions.
Although India’s economy was shut down to prevent COVID-19 from spreading, the nation
observed a sharp decrease in particulate matter. Many researchers carried out the study of
lockdown impact on air pollution in the Delhi and other cities of India [15–18] and have
reported a reduction of AQI in the range of 30–50% and 40–60% for NOx.
Air quality assessment is carried out in Delhi based on ground measurements of 37
CAQM stations throughout this paper. The study highlights the impact of the lockdown
on air quality standards due to an outbreak of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coro-
navirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). The observation period of this study is taken from 12 March
to 2 April 2020. The study further aims to show the potential of GIS in monitoring the
Air Quality spatial distribution, mapping it on a microscale level, and analyzing the par-
ticulate matter concentrations of the Delhi region. Moreover, this research also hopes to
demonstrate the potential rate of nature’s ability to heal from anthropogenic activities.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Study Area
Delhi is the capital of India and is also the country’s economic capital. Delhi is the
most densely populated city in the country and the World. Delhi city has an area of
approx. 1490 sq. km and extending between north latitudes 28◦ 25’ and 28◦ 55’ and east
longitudes 76◦ 450 and 78◦ 200 . It is surrounded on three sides by Haryana and on the
east by Uttar Pradesh. According to the 2011 census, the population of Delhi was more
than 11 million [19], India’s second-largest city after Mumbai, while the overall NCT city
was around 16.8 million. Delhi has a subtropical humid dry-winter climate bordering a
hot semi-arid climate. The warm season occurs between 21 March and 15 June, with a
 prox. 1490 sq. km and extending between north latitudes 28°25’ and 28°55’ and east lon-
gitudes 76°45’ and 78°20’. It is surrounded on three sides by Haryana and on the east by
Uttar Pradesh. According to the 2011 census, the population of Delhi was more than 11
million [19], India’s second-largest city after Mumbai, while the overall NCT city was
Atmosphere 2022, 13, 2090 3 of 17
around 16.8 million. Delhi has a subtropical humid dry-winter climate bordering a hot
semi-arid climate. The warm season occurs between 21 March and 15 June, with a daily
average high temperature of 39
daily average °Ctemperature
high (102 °F). The coldest
of 39 day
◦ C (102 ◦ F).of thecoldest
The year is 4 January,
day of the yearbe-
is 4 January,
tween the mean of 2 °C (36
between the°F)
meanandof14
2 ◦°C (57◦ F)
C (36 °F).and
The14 wind
◦ C (57moves
◦ F). Thefrom
windthe northwest
moves from thetonorthwest
the southwest in to
early March. The
the southwest selection
in early March. ofThe
thisselection
study area isstudy
of this attributed
area isto dramatic
attributed to dramatic
environmental changes due to the
environmental nationwide
changes due to thelockdown
nationwide and the availability
lockdown of air quality
and the availability of air quality
data for CAQM
data for CAQM stations. stations.
The study areaThe
mapstudy area map
is shown is shown
in Figure 1. in Figure 1.

Figure 1. The studyFigure

area map depicting
1. The themap
study area CAQM stations.
depicting the The
CAQMdistribution
stations. of
Thethe 37 CAQMofsta-
distribution the 37 CAQM
tions is shown on the [Link] shown on the map.
stations

The methodology The methodology

employed employed
to assess to assess
the Air the Air
Quality Quality parameters
parameters includes includes
Data Ac- Data Acqui-
sition from Delhi CAQM stations, Data Processing and Data Analysis. The Data Processing
quisition from Delhi CAQM stations, Data Processing and Data Analysis. The Data Pro-
portion consists of converting all non-spatial data into spatial data. After conversion,
cessing portion consists of converting
spatial data was used for allgeospatial
non-spatial data into
mapping spatialpollutants,
of various data. [Link]-
PM10 and PM2.5 .
sion, spatial dataInwas used for geospatial mapping of various pollutants, viz. PM10
the Data Analysis part, an error assessment of various interpolation techniques and was
PM2.5. In the Dataperformed,
Analysis part, an error assessment of various interpolation techniques
and the best interpolation technique was chosen. Then, the Air Quality Index
was performed, and was the best interpolation
evaluated using the lineartechnique was technique
interpolation chosen. Then, the Air
provided Quality
by the Environmental
Index was evaluatedProtection
usingAgency (EPA)
the linear [20]. The other
interpolation processedprovided
technique result wasbyanalyzed to determine the
the Environ-
mental Protectionvariation
Agencyin(EPA)
air pollution before
[20]. The andprocessed
other during theresult
nationwide lockdown to
was analyzed period.
deter-The period
was chosen so that the effect of rainfall is minimal. The image
mine the variation in air pollution before and during the nationwide lockdown period. below shows the rainfall in
the pre- and during-lockdown period (Figures 2 and 3).
The period was chosen so that the effect of rainfall is minimal. The image below shows
the rainfall in the pre- and during-lockdown period (Figures 2 and 3).
Atmosphere 2022, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 17
Atmosphere 2022, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 17

Atmosphere 2022, 13, 2090 4 of 17

18
18

(MILLIMETERS)
16

(MILLIMETERS)
16
14
14
12
12
10
10
PRECIPITATION
PRECIPITATION
8
68
46
24
02
0

PRE-LOCKDOWN PERIOD
PRE-LOCKDOWN PERIOD

Figure
[Link] in the
Rainfall in thepre-lockdown
pre-lockdown period.
period.
Figure 2. Rainfall in the pre-lockdown period.

18
18
16
16
14
(MILLIMETERS)

14
12
(MILLIMETERS)

12
10
10
8
68
46
PRECIPITATION

24
PRECIPITATION

02
0

LOCKDOWN PERIOD
LOCKDOWN PERIOD
Rainfall during
[Link]
Figure duringthethelockdown
lockdown period.
period.
Figure 3. Rainfall during the lockdown period.
It can be observed that during the pre-lockdown period, only one rainfall event took
It can
place, on 14be observed
March, 2020, that during
measuring the pre-lockdown
around 16 mm. Duringperiod, the lockdownonly oneperiodrainfall event took
(23 March
place, It can
on2 14 be observed
March, that during the pre-lockdown period, only one rainfall event took
2020, to April, 2022),2020,
only two measuring
precipitation aroundevents16occurred
mm. During the lockdown
in the study area that too, period
on (23
place,
March on
2020,14 toMarch,
2 April, 2020,
2022), measuring
only two around
precipitation 16 mm.
events During the
occurred
the first two days of lockdown (i.e., on 23 and 24 March 2022), with an average precipitation
lockdown
in the study period
area (23
that
March
too,
of aon 2020,
the
meager to two
first
3.74 2 April,
mm as 2022),
days only
of lockdown
shown two(i.e.,
in Figures precipitation
on 23rd
2 and and
3. This events
24thout
rules occurred
March in the
2022),
any possibility study
with ofanthearea that
average
too, on the first
influence of rain
precipitation two
of a on days of
the washing
meager lockdown
3.74 mm of as (i.e.,
atmospheric on
shown in PM 23rd and
before
Figures 24th
2 and March
and [Link] 2022), with
the lockdown
This rules an average
out any possi-
precipitation
period. Using ofthisa meager
study, we 3.74 mm
intended asto shown
show in
how
bility of the influence of rain on the washing of atmospheric PM before andFigures
the 2
atmosphereand 3. This
gets rules
influenced outduring
any possi-
due the
bility
to of the
anthropogenic influence of
activities rain
in the on the
capital washing
of India, of
New atmospheric
Delhi,
lockdown period. Using this study, we intended to show how the atmosphere gets influ- PM
considered before
the and
second during
most the
polluted
lockdown city in
period. the World. COVID-19,
Using thisactivities although
study, weinintended it had its negative
to show impacts
howNew on
the atmosphere the humangets influ-
enced due to anthropogenic the capital of India, Delhi, considered the
systems,
enced due it did show
topolluted that
anthropogenic if the human
activities influence
inCOVID-19, on the
the capital althoughenvironment
of India, it New is reduced,
Delhi, the
considered the
second most city in the World.
environment has an inbuilt mechanism to recover to its original state. had its negative impacts
second
on theWind most
human polluted
systems, city in
it did the
showWorld. COVID-19,
that if thethe human although
influence it had
ontheits
the negative impacts
environment is
can play a major role in concentrating PM2.5 and PM10 in atmosphere.
on the human
reduced, systems, ithas didan show thatmechanism
if the human influence onoriginal
the environment is
However, it must be noted that Delhi is completely surrounded by industries on all state.
the environment inbuilt to recover to its sides.
reduced,
Wind
Under the environment
can circumstances,
normal play a major role has an
winds inbuilt
inact mechanism
concentrating
as the force for the to recover
PM2.5 and PM10
concentrating to its original
the PMininthe state.
theatmosphere.
Delhi
Wind
region. Sincecanthe play a major
industries wererole in
shut concentrating
down during the
the PM
lockdown
However, it must be noted that Delhi is completely surrounded by industries on all sides. 2.5 and PM10
period, thein the atmosphere.
lockdown
However,
provided
Under normalit must
the best be noted that
opportunity
circumstances, to Delhiact
study
winds is as
theircompletely
influence
the forceon surrounded
forthe by index
air quality
concentrating industries
theduring
PM in onthe all Delhi
the sides.
Under normal
no-work
region. Since the circumstances,
(lockdown) period.
industries were Thewindsshutact
particulate as the
down force for
matter
duringdue theconcentrating
to industries was
lockdown period, the PM
also theinlockdown
reduced the Delhi
during the
region. Sincelockdown
the period. Therefore,
industries were shut this
down period was the
during the best period for
lockdown assessing
period, the the
lockdown
provided the best opportunity to study their influence on the air quality index during the
role of anthropogenic
provided activities ontoatmospheric
the best opportunity study theirparticulate
influence matter.
on the air quality index during the
no-work (lockdown) period. The particulate matter due to industries was also reduced
no-work
during the(lockdown) period. Therefore,
lockdown period. The particulate matterwas
this period duethe
to best
industries
periodwas also reduced
for assessing the
during the lockdown period. Therefore, this period was the best
role of anthropogenic activities on atmospheric particulate matter. period for assessing the
role of anthropogenic activities on atmospheric particulate matter.
 Atmosphere2022,
Atmosphere 2022,13,
13,2090
x FOR PEER REVIEW of1717
5 of

2.2.
[Link]
DataAcquisition
Acquisition
The
Thefirst
firststep
stepincludes
includesthetheprocessing
processingofofdata.
data. Data
Data used
used in
in this
thisstudy
study are
arefrom
from3737
CAQM
CAQMstations
stations(Table
(Table1),
1),air
airpollutants,
pollutants,and andGIS
GISdata.
[Link]
Theair
airpollution
pollutiondatadataconsists
consistsofof
two
two(2)(2)pollutant
pollutant components
components (PM 2.5 and
(PM PM10)
2.5 and between
PM10) 12 March,
between 2020,2020,
12 March, and 2and
April, 2020.
2 April,
The date
2020. The range
datefor the for
range study
thewas
studysplit
wasinto twointo
split sections. One is the
two sections. One average from 12 from
is the average March,
12
2020, to 22 March, 2020 (before lockdown) and the other from 23 March,
March, 2020, to 22 March, 2020 (before lockdown) and the other from 23 March, 2020, to 2 2020, to 2 April,
2020.
April,The GISThe
2020. dataset
GIS includes the administrative
dataset includes boundaryboundary
the administrative of Delhi districts
of Delhiand locations
districts and
oflocations
CAQM of stations
CAQM stations in the study area. The adopted methodology flow chartinis
in the study area. The adopted methodology flow chart is shown
Figure
[Link] Figure 4.

[Link]
Figure Theoverall
overallmethodology
methodologyused
usedininthis
thisstudy.
study.

[Link]
Table ListofofContinuous
ContinuousAir
AirQuality
QualityMonitoring
MonitoringStations
Stations(CAQM)
(CAQM)stations
stationsmaintained
maintainedby
bythe
the
Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB), Delhi Pollution Control Committee (DPCC), and
Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB), Delhi Pollution Control Committee (DPCC), and India India
Meteorological Department (IMD).
Meteorological Department (IMD).
Sl. No. Station Name Sl. No. Station Name
Sl. No. Station Name Sl. No. Station Name
NSIT Dwarka, New Delhi-
1 Anand Vihar, Delhi-DPCC 20 NSIT Dwarka, New
1 Anand Vihar, Delhi-DPCC 20 CPCB
Delhi-CPCB
2 2 Ashok
Ashok Vihar,Vihar, Delhi-DPCC
Delhi-DPCC 21 21 Najafgarh, Delhi-DPCC
Najafgarh, Delhi-DPCC
3 3 AyaAya Nagar,
Nagar, New Delhi-IMD
New Delhi-IMD 22 22 Narela,
Narela, Delhi-DPCC
Delhi-DPCC
4 4 Bawana, Delhi-DPCC
Bawana, Delhi-DPCC 23 23 NehruNagar,
Nehru Nagar, Delhi-DPCC
Delhi-DPCC
North Campus, DU,
North Campus, DU,New
New
5 Burari Crossing, New Delhi-IMD 24
5 Burari Crossing, New Delhi-IMD 24 Delhi-IMD
CRRI Mathura Road, New Delhi-IMD
6 CRRI Mathura Road, New Delhi- 25 Okhla Phase-2, Delhi-DPCC
Delhi-IMD
6 25 Okhla Phase-2, Delhi-DPCC
7 DTU, New Delhi-CPCB
IMD 26 Patparganj, Delhi-DPCC
7 DTU, New Delhi-CPCB 26 Patparganj, Delhi-DPCC
Atmosphere 2022, 13, 2090 6 of 17

Table 1. Cont.

Sl. No. Station Name Sl. No. Station Name

Dr Karni Singh Shooting Range,
8 27 Punjabi Bagh, Delhi-DPCC
Delhi-DPCC
9 Dwarka-Sector 8, Delhi-DPCC 28 Pusa, Delhi-DPCC
10 East Arjun Nagar, Delhi-CPCB 29 Pusa, New Delhi-IMD
R K Puram, New
11 IGI Airport (T3), New Delhi-IMD 30
Delhi-DPCC
IHBAS, Dilshad Garden, New
12 31 Rohini, Delhi-DPCC
Delhi-CPCB
13 ITO, New Delhi-CPCB 32 Shadipur, New Delhi-CPCB
14 Jahangirpuri, Delhi-DPCC 33 Sirifort, New Delhi-CPCB
Jawaharlal Nehru Stadium,
15 34 Sonia Vihar, Delhi-DPCC
Delhi-DPCC
Sri Aurobindo Marg,
16 Lodhi Road, New Delhi-IMD 35
Delhi-DPCC
Major Dhyan Chand National
17 36 Vivek Vihar, Delhi-DPCC
Stadium, Delhi-DPCC
18 Mandir Marg, New Delhi-DPCC
37 Wazirpur, Delhi-DPCC
19 Mundaka, Delhi-DPCC

2.3. Data Processing

The GIS Spatial Database and Spatial Analysis Software can help track air pollutants’
effects. Air contamination maps may be used to calculate areas, which also help determine
the sensitivity locations involving different pollutants. The number of people impacted can
also be computed using air quality maps. Plans and decisions aided by air quality maps
can positively impact lowering pollution levels. This paper evaluates air pollution through
the Air Quality Index and maps over the study area. GIS provides a versatile toolkit to store
and locate, convert and display real-world spatial data for different purposes [21]. A GIS
cataloging and metadata management system could be used at every process stage to track
data manipulation [22]. Those involve input data update, data simplification, interpolation
methods, measurement methods, calculation parameters, and other considerations that
can impact the precision of the results. Therefore, in the research on the future effects of
air pollution, GIS is becoming more relevant. GIS allows the electronic representation of
air quality impacts and is an essential method for the outcomes study. Integrating GIS
with air pollution prediction models generates a quick and accurate environmental impact
assessment of air pollution. GIS Database Management System makes storing, collecting,
controlling, and managing noise data easier. Air pollution maps can be produced based
on the interpolation techniques available in GIS. A continuous spatial model of pollution
levels can be created within GIS. The GIS provides a convenient environment for publishing
pollution maps on the internet. The air pollution map can be integrated with other thematic
maps depending on their use.

2.4. Data Pre-Processing and Cross-Validation

The objective evaluation procedures were carried out using cross-validation techniques
to analyze the different interpolation methods’ precision, applicability, and efficacy. Cross-
validation is the traditional technique for testing the precision of the effects of interpolation.
Cross-validation is done by extracting information from the location, usually by one
measurement at a time, measuring the value with the remaining evidence at that location,
and then calculating the discrepancy between the true and the approximate value for each
location [23]. The cross-validation method has been done by choosing five stations out of
37 stations in Delhi. We evaluated the difference between the actual data and the expected
data of each interpolated process by measuring the mean error (ME) Equation (1) and the
Root Mean Squared Error (RMSE) Equation (2) by various interpolation techniques. The
ME tests the estimation, and the unbiased interpolation target should be near 0 [24,25]. The
Atmosphere 2022, 13, 2090 7 of 17

RMSE is a test of the accuracy of the different prediction methods. It is as low for unbiased
and reliable forecasts as possible. The ME and RMSE were determined using the following
equations [24–30].
1 n
ME = ∑ [Z( Pi ) − z( ai )] (1)
n i=1
s
1 n
n i∑
RMSE = [Z( Pi ) − z( ai )]2 (2)
=1

where Z(Pi ) is the prediction value, and z(ai ) is the actual value of validating point i, n =
the number of validation points, ME = mean prediction error, RMSE = root mean square
error, i = validating point, ai = the position of validating point “i”.

2.5. Data Estimation–Air Quality Index

Implementing ambient air quality standards is necessary to enhance a system to
effectively regulate ambient air quality and avoid the adverse effects of air pollution [31–
33]. Air Quality Index (AQI) may be calculated using pollutant concentration data and
linear interpolation, as shown below [34,35]. Table 2 displays the breakpoints (BP) relating
to each air quality parameter. The results corresponding to each CAQM station were then
mapped using the Inverse Distance Weight technique in the ArcGIS environment and were
further classified into different levels of AQI [36].

Table 2. Breakpoints (BP) for the AQI parameters.

Breakpoints (BP) Air Quality Index

Category
(AQI)
PM2.5 (µg/m3 ) PM10 (µg/m3 )
0.0–15.4 0–54 0–50 Good
15.5–40.4 55–154 51–100 Moderate
Unhealthy for
40.5–65.4 155–254 101–150
sensitive groups
65.5–150.4 255–354 151–200 Unhealthy
150.5–250.4 355–424 201–300 Very unhealthy
>250.5 >425 301–400 Hazardous

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Cross-Validation-Error Estimation
Equations (1) and (2) measured each interpolation layer’s ME and the RMSE. Four
interpolation methods (IDW, Kriging, NN, Spline) statistical parameters were calculated
using ArcGIS and provided in Table 3.

Table 3. Statistical overview of the air pollution model interpolation errors (with measured sample
values minus interpolated (µg /m3 )).

IDW Kriging NN Spline

MIN 37.11 51.92 37.58 −17.20
MAX 82.37 71.66 82.21 120.80
RANGE 45.26 19.74 44.63 138.01
MEAN 62.57 60.67 62.04 60.30
STD 6.95 4.76 7.88 21.40
ME 2.18 2.25 3.63 9.85
RMSE 5.62 6.05 5.70 24.40
GOODNESS
I II III IV
RANK OF ME
GOODNESS
I III II IV
RANK OF RMSE
Atmosphere 2022, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 17

Atmosphere 2022, 13, 2090

Table 3. Statistical overview of the air pollution model interpolation errors (with measured sample
8 of 17
values minus interpolated (μg /m3)).

IDW Kriging NN Spline

The goodnessMIN 37.11for ME51.92
rating is reserved separately and RMSE.37.58 −17.20
The mathematical
parameter suggestsMAX the lowest error in the ME of IDW with
82.37 71.662.18. This82.21
indicates that
120.80IDW
is less partial than the other interpolators [37].
RANGE 45.26Although19.74
IDW displayed44.63 a lower RMSE
138.01
when comparing RMSE MEANvalues, specific IDW is62.57
better than60.67
other interpolators.
62.04 IDW shows
60.30
a low ME since uncertain
STD position estimation is
6.95based on spatial
4.76 autocorrelation,
7.88 21.40 the
and
rate of air quality in ME
known areas is anisotropic.2.18
IDW demonstrates
2.25 lower
3.63 RMSE than
9.85other
interpolation strategies, as the reference points are still in the same place in IDW modeling
RMSE 5.62 6.05 5.70 24.40
as the nodes or edges. This means that IDW preserves all the consistency of the input data
GOODNESS RANK OF ME I II III IV
when also modeling the values between known points [38]. IDW techniques were therefore
GOODNESS RANK OF RMSE I III II IV
used in this paper.

3.2. Data Interpolation and Mapping-Particulate Matter Concentration

concentrationsofofair
The concentrations airpollutants
pollutants obtained
obtained at the
at the CAQM
CAQM stations
stations (Table
(Table 1) have
1) have been
been measured, and their spatial distribution is mapped out. Figure 5 shows the
measured, and their spatial distribution is mapped out. Figure 5 shows the distribution of distribu-
tion2.5of, and
PM PM2.5 , and Figure
Figure 6 indicates
6 indicates the concentration
the concentration of Particulate
of Particulate Matter Matter 10 (PM10).
10 (PM10).

Figure 5. Distribution
Figure 5. Distribution of
of PMPM2.5 concentrations before
2.5 concentrations before and
and during
during the
the lockdown.
lockdown. The
The same
same classes
classes
have been provided with the same colour scheme for easy visualization of assessing the changes in
PM2.5
the PM 2.5 before
before and during the lockdown. It must be notednoted that
that pre-lockdown
pre-lockdownperiod
periodPM
PM2.5
2.5 ranges

from 36.27 to 95.06 μg/m 33. In contrast, during the lockdown, it went down and ranged from 28.70 to
from 36.27 to 95.06 µg/m . In contrast, during the lockdown, went
72.09 µg/m
72.09 μg/m33. .
Atmosphere 2022,13,
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x FOR PEER REVIEW 99 of
of 17
17

Figure 6.
Figure 6. Distribution
Distribution of of PM
PM10
10 pollutants before (12–22
(12-22 March, 2020) and
March 2020) and during
during the
the lockdown
lockdown (23
(23
March – 02 April, 2020). It must be noted that only one class overlapped between the
March–2 April 2020). It must be noted that only one class overlapped between the two periods of two periods
of analysis,
analysis, i.e.,i.e., 101.28–122.49.
101.28–122.49. This
This class
class hasbeen
has beenprovided
providedthe
thesame
samecolor
colorscheme
schemeininpre-lockdown
pre-lockdown
period and during lockdown period maps. It must be noted that pre-lockdown
period and during lockdown period maps. It must be noted that pre-lockdown period PM10 period PM10 ranged
ranged
from 101.28 to 233.69 μg/m33. In contrast, during lockdown, it went down and ranged from 49.37 to
from 101.28 to 233.69 µg/m . In contrast, during lockdown, it went down and ranged from 49.37 to
122.49 μg/m3.
122.49 µg/m3 .
The levels
The levels of of the
the concentrations
concentrations are are differentiated
differentiated using
using color
color palettes
palettes (green
(green is
is low
low
concentration, and red is high concentration). In the distribution of
concentration, and red is high concentration). In the distribution of PM2.5 pollutants map,PM 2.5 pollutants map,

it is
it is found
found that
that before
before the
the lockdown
lockdown period,
period, thethe maximum
maximum level level ofof the
the concentrations
concentrations of of
PM 2.5 was 95.06 µ g/m33, and the minimum was 36.27 µ g/m33, and during the lockdown, it
PM2.5 was 95.06 µg/m , and the minimum was 36.27 µg/m , and during the lockdown, it
reduced to
reduced to the
themaximum
maximumvalue valueofof72.09
72.09µg/mµ g/m33 and
and minimum
minimumvalue valueof of28.70
28.70µg/m
µ g/m33.. It
It is
is
also found that the North and North-West district of the Delhi
also found that the North and North-West district of the Delhi region has the maximumregion has the maximum
concentration just
concentration just before
beforethethelockdown
lockdownperiod.
[Link]
Subsequent high concentrations
high concentrations werewererec-
orded in Delhi’s West and Southwest districts, and the places near
recorded in Delhi’s West and Southwest districts, and the places near the South and New the South and New
Delhi districts
Delhi districts have
have recorded
recorded low low concentrations.
concentrations. During
During the the lockdown
lockdown period period due
due to to
SARS-CoV-2,the
SARS-CoV-2, theconcentration
concentrationof ofPM
PM2.5 was reduced
2.5 was reduced in in all
all districts.
districts.
The same
The same trendtrend was
was observed
observed in in the
the case
case of
of PM10.
PM10. Before
Before thethe lockdown
lockdown period, period, thethe
concentration of PM10 had a maximum
concentration PM10 had a maximum value of 233.69 µg/m value of 233.69 µ g/m 3
3 and a minimum value of
minimum value of
101.28 µ g/m33. .During
101.28 µg/m Duringthethelockdown,
lockdown,ititshowed
showedthe thesame
sametrend
trendasas PMPM 2.5 and
2.5 and reduced
reduced in all
in
Delhi districts. The concentration of PM10 level reduced
all Delhi districts. The concentration of PM10 level reduced to almost half of to almost half of what it was
was
before the
before the lockdown
lockdown period.
period. Figures
Figures 55 and
and 66 clearly
clearly show
show thethe change
change in in the concentration
concentration
level of
level of PM
PM2.52.5 and PM10, respectively.

3.3.
3.3. Data
Data Interpolation
Interpolation and
and Mapping-Air
Mapping-Air Quality
Quality Index
Index
The
The Air
AirQuality
QualityIndex
Index(AQI)
(AQI)was
was estimated
estimated and
and displayed
displayed on on
thethe
map for the
map for measured
the meas-
PM concentrations
ured2.5PM (Figure
2.5 concentrations 7). In7).the
(Figure InAQI map,map,
the AQI it is it
found thatthat
is found the the
AQIAQIwaswas
classified
classi-
into two two
fied into groups before
groups the the
before lockdown
lockdown period. One
period. One is is
ananunhealthy
unhealthylevel,
level,and
andthe
the other
other
is
is unhealthy for sensitive groups of people. However, during the lockdown period, due
unhealthy for sensitive groups of people. However, during the lockdown period, due
to
to SARS-CoV-2
SARS-CoV-2 itit changed,
changed, and
and the
the AQI
AQI levels
levels fell
fell into
into unhealthy
unhealthy forfor sensitive
sensitive groups
groups ofof
people
people and
and moderate,
moderate, respectively.
respectively.
 Atmosphere 2022, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 17

Atmosphere 2022, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 17

Atmosphere 2022, 13, 2090
The district, namely Northwest, North, and Southwest, changed from unhealthy to
10 of 17
unhealthy for sensitive groups due to the SARS-CoV-2 lockdown. The remaining districts
changed from unhealthy for sensitive groups to moderate levels.
The district, namely Northwest, North, and Southwest, changed from unhealthy to
unhealthy for sensitive groups due to the SARS-CoV-2 lockdown. The remaining districts
changed from unhealthy for sensitive groups to moderate levels.

Figure7.7. AQI
Figure AQI map
map of
of PM
PM2.5
2.5 before
before (12-22
(12–22March,
March 2020)
2020) and
and during
during the
the lockdown
lockdown (23
(23 March – 02
March–2 April
April,
2020). 2020).

Figure
FigureThe
7. AQI 8map
shows
district, of the
namely
PM values
2.5 before
of AQI
Northwest,
(12-22 estimated
North,
March, for
and and
2020) each
Southwest,
duringCAQM station
changed
the lockdown before
from
(23 and
unhealthy
March dur-
– 02 to
ing the
unhealthy
April, lockdown period. During the lockdown, the station IHBAS, Dilshad
2020).for sensitive groups due to the SARS-CoV-2 lockdown. The remaining districts Garden,
Delhi–CPCB,
changed from showed
unhealthythefor
maximum
sensitivereduction
groups toin the AQI,levels.
moderate i.e., from 156 to 60 (62%), and
the station
Figure ITO,
Figure Delhi–CPCB,
8 shows the valuesshowed
the values of
ofAQI the minimum
AQIestimated
estimated for decrease,
foreach
eachCAQM
CAQM from 160 to
station 148 (8%).
before
station and
before How-
during
and dur-
ever,
the
ing theforlockdown
lockdown the Pusa, Delhi–IMD,
period. During
period. thelockdown,
the
During AQI level increased
the lockdown, the from
the station 102IHBAS,
IHBAS,
station toDilshad
155 (52%).
Garden,
Dilshad Delhi–
Garden,
CPCB, showed
Delhi–CPCB, the maximum
showed the maximumreduction in theinAQI,
reduction i.e., from
the AQI, 156 to
i.e., from 15660to(62%), andand
60 (62%), the
station ITO, Delhi–CPCB, showed the minimum decrease, from 160
the station ITO, Delhi–CPCB, showed the minimum decrease, from 160 to 148 (8%). How-to 148 (8%). However,
for the
ever, forPusa, Delhi–IMD,
the Pusa, the AQI
Delhi–IMD, the level increased
AQI level from 102
increased fromto102155to(52%).
155 (52%).

Figure 8. Comparison plot of AQI for PM2.5 between the pre- and during-lockdown periods.

On comparing the districts-wise AQI for PM2.5 (Table 4), it was found that the maxi-
mum reduction of mean AQI was in the case of Shahdara district, i.e., from 154 to 83 (46%).
Figure
Figure 8.
8. Comparison
Comparison plot
plot of
of AQI
AQI for
for PM
PM2.5 between the pre- and during-lockdown periods.
2.5 between the pre- and during-lockdown periods.

On
On comparing
comparing the
the districts-wise
districts-wise AQI
AQI for
for PM
PM2.5 (Table 4), it was found that the maxi-
2.5 (Table 4), it was found that the maxi-
mum
mum reduction
reduction of mean
mean AQI
AQI was
was in
in the
thecase
caseof
ofShahdara
Shahdaradistrict,
district,i.e.,
i.e.,from
from154
154to
to83
83(46%).
(46%).
here 2022, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 17
Atmosphere 2022, 13, 2090 11 of 17

The minimum reduction of mean AQI was found in the West district, i.e., from 147 to 102
(28%). Also, before the lockdown
The minimum period,
reduction ofthe
meanmean
AQI AQI
waswas highest
found inWest
in the the North district
district, i.e., from 147 to 102
(161) and lowest in the
(28%). South
Also, andthe
before New Delhi districts
lockdown period,(139). However,
the mean AQI was during the in
highest lock-
the North district
(161)reduced,
down period, AQI and lowest andin the South and New
same trend Delhi districts
of maximum and (139). However,
minimum meanduring
AQI the lockdown
period,
levels is observed, i.e.,AQI reduced,
highest and
for the the same
North trend
district of and
(112) maximum
lowestand minimum
for the mean AQI levels is
South (82),
New Delhi (83),observed, i.e., highest
and Southeast (84) for the North
districts. district
Overall, the(112)
meanand lowest
value of for
AQItheforSouth
PM 2.5(82), New Delhi
(83), and of
showed a net reduction Southeast
37%. (84) districts. Overall, the mean value of AQI for PM2.5 showed a net
reduction of 37%.
Table 4. District-wise comparison of AQI for PM2.5.
Table 4. District-wise comparison of AQI for PM2.5 .
12–22 March 2020 23 March–2 April 2020
S No. District Name
District 12–22 March 2020
Min Max Mean Min 23 March–2
Max April 2020
Mean
S No.
1
Name North
Min 151
Max 170 161
Mean 95 Min 125 Max112 Mean
1 2
North North East
151 151170 156 154
161 74 95 99 125 89 112
2 3 East
North West
151 102156 169 147
154 71 74 155 99102 89
3 4West 102
East 137169 157 147
146 75 71 129 155 90 102
4 East
5 South137
West 138157 162 146
154 87 75 120 129
108 90
5 South West 138 162 154 87 120 108
6 6
Central Central
125 125160 160 150
150 73 73 148 14899 99
7 New7 Delhi New Delhi
103 103161 161 139
139 68 68 153 15388 88
8 8South 127
South 127156 156 139
139 72 72 93 9382 82
9 Shahdara
9 150
Shahdara 150158 158 154
154 60 60 104 104 83 83
10 South East 123 154 144 74 93 84
11
10
North West
South East
128
123169 154 144
158
74 73 93 120
84 109
11 North West 128 169 158 73 120 109

The air quality The air(AQI)

index quality
forindex (AQI) for
the recorded the recorded
PM10 PM10 concentrations
concentrations was calculated wasand calculated and
depicted on the map shown in Figure 9. The AQI map shows
depicted on the map shown in Figure 9. The AQI map shows that the AQI falls into twothat the AQI falls into two
categories before the lockdown period: one is unhealthy for
categories before the lockdown period: one is unhealthy for sensitive groups, and thesensitive groups, and the
other [Link] moderate.
During During the
the lockdown lockdown
period, period,
however, however,
most mostlevels
of the AQI of thechanged
AQI levels changed to
moderate levels and some
to moderate levels and some to, good levels. to, good levels.

Figure 9. AQI map of PM10 before (12-22 March, 2020) and during the lockdown (23 March – 02
Figure 9. AQI map of PM10 before (12–22 March 2020) and during the lockdown (23 March–2 April
April, 2020).
2020).
 Atmosphere2022,
Atmosphere 2022,13,
13,2090
x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 17
12 of 17

Figure10
Figure 10represents
representsthe
theAQI
AQIfor
forPM
PM1010before
beforeand
andduring
duringthe
thelockdown;
lockdown;ititisisevident
evident
fromthe
from thegraph
graphthat
thatthe
theAQI
AQIlevel
levelwas
wasreduced
reducedbybyalmost
almost50%
50%in
inalmost
almostall
allof
of the
the stations.
stations.
TheDwarka-Sector
The Dwarka-Sector8,8,Delhi
DelhiPCC
PCCstation,
station,showed
showedaamaximum
maximumreduction
reductionfrom
from145 145toto66
66
(55%),and
(55%), andthe
thestation
stationITO,
ITO,New
NewDelhi–CPCB,
Delhi–CPCB,showed
showedaaminimum
minimumreduction,
reduction,i.e.,
i.e.,from
from8888
toto62
62(30%).
(30%).

Figure 10. Comparison plot of AQI for PM10 between the pre- and during-lockdown periods.
Figure 10. Comparison plot of AQI for PM10 between the pre- and during-lockdown periods.
On comparing the district-wise AQI for PM 10 (Table 5), it was found that the maxi-
On comparing the district-wise AQI for PM 10 (Table 5), it was found that the maxi-
mum reduction of mean AQI was in the case of the Northwest district, i.e., from 121 to 64
(47%). reduction
mum The minimum of mean AQI was
reduction in theAQI
of mean casewas
of the Northwest
found district,
in the West i.e., from
district, 121 to
i.e., from 64
101
to(47%). The minimum
57 (43%). reduction
As well, before of mean AQI
the lockdown wasthe
period, found
mean in AQI
the West district, in
was highest i.e.,
thefrom 101
North
to 57 (43%). As well, before the lockdown period, the mean AQI was highest
district (122) and lowest in the South district (97). During the lockdown period, however, in the North
district
AQI (122) and
reduced, and the
lowest
same intrend
the South district (97).
of maximum During themean
and minimum lockdown period,
AQI levels however,
is observed,
AQI reduced, and the same trend of maximum and minimum mean AQI
i.e., the highest for the North district (68) and the lowest for the South district (53). Overall,levels is ob-
served, i.e., the highest for the North district (68)
the mean value of AQI for PM10 showed a net reduction of 46%. and the lowest for the South district (53).
Overall, the mean value of AQI for PM10 showed a net reduction of 46%.
Table 5. District-wise comparison of AQI for PM10.
Table 5. District-wise comparison of AQI for PM10.
District 12–22 March 2020 23rd March–02nd April 2020
S No. 12–22 March 2020 23rd March–02nd April 2020
Name S No.
Min District Name
Max
Min MeanMax MeanMin
Min MaxMax Mean
Mean
1 North 1 102 North 134 102 122 134 122 59 59 76 76 6868
2 North East 99 114 104 55 63 58
2 North East 99 114 104 55 63 58
3 West 89 136 114 52 64 59
4 East 3 89 West 128 89 101136 114 55 52 62 64 5759
5 South West 4 101 East 144 89 113128 101 54 55 65 62 5957
6 Central 5 86 124
South West 101 102144 113 47 54 68 65 5859
7 New Delhi
6 84 Central145 86 101124 102 46 47 66
68 54
58
8 South 75 133 97 42 61 53
9 Shahdara 7 95 New Delhi131 84 107145 101 57 46 63 66 6054
10 South East 8 84 South121 75 101133 97 52 42 58 61 5653
11 North West 9 97 Shahdara137 95 121 131 107 55 57 69 63 6460
10 South East 84 121 101 52 58 56
11As a result
North West 97 137 121 55 69 64have
of COVID-19, normal life on Earth has been disrupted in ways that
not been seen in the last one hundred years [39,40]. Workers and the impoverished are hit
worst As
by aCOVID-19
result of 0COVID-19, normal
s restrictions, whichlife
haveonled
Earth hasglobal
to the been disrupted
shutdown in
of ways that have
all commercial
not been seen in the last one hundred years [39,40]. Workers and the impoverished are hit
and industrial units [41]. While a reduction in air pollution is desirable, it is not acceptable
worst by COVID-19′s restrictions, which have led to the global shutdown of all
if this comes at the expense of food insecurity [42]. Multiple large, populated cities in commer-
northern India appear to have seen significant improvements due to the lockdown [43–46].
Atmosphere 2022, 13, 2090 13 of 17

Over the past two decades, the phenomena underpinning global warming, climate change,
and pollution in the Earth’s atmosphere have become central issues of scientific inquiry [47].
Air pollutants such as ozone (O3), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), carbon monoxide (CO), par-
ticulate matter (PM) in various size fractions (PM0.1 m, PM2.5 m, and PM10 m), volatile
organic compounds (VOCs), and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) have had a
significant impact on ecology, environment, and human health [48–51]. Toxic nitrogen
oxide (NOx) emissions in both developing (India, China, etc.) and western industrialized
countries were drastically reduced due to COVID-19 limitations on diesel, gasoline, and
other petroleum fuel combustion [47–49]. Multiple studies have been done to learn how
long-term lockdowns affect local and worldwide air quality [52–63]. The air quality greatly
improved, according to these studies, once factories and cars stopped running. Despite the
lockdowns, environmental and human health are again negatively impacted by particulate
matter and pollutant gases (NOx/SOx/CO) in the post-COVID era [64,65]. Aerosols have
been found to affect the radiation budget, human health, and even the strength of monsoons
in a number of studies [66,67]. Increasing cardiovascular mortality is a known effect of
chronic exposure to particulate matter, NOx, and ozone [68,69]. Particulate matter (PM2.5
and PM10) emissions are the greatest in India, followed by NO2, SO2 and CO, according to
the national ambient air quality monitoring programme [70].
The study has demonstrated how, due to the lockdown, after years of poor air quality,
certain Delhi neighborhoods were able to breathe easier. The findings also suggest that
emergency lockdown tactics could be an option to deal with extreme air pollution if they
are executed in a way that does not negatively impact the economy and poorer classes
of society [71–76]. Based on this, there is a need to identify nature’s cyclic healing rate
against anthropogenic activities. The government should focus on formulating specific
policies to curb air pollution in Delhi. Some short-term policies like intermittent banning of
certain anthropogenic activities (construction, mining, and burning of farm waste) based
upon cyclic AQI patterns, medium-term policies such as preventing open incinerations,
smog tower installations, and long-term policies such as vehicle emission norms, industrial
operational timings, and public awareness campaigns.

4. Conclusions
While the whole nation was terrified by the outbreak of the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic,
nature, on the other hand, was healing temporarily. This paper helped to explore the
linkage between the air quality and nationwide lockdown due to SARS-CoV-2 for the city
of Delhi using GIS technology. Data from almost 37 CAQM stations were observed before
and during the lockdown period. The city’s Air Quality Index was reduced by nearly 37%
and 46% concerning PM2.5 and PM10, respectively, due to the lockdown. Air pollution
reduction could be mainly due to the decline in economic activities, related emissions, and
vehicular emissions. The methodology employed in GIS technology helped to monitor the
Air Quality Index changes efficiently. Furthermore, geo-visualization using GIS proved a
better method for monitoring air pollution. However, the weather parameters such as wind
speed, temperature, and altitude, which affect pollution dispersion, must be studied for
high precision. Finally, it is possible to conclude that when human activities are abruptly
ceased, the natural pace of healing exceeds the caused disruptions, resulting in a lower
AQI, proving that this pandemic has given a small window for the environment to breathe
and helped the districts of Delhi to recover from serious air quality situations. Also, the
results show that such lockdown strategies, if implemented so that the economy and lower
segments of society are not affected, could be a possible emergency measure to combat
severe air pollution.

Author Contributions: Conceptualisation, S.S., H.S., V.S. (Vaibhav Shrivastava), V.S. (Vishal Sharma)
and G.M.; methodology S.S., H.S., G.M. and V.S. (Vaibhav Shrivastava); software, S.S., H.S. and
V.S. (Vaibhav Shrivastava); validation, S.S., H.S., V.S. (Vaibhav Shrivastava), V.S. (Vishal Sharma)
and G.M.; formal analysis, S.S., H.S., V.S. (Vaibhav Shrivastava), V.S. (Vishal Sharma) and G.M.;
investigation, S.S., H.S., V.S. (Vaibhav Shrivastava), V.S. (Vishal Sharma), P.K., S.K.S., M.F., S.K. and
Atmosphere 2022, 13, 2090 14 of 17

G.M.; resources, S.S., H.S., V.S. (Vaibhav Shrivastava), V.S. (Vishal Sharma), P.K., S.K.S., G.M., M.F. and
S.K.; data curation, S.S., H.S., V.S. (Vaibhav Shrivastava), V.S. (Vishal Sharma), P.K., S.K.S., G.M., M.F.
and S.K.; writing—original draft preparation, S.S., H.S., V.S. (Vaibhav Shrivastava) and V.S. (Vishal
Sharma); writing—review and editing, S.S., H.S., V.S. (Vaibhav Shrivastava), V.S. (Vishal Sharma),
P.K., S.K.S., G.M., M.F. and S.K.; visu-alization, S.S., H.S., V.S. (Vaibhav Shrivastava), V.S. (Vishal
Sharma), P.K., S.K.S., G.M., M.F. and S.K.; supervision, S.S., H.S., V.S. (Vaibhav Shrivastava), V.S.
(Vishal Sharma), S.K.S. and S.K.; project administration, P.K.; funding acquisition, P.K. All authors
have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Data is available on request from the corresponding author.
Acknowledgments: The authors thank R-Based Services Private Limited, Delhi, India, for providing
the required setup for this research. We thank all the five anonymous reviewers for their constructive
suggestions throughout all the rounds of peer-review that have tremendously improved the quality
and content of this manuscript.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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