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 Brief Contents b
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xvii

PART 1: Foundations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Chapter 1 The Nature of Theatre . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Chapter 2 The Audience and Criticism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Chapter 3 The Play . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

PART 2: Varieties of Theatrical Experience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

Chapter 4 Festival Theatre . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Chapter 5 Creating a Professional Theatre . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Chapter 6 Theatre in the 1800s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Chapter 7 Modernism in the Twentieth Century: 1900–1960 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
Chapter 8 Decentralization and Subsidization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
Chapter 9 Contemporary Theatre and Its Diversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
Chapter 10 Musical Theatre . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
Chapter 11 Asian and African Theatre . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303

PART 3: Theatrical Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327

Chapter 12 Theatrical Space and Production Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
Chapter 13 Playwriting and Dramaturgy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
Chapter 14 Directing and Producing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
Chapter 15 Acting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385
Chapter 16 Scene Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405
Chapter 17 Costume Design and Makeup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425
Chapter 18 Lighting and Sound Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445
Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 486

Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 Contents c
Preface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xvii

PART 1: Foundations 3
Chapter 1: The Nature of Theatre. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
The Basic Elements of Theatre . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Theatre as a Form of Art. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Society, Art, and Culture: Prior Censorship and Self-Censorship. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Practitioners and Theorists: Cirque du Soleil. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Practices and Styles: The Factory. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Special Qualities of Theatre. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Art and Value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Multiple Intelligences Theory and the Arts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

Chapter 2: The Audience and Criticism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

Experiencing a Performance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Who Is the Audience?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Society, Art, and Culture: Culturally Conditioned Audience Response. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Practitioners and Theorists: Theatre for a New Audience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
The Audience and Critical Perspective. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Society, Art, and Culture: Influence of Criticism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
The Basic Problems of Criticism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Qualities Needed by the Critic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

Chapter 3: The Play . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

On Reading a Play. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Dramatic Action. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Practitioners and Theorists: Aristotle’s Poetics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Methods of Organizing Dramatic Action. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Plot. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
The Beginning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
The Middle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

vii

Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
viii Contents

The End . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Character and Characterization. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Thought . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Sound and Spectacle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Diction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Music. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Spectacle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Practices and Styles: Analyzing Plays. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Society, Art, and Culture: The Possibility of Writing Tragedy Today . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Form in Drama. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Tragedy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Comedy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Other Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Style in Drama . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Different Styles of Production Applied to the Same Play. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56

PART 2: Varieties of Theatrical Experience 59

Chapter 4: Festival Theatre: Greek, Roman, and Medieval Theatre Experience. . . . . . . . . . . . 61
The Theatre of Ancient Greece . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Society, Art, and Culture: Performance in Ancient Egypt. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
The Theatre of Dionysus. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
The Performers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Practitioners and Theorists: Greek Tragic Dramatists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Oedipus Rex and Its Performance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Then and Now: Greek Tragedy and the Modern Stage. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Greek Comedy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
The Roman Theatre Experience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Roman Theatrical Context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
The Menaechmi. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Then and Now: Roman Comedy and the Modern Stage. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Other Roman Drama and Theatre. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Practices and Styles: Roman Paratheatrical Entertainments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
The Revival of Drama in the Medieval Period. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Society, Art, and Culture: The First Female Dramatist. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Trade Guilds and the Corpus Christi Festival . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Conventions of Medieval Theatre . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Practices and Styles: Special Effects in Religious Plays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91

Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 Contents ix

The Wakefield Cycle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92

Noah and His Sons. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
Then and Now: Medieval Theatre and the Modern Stage. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Other Medieval Theatre and Drama . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Comparing Greek, Roman, and Medieval Theatre. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Theatre in a Broad Context. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101

Chapter 5: Creating a Professional Theatre: Elizabethan England, Italian

Commedia dell’Arte, and Seventeenth-Century France. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Creating a Professional Theatre. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Shakespeare and the Globe Theatre. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Society, Art, and Culture: The New Globe Theatre . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
Hamlet. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
Then and Now: Shakespeare and the Modern Stage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
The Theatre Experience in Renaissance Italy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
Practices and Styles: Italian Intermezzi and English Masques. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Commedia dell’Arte . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
The Servant of Two Masters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
Then and Now: Commedia and Modern Improvised Comedy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
The French Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Practices and Styles: Professional Theatre in Spain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
Molière and Seventeenth-Century French Theatre Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Tartuffe. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
Practitioners and Theorists: Molière . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
The Elizabethan, Italian, and French Traditions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
Theatre in a Broad Context. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137

Chapter 6: Theatre in the 1800s. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139

The Emergence of Romanticism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
Melodrama. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Monte Cristo. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Practices and Styles: Scenes of Suspense and Spectacle in Melodrama . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
Then and Now: Melodrama and Film. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
The Advent of Realism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
Realism and Naturalism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
A Doll’s House . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
Then and Now: Henrik Ibsen: from Controversial to Mainstream. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
Zola and Naturalism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
The Emergence of the Director. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156

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The Independent Theatre Movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159

Society, Art, and Culture: Censoring Shaw. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
The Stanislavsky System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
Early Reactions to Realism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
Symbolism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
“Art for Art’s Sake”. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
The Importance of ­Being Earnest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
Theatre in a Broad Context. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167

Chapter 7: Modernism in the Twentieth Century: 1900–1960 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169

The Modernist Influence on Theatrical Visionaries. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
Futurism, Dada, and Expressionism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
Then and Now: Chicago’s Neo-Futurists. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
Practices and Styles: Modernist Movements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
The Hairy Ape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
American Theatre and Drama between the Wars (1917–1940) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
Practices and Styles: “Little Theatres” and the New Stagecraft. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
Practitioners and Theorists: American Female Playwrights between the Wars. . . . . . . . 183
Epic Theatre . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
The Good Person of Setzuan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
Artaud and the Theatre of Cruelty. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
Practitioners and Theorists: Peter Brook and the Theatre of Cruelty. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
Post–World War II European Drama and Theatre. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
Absurdist Drama. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
Waiting for Godot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
Post–World War II American Drama and Theatre. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
Cat on a Hot Tin Roof. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
Practitioners and Theorists: The Actors Studio. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
Theatre in a Broad Context. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199

Chapter 8: Decentralization and Subsidization: New Directions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201

Postwar British Theatre. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
American Regional Theatres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
Society, Art, and Culture: Subsidization and the NEA. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
Off-Broadway and Off-Off-Broadway. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
Alternative Theatre Groups. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
Society, Art, and Culture: Theatre across America. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213

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 Contents xi

Poor and Environmental Theatres. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217

Then and Now: From Environmental Theatre to Immersive Theatre. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
Multimedia, Happenings, and Performance Art. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
Then and Now: “Happenings” in the Modern World . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
A New Generation of American Playwrights. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
True West. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
Theatre in a Broad Context. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231

Chapter 9: Contemporary Theatre and Its Diversity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233

Cultural Diversity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
African American Theatre. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
Fences. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
Practitioners and Theorists: August Wilson’s Century Cycle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
Latino Theatre. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
Lydia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
Asian American Theatre. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
Society, Art, and Culture: Should We Write Only about Our Own Culture?. . . . . . . . . . . 245
Native American Theatre. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
Theatre by and for Women. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
Society, Art, and Culture: Creating Theatre outside the Box. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
How I Learned to Drive. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
Gay and Lesbian Theatre. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
Angels in America, Part I: Millennium Approaches. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
Performance Art Since 1990 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
Postmodernism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
Postmodern Influences on Interpretation and Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
Contemporary British Drama. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
The Next Wave of Contemporary American Playwrights. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
Theatre in a Broad Context. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269

Chapter 10: Musical Theatre. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271

Origins of Musical Theatre . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
Society, Art, and Culture: Black Musicals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
The Birth of the Modern Musical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
Practices and Styles: Musicals and Hollywood. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
Golden Age Musicals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278

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xii Contents

Alternatives to the Book Musical. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284

Rock Musicals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
Concept Musicals: Stephen Sondheim. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
Other Concept Musicals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
Andrew Lloyd Webber and the Megamusical. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
The 1990s: Revitalizing the American Musical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
The 2000s: Movies, Jukeboxes, and Other Possibilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
Theatre in a Broad Context. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301

Chapter 11: Asian and African Theatre . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303

Theatre in Japan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
Noh Theatre. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
The Shrine in the Fields (Nonomiya). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
Other Traditional Japanese Theatre Forms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
Modern Japanese Theatre . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
Society, Art, and Culture: Sankai Juku and Butoh. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
Theatre in China. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
Other Asian Countries. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
Wayang Kulit. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
Theatre in Africa. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
Performance in Nigeria. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
Society, Art, and Culture: In What Language Should We Write?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
The Strong Breed. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
South Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
Society, Art, and Culture: Theatre of the Struggle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
North Africa. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
Other African Countries. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
Theatre in a Broad Context. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325

PART 3: Theatrical Production 327

Chapter 12: Theatrical Space and Production Design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
The Influence of Theatrical Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
The Proscenium-Arch Stage. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
The Thrust Stage. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
The Arena Stage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
Society, Art, and Culture: Theatre Architecture. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
Flexible Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
Practices and Styles: Theatre Facilities and Auxiliary Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336

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 Contents xiii

Auxiliary Spaces. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336

Using the Theatrical Space. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
Production Design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
Elements and Principles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
Collaboration and the Designers’ Process. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340
Practitioners and Theorists: Julie Taymor and Coordinated Production Design. . . . . . . 341

Chapter 13: Playwriting and Dramaturgy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345

The Playwright. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
Practitioners and Theorists: Yasmina Reza. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
Practitioners and Theorists: Playwrights on Playwriting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
The Dramaturg. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352
Literary Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
Practices and Styles: Playwriting as Collaborative Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
Practitioners and Theorists: Dramaturgs on Dramaturgy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356
Production Dramaturgy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356

Chapter 14: Directing and Producing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359

The Producer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
Practices and Styles: Producing New Hair . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
The Director. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362
Analyzing and Studying the Play. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362
Approaches to Directing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364
Practices and Styles: Directors on Directing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365
The Director and the Designers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369
Auditions and Casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369
Practices and Styles: Nontraditional Casting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
Working with the Actors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
The Director’s Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
Stage Images. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
Movement, Gesture, and Business . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
Voice and Speech . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
Rehearsing the Play. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
Practitioners and Theorists: Anne Bogart. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378
The Assistant Director and the Stage Manager. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382
Thinking about the ­Director’s Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383

Chapter 15: Acting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385

Approaches to the Art of Acting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386
Stanislavsky. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
Practitioners and Theorists: Actors’ Thoughts About Acting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388

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xiv Contents

Alternative Approaches to Acting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388

Practitioners and Theorists: The Rude Mechs’ Method Gun. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
The Actor’s Training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391
Vocal Training. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391
Movement Training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391
Training the Mind. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393
Rehearsing and Performing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394
Basic Stage Vocabulary and Conventions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394
Creating a Role. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396
Developing Movement in Rehearsal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397
Vocal Characterization. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398
Memorization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399
Refining the Rule. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400
Dress Rehearsals and Performance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400
The Profession. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400
The Tools of the Trade. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
The Audition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
The Actor’s Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402
Thinking about the Actor’s Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403

Chapter 16: Scene Design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405

The Functions of Scene Design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405
The Scene Designer’s Skills. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407
Working Plans and Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408
Practitioners and Theorists: The Art of Scene Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
Practitioners and Theorists: Ming Cho Lee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411
Basic Scenic Elements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412
Soft-Scenery Units. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412
Framed Units. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413
Three-Dimensional Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414
Materials and Methods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415
Assembling and Painting Scenery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415
Practitioners and Theorists: Michael Yeargan. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416
Shifting Scenery Onstage. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417
Set Decoration and Properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420
Practices and Styles: Action and Spectacle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
Technical Rehearsals, Dress Rehearsals, and Performances. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
The Scene Designer’s Assistants and Collaborators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422
Thinking about the Scene Designer’s Work. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422

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 Contents xv

Chapter 17: Costume Design and Makeup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425

The Functions of Costume Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425
Practitioners and Theorists: The Art of Costume Design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427
Practitioners and Theorists: Catherine Zuber. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429
The Costume Designer’s Skills. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430
Working Plans and Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431
Realizing the Designs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433
The Costume Designer and the Actor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435
Makeup. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 436
Practitioners and Theorists: William Ivey Long . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437
Types of Makeup. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 438
The Costume Parade, Dress Rehearsals, and Performances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441
The Costume Designer’s Assistants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441
Thinking about Costume and Makeup. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441

Chapter 18: Lighting and Sound Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445

The Controllable Qualities of Light. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445
Practitioners and Theorists: Female Pioneers in Stage Lighting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448
The Functions of Lighting Design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448
Practitioners and Theorists: The Art of Light Design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449
The Lighting Designer’s Skills. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450
Practitioners and Theorists: Jennifer Tipton. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 452
The Lighting Designer’s Working Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453
Organizing the Distribution of Light. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453
Setting the Lights, Rehearsals, and Performances. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456
The Lighting Designer’s Assistants. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 458
The Increasing Role of Sound Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459
The Functions of Sound Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459
The Sound Designer’s Working Methods and Resources. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461
Mixed-Media Productions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 462
Thinking about Stage Lighting and Sound . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463

Afterword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465

Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467

Bibliography. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477

Index. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 486

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
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 Preface p
Behind this edition lies more than fifty years of to use only some of the chapters in Part 2, for
publication. Although The Essential ­Theatre was instance, while others may wish to assign Part 3
first published in 1976, it began as an abridged prior to or concurrently with Part 2. Regardless,
version of another book, The Theatre: An our aim is to provide helpful discussions of
­Introduction, which first appeared in 1964. The topics pertinent to introductory and theatre
Essential Theatre has since taken on an identity of appreciation courses rather than to prescribe how
its own and is now in its Eleventh Edition. the courses should be organized.
As in its earlier versions, this edition is This Eleventh Edition continues to feature
divided into three parts. Part 1 addresses basic the “Theatre in a Broad Context” timelines;
issues and features related to the nature of theatre, these help students situate theatrical events
to the role of audiences, to the varied criteria for and developments within a larger historical
judging theatrical performances, and to dramatic context (see the final pages of Chapters 4
structure and style. Part 2 looks at various through 11). Chapters 14 through 18 include
theatrical experiences from theatre’s past and a series of questions to help students attending
present. These experiences suggest that, as a vital performances more fully consider and analyze
form of creative expression, theatre changes to the work of different theatre artists (directors,
reflect the dynamics of the cultures within which actors, and designers). Finally, an extensive
it exists. Part 3 provides an overview of theatre bibliography is appended to the book as a guide
production today: the principles, practices, and to additional sources about the topics discussed
procedures used in the creation of theatre. in each chapter.
The Essential Theatre is intended primarily to We have assumed that many of those who
serve two kinds of courses: an introductory course use this book will both read plays and attend
in which an overview provides a foundation theatrical performances. Ideally, students should
for those intending to major in theatre (future be able to read a play and then see a performance
theatre-makers), and a theatre appreciation of that play. This is often not possible, but
course in which an overview provides insights reading plays and seeing performances illustrate
and understanding for audience members (future the difference between text on the printed page
theatregoers). Although these two courses may and its production on stage—the difference
address the same topics, they usually do so with between drama and theatre. Because students
somewhat different emphases. Because instructors typically will not have read a wide variety of
often use the material in ways suited to their plays, fourteen examples cited in The Essential
individual needs, we have sought to provide a Theatre, Eleventh Edition, are also included
logically organized, comprehensive overview in a companion anthology titled Plays for the
of the theatre. But instructors need not follow Theatre, Eleventh Edition, originally edited
the sequence we have chosen nor use all of the by Oscar G. Brockett and Robert J. Ball and
material in the book. Some instructors may wish published by Cengage Learning. These plays

xvii

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
xviii Preface

serve as foundations for discussions of various the distinctive features of each movement.
types of theatrical experience. The anthology There is also a new text box on American female
includes three new plays. Plays retained from the playwrights of the interwar years. In the second
previous edition include Sophocles’s Oedipus the half of the chapter, the trends in post–World War
King, the anonymously composed Noah and His II European theatre are treated together, followed
Sons, the Noh drama The Shrine in the Fields, by the trends in American theatre. Chapter 8
William Shakespeare’s Hamlet, Molière’s Tartuffe, now begins with a more in-depth treatment of
Henrik Ibsen’s A Doll’s House, Oscar Wilde’s The post–World War II British theatre, including
Importance of Being Earnest, Tennessee Williams’s consideration of three major theatres (National
Cat on a Hot Tin Roof, Wole Soyinka’s The Strong Theatre, Royal Shakespeare Company, Royal
Breed, Paula Vogel’s How I Learned to Drive, and Court Theatre) and three major playwrights
Octavio Solis’s Lydia. The three new plays are (Harold Pinter, Peter Shaffer, and Tom Stoppard).
Sam Shepard’s True West, August Wilson’s Fences, The chapter’s coverage of decentralization and
and Tony Kushner’s Angels in America. subsidization includes a consideration of Sam
Shepard’s play True West as it illustrates the back-
and-forth movement between regional theatres
and the different tiers of theatre production found

New to This Edition in New York. Chapter 9’s treatment of diversity

includes a more in-depth treatment of African
American theatre as well as discussion of August

A s we have moved from “contributors” to an

enhanced edition to official authors of a new
edition, our goal has been to build upon a suc-
Wilson’s Fences and Tony Kushner’s Angels in
America; its treatment of contemporary theatre
retains Octavio Solis’s controversial play Lydia
cessful framework while enhancing the features and is updated in its discussions of contemporary
we have found to be most instructive in our own plays. Throughout all the chapters, there is
teaching. Likewise, we have listened to users of increased attention to the major playwrights of the
this book in attempt to increase the clarity, con- respective eras. In addition, all plays mentioned in
tent, and organization to fit the needs of different the text include a date of first production and all
instructors. major figures include their birth and death dates;
We have refined the expanded “Theatre in a the more rigorous inclusion of dates is not for
Broad Context” timelines that were used in the memorization, but rather to offer a clearer sense of
Enhanced Tenth Edition and have added one for context, of where a particular work falls within the
the new Chapter 10 coverage of Musical Theatre. artist’s lifetime or where it fits in the sociological
In addition, we have further reorganized the context suggested by the topics covered in the
material in Part 2 to make the historical overview “Theatre in a Broad Context” timelines.
of theatre’s many expressions more clear. Chapter Part 2 also features a new chapter, one devoted
6 is now “Theatre in the 1800s” and includes entirely to Musical Theatre. It covers musical
Symbolism and “Art-for-Art’s Sake” as early theatre’s development, major figures, major
reactions to realism. This has transformed Chapter works, and various incarnations that comprise the
7 into “Modernism in the 20th Century: 1900– most popular genre of theatre. In addition, spread
1960.” An examination of the differences between throughout the chapters of Part 2, there are ten
the early modernist movements of realism, new “Then & Now” text boxes that link select
symbolism, expressionism, surrealism, futurism, topics in theatre history to the present day; these
and dada is featured in a text box that contrasts text boxes (and accompanying photos) highlight

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 Preface xix

the way that the past continues to influence the • Instructor Companion Website. This
present, not only in theatre but also in popular protected companion website provides
culture, including films, contemporary comedy, exclusive instructor materials, including
and even flash mobs. PowerPoint® presentations for the entire
In Part 3, updates have been made so that the text, as well as a downloadable version of
discussions of theatre production reflect standard the Instructor’s Resource Manual.
practices and terminology. There is increased • Cengage Learning Testing Powered by
attention to the designer as artist and interpreter; Cognero. This flexible, online system
Chapters 16, 17, and 18 include text boxes where allows you to author, edit, and manage
designers discuss the artistry of their design test bank content from multiple Cengage
process. In Chapter 18, the expanded treatment Learning solutions. You can create multiple
of sound design has been retained. In addition, test versions in an instant and deliver
the chapter on Acting (now Chapter 15) has tests from your LMS, your classroom, or
been completely revised, offering a clearer, more wherever you want.
focused, up-to-date presentation of the diversity All of these resources are available with an
of contemporary approaches to acting. instructor account at login.cengage.com.
Throughout the text, the text boxes, play
summaries, and historical content have been
subtly edited to sharpen the clarity or significance
of the topic being discussed. This Eleventh
Edition also has over eighty new photos and Acknowledgments
illustrations; the additions typically feature
contemporary productions as well as actors and
actresses that students will recognize from film
and television.
I t is impossible to list all the people to whom
we are indebted. The bibliography indicates
most of the sources we have used, and the cap-
Overall, the new features to this edition help tions indicate the people and organizations who
underline the idea that theatre does not exist in have permitted us to include their illustrations.
isolation but rather is an art form that is a vibrant In addition to these, we wish to thank the fol-
part of the cultural makeup of the entertainment lowing colleagues for their insightful and useful
industry, both in the past and in the present. comments:
Kristopher LaMorte, Delgado Community
College
Kevin Brown, University of Missouri
Teaching Resources Jeremy Fiebig, Fayetteville State University
Jeremy Cox, University of Tennessee at
• Instructor’s Resource Manual. Save time, Chattanooga
streamline your course preparation, and get Michelle Lippens, Erie Community ­
the most from the text. This indispensable College – North Campus
manual offers teaching suggestions, assign-
Caroline Mercier, California State University,
ment ideas, and a sample course syllabus. It
Stanislaus
also provides sample quiz and essay questions,
video and web resources, and suggested class- Emily Becher, James Madison University
room activities. Sarah Maines, Texas State University

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
xx Preface

Michelle Ney, Texas State University Developer; Kelli Strieby, Product Manager; R ­ achel
Debbie Alley, Texas State University ­S chowalter, A
­ ssociate Content Developer; Jill
Quinn, S­ enior Content Project Manager; Ann
Rich Rand, Purdue University
Hoffman, IP A ­ nalyst; and the staff at L
­ umina
Russell Dembin, University of Texas-Austin Datamatics, including Venkat Narayanan,
(Graduate Assistant) ­Dharanivel Baskar, and Sumathi Kumaran.
Finally, we thank the staff at Cengage L
­ earning, John Fleming
including Rachel Smith, Associate Content Andrew Carlson

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 LETTER 63 OsTR. Dm (PI. VII). Letter. {Recto) I. Ns-Mn sy
Z-hr p nt z pe-f sme a (?) 'Y-m-htp 2. s P-a.te-'Mn-R«-nsw-t mbh 'Mn
p-hw ss 5 3. te-y 'n-w n-k sw f erme w«.t ble z« t st (?) 4. Ta-wbst.t
t rm.t Ns-p-wt sy Ns-Mn bnp Wn-nfr 5. 'y n-y n sf (?) erme (?) w^ ...
z 'w-f 6. a N ^n wt . . . p-e.'r fy n sw-w a 'Py 7. e-y y^b m-ss e.'r
Wn-nfr 'y 8. n-y t p . . . a.'r-y n 'Py e-y t 9. n-f ke sw I a mh sw | hb
n-y n rst10. -en... e-f hp e.'n-w-s 1 1 . n-k mte-k t 'w Wn-nfr 12. n
rste m-s p ke 13. sw I a mh p rtb sw i 14. hp bnp {Verso) 15. T-sr.t-
Mn ta P-a.te-'Mn-R«-nsw-t 16. wh p sw I a.hb-k a.tbe.t-f 1 7. my 'n-f
p bre 2 a.'n-w n-k hr 18. n sw.w n p-hw e-f 'w a N n rste 19. t mt.t
^o.t hb n-y n rste n p wh 20. n n sw.w n p-hw z n-y 'n-w-s n-k 21. n
nte 'r-k wh-s hb n-y n'm-s (?) 22. sh hsp 28 3-'h ss 5 ' Zminis, son of
Teos, utters his greeting to Imuthes, son of Petamestous ^ , before
Amon to-day, the 5th (of the month), I am sending them to you, ^
(artaba) wheat and a basket^ of chaff (?).^ Give them (?) to
Taubast'is, the wife of Nes-pw6t, son of Zminis. Onnophris did not
come to me yesterday , because (?) he went back to the City
(Thebes) .... a ... , who took the wheat to Ophi. I am very ill. When
Onnophris comes to me from the in Ophi, I will give (?)
 64 //. DEMOTIC TEXTS him another | (art.) wheat to make
up | (art.) wheat. Write to me to-morrow .... if it is brought to thee,
and send Onnophris to-morrow for the other 5 (art.) wheat to
complete the one artaba of wheat. If Senminis, the daughter of
Petamestous, has not asked for the | (art.) wheat which thou hast
written about, let him bring the two baskets, which were brought to
thee with the wheat to-day, when he goes to the City to-morrow.
The chief thing is (to) write to me to-morrow, in addition (?) to the
wheat to-day, (to say) that it has been brought to thee, that which
thou didst ask for. Write it to me. Written year 38, Athyr day 5.' ' The
Greek equivalent is not quite accurate. It represents P-aJe-^Mn-nsw-
t, whereas here, and in 1. 15 also, Amon-Ra takes the place of the
usual Amon. ''■ This word is distinctly written with a feminine article
here and with /, and yet it can hardly be different from the word bre
with a masculine article in 1. 17. Copt. Aip is feminine. ° z' qy. '2SH :
•xhi. OsTR. D 220 (PI. VIII). Memorandum. 1 . z-yt (?) n-f n rn n 2.
'o hwt hn^ p sym 3. a.'n-y etbe ht e.'r 4. Hgr ' I have spoken (?) ^
to him in the matter of the male ass and the fodder which I bought
from (?) ^ Akoris.' ^ ' I cannot explain the final /, if it be one ; it
closely resembles in form the hn^ of the following line, but that is
impossible here. The phrase z-yt n-f is used as our word ' called ' ('
Simon called Peter '), see Griffith, Cat. Rylands Pap. iii, p. 407, and
probably also P.S.B.A. xxiii, May, 1901, pi. II,y; i, which Dr. Griffith
explains as a participle. Here it can hardly be other than the first
person singular of the stm-fiorm. 2 Cf. Griffith, U.S. no. xv, A/2, B/3.
Following ^.'r is a sign resembling ht which I do not understand. ' I
think certain, but the first two letters are written over an earlier error
perhaps Sgr.
The text on this page is estimated to be only 27.35%
accurate

ACCOUNTS 65 OsTR. D 168 (PI. IX). Accounts. 1. P-my 'bt-

2 pr ss 25 i 2. p hw ms srtyqws i 3. 'bt-4 pr ss 18 2 ss 20 1 4. 'bt-i
sm ss 2 a p .... I a 6 5. Pa-'Mn 'bt-3 pr ss 10 i 6. p srtyqws i 7. 'bt-3
pi" ss iq I 8 sm ss 3 j 2 9. a 5 II ' Pmois, Mechir day 35 i ^ the
birthday (of the) strategus i Pharmuthi day 18 a day 20 i Pachons
day a for the 1 = 6 Pamounis, Phamenoth day 10 i The strategus i
Phamenoth day 10 i .... day 3 3 = 5 "•'' ' It does not appear what
the units are. ^ This final summation for lack of space at the bottom
is written in the margin between 11. 5 and 6.
 INDEXES (The numbers refer to the pages.) I. Gods. Amon,
32, 38, 62, 63. Amon Nakhomneus, 59, 60. Amonrasonther, 32, 33.
The Crocodile (fem.), 35, 37. Khons, 57. Montu, 4°, 4h 55i 58. 2.
Kings and Emperors. Cleopatra III and Ptol. Alexander I, 34.
Augustus ('Caesar'), 27. Caligula (' Gaius '), 23, 26, 28. Vespasian,
55. Domitian, 31, 62. Commodus, 52. Septimius Severus, 55 n.
Caracalla, 55 n. 3. Geography. Bank of the Merchants' Houses, 23,
25, 26, 28. Canal of the Crocodile, 35, 37. „ „ Horus-the-bull, 35 n. „
„ the Scorpion, 35 n. Honekht, 34, 35Jeme,23, 26, 28, 31, 46, 47,
48, 55, 59, 60. Ne (the City) = Thebes, 29, 30, 63, 64. ' The Old
Estate (?) ', village, 32, 38, 40. Ophi, 33, 55, 63. Pois, 32. Qesm (?),
54. Rhacotis, 61. Southern Island, 41. Temple of Amon, 38. „ Khons,
57. Temple of Montu, 40, 41, 55. To-tun(?), 55. Tseget(?), 34. 4.
Personal Names. Akoris, 64. Amenothes (?), 54. Ammonius, 25, 49.
Ankh-Hapi, 44, 46, 47. Apathes, 44, 49; ApoUonius, 46. Apynkhis,
36. Aristippus, 33. Asklas, 50. Asykhis, 43. Besis, 54. Bienkhis, 34.
Erieus, 29, 30, 48, 49. Glen (Kleon?), 25. Harmon thes, 32.
Harpbekis, 49. Harpikos, 34. Harpres, 48. Harsiesis, 44, 46.
Harthotes, 44, 46. Haruothes, 60. Herakleitos, 33. Hermias, 50.
Horus, 33, 39. Imuthes, 49, 61, 63. Inaros, 51.
 INDEXES 67 Kallimachus, 25. Kephalon, 49, 50. Kephalos,
25. Khapokhonsis, 33, 36, 54. Khespokhrates, 40, 41. Khesthotes,
44, 57, 59. Khons-tef-nekht, 26, 28, 46. Menese(?), 61. Menhes, 38.
Menkere, 37. Menkhes, 40. Miusis, 37. Moui, 42. Nekhthmonthes, 36.
Nes . . . ., 32. Nesptah, 61. Nespw6t, 63. Neuhoue, 59. Onnophris,
33, 63, 64. Osimarres, 60. Pa-by, 29, 30. Paeris, 25. Paminis, 23.
Pamonthes, 25, 31, 37, 38, 57. Pamounis, 34, 65. Panekhates, 34.
Pa-p-zoit, 37. Pasemis, 29, 37, 47, 58. Pempsais, 31. Permamis, 50.
Pesuris, 37. Petamestous, 38, 40, 41, 63, 64. Petamounis, 40.
Petekhespokhrates, 51, 53. Petepsais, 44. Petimuthes (?), 57.
Phagonis, 29. Phibis, 34, 36, 44, 48, 57Philon, 50. Phthouminis, 59.
Phthoumonthes, 62. Pikos, 26, 28, 36, 37, 42, 43, 48, 50, 58, 59.
Pkhelkhons, 32. Pkhembekis, 34. Pkhoiris, 47. Pmois, 32, 6g. Pois(?),
34. Psenamenophis, 37, 39, 46. Psenamounis, 37. Psenapathes, 30.
Psenenupis, 37, 42, 58. Psenesis, 49. Psenkhonsis, 46, 62.
Psenminis, 44, 49. Psenmonthes,2 3,34,3S,39,44,48,5i,6o. Psenuris,
46. Ptolemy, 49. PtoUis, 42. Senaraenothis (?), 35. Senbukhis, 62.
Senkhonsis, 62. Senminis, 64. Senwosre, 44, 46, 47. Shenai, 38, 40,
41. Sheshonk, 34, 35, 39. Snakhomneus, 47. Spotous, 54. Taubastis,
63. Teham, 46. Teos, 32, 33, 38, 40, 48, 62, 63. Thotsutmis, 34.
Totoes, 38, 59. Wem-p-mou, 36. Weser-he, 29, 30. Zminis, 29, 30,
35, 38, 40, 41, 63. g. Demotic Words. (A selected list.) 'ypj, 'oiphi',
31. '3r(?) . . . ., 33. 'bin h.i-ntr, 'temple-month , 51, 52, 54, 55'rp, '
wine(-tax) ', 33. 'rp, 'keramion', 33.
 68 INDEXES ', 'charge', 37. 'jis, ' ^j-priest (?) ', 62. 'pe.i, '
poll(-tax) ', 23, 25, 26, 28. 'pr , 57. 'rs-w, 'celebrations', 51, 54, 55.
y'&, V. 'to be sick', 63. yiQ), 'barley', 31. yi-nir, 'divine father', 51, 52,
53, 54. w3/(?) , 30, 37 n. wp.i, 'work', 34. wpre.t ....,51. w^(?),
'estate, farm(?)', 31, 38, 40. wt, 'pay', 25. wth, ' refined (silver) ', 23,
25, 28. ble, 'basket', 63. ht\^), 'spelt', 48. pr-ht, 'treasury', 29, 30.
fy, 'bread-rations, solid offerings (?) ', 40, 41, 61, 52, 53> 54»«', '
canal ', 34. mr pr-sU (?), ' chief baker ', 38. ■mr sn, ' chief priest ',
'lesonis', 39. mrwi, 'corn-land', 33. f»^, 'pay', 34ms, 'interest', 36.
mz', 'maiion', 61. nbe, ' dyke(-tax) ', 26, 28. r, 'thesaurus, granary',
31. rm-w, ' men (of X.) ', 25. rh ' adjudge (?) ', 44, 46-50. rt,
'produce', 33. rt, 'baihff', 38. hwe, 'surplus', 34, 35, 37. hnq,
'beer(?)', 51, 52, 54. h', 'festival', 39, 41. hwe, 'Augustus', 31, 51,
53, 54. hbl, ' parcel (?)', 61. h/ik, ' dromos', 59. •f, 'pkyle', 38, 40,
41, 51, 52, 54, 56 s.t-ywn, ' bath(-tax) ', 26, 28. swt, 'deliver', 32.
sp-w, 'arrears', 29. shn, V. 'to lease', 53, 54. j^«, sb. 'lease', 31. shn,
'collector', 38, 40, 41. sh wy, ' deed of cession ', 3 1, 33. sAn, 'bank',
23, 25, 26, 28. sdk, 'merchant', 23, 25, 26, 28. hn, 'rent', 33, 34.
sme.i, ' stock-farm (?) ', 38. sms-w, 'services', 51, 52, 54, 55. skr,
'rent', 55. s/y, 'temple-dues', 52. ^wj, ' xoSs-measure ', 32, 37, 39.
qn6.i, ' council', 31. y/(?), 'copper kite, obol', 28 n. kynptre, 51, 53.
kwk, ' rf«?»2-palm dates ', 61. ^w/, ' a temple official ', 40, 41. kfm
...., 52yJ»2, 'garden', 33. ^•f»2' 37/:,'(?), 'tax' (?), 36. ^-w,
'apomotra', 23, 26, 28. /^3(?), 'sprinkling', 56 n. /^«, 'oil', 34, 35,
47, 48, 59. z', 'chaff', 63. 6. Foreign Words. 'nqer, a plant (?), 6r.
nsyiykwn, ^vtikovQ), 31. srtyqws, or/oaTiyyos, 37, 60, 65.
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ft.. D 107 ^- '-^ D I 79
 Ill GREEK TEXTS A. PTOLEMAIC I. Receipts for Taxes paid
in Money. Nos. 1-9. II. Receipts for Taxes paid in Kind. Nos. 10-27,
III. Miscellaneous Receipts. Nos. 28-31. ' B. ROMAN I. Receipts for
Taxes paid in Money. Nos. 32-101. II. Receipts for Taxes paid in
Kind. Nos. 102-125. III. Receipts for Personal Service. Nos. 136-130.
IV. Miscellaneous. Nos. 131-146. K
 INTRODUCTION The total number of Greek ostraca
included in this collection is about 1500. A large proportion of these,
however, are fragmentary or partly illegible, and only about 500
appeared to be worth copying. Even of these many are of little
interest, especially those belonging to the common class of receipts
for corn : and I have therefore selected for publication only such as
seemed to give some fact to be added to the evidence accumulating
with regard to the economy of Graeco-Roman Egypt. Any large
collection of Greek ostraca must now be treated in the main as
supplementary to Wilcken's great publication : and its chiel value is
likely to be found in the additional light which it may give upon the
taxation of Egypt. For this purpose I have grouped the texts
according to the taxes to which they refer, and prefixed to each
subsection references to Wilcken or other writers on the subject. In
preparing this work I have received most valuable help from Dr. A. S.
Hunt, who has compared the transcripts of most of the Ptolemaic,
and several of the Roman, ostraca with the originals, and made
corrections and suggestions so numerous that they can better be
acknowledged here than in sporadic notes. He has also read through
the proofs, and thus assisted further in the improvement of the
texts. I am indebted to Sir Herbert Thompson for the transcripts and
translations of the demotic parts of the bilinguals. J. G. M.
 A. PTOLEMAIC I. Receipts for Taxes paid in Money. («) 'Aa-
iro{ ). The receipt in this ostracon refers to a payment, the amount
of which is lost, in copper at par on aa-iro, a contraction which only
suggests daiTopov : in this case it would appear that a tax on
unsown land might be paid in money, contrary to the general
principle observed that landtaxes were payable in kind, except for
those on ground occupied by fruittrees. But, as has been shown by
Grenfell and Hunt {Tediums Papyri, i, p. 39), there are instances of
money-payments for other land-taxes : and it is not unreasonable to
suppose that a tax on land which produced nothing, and so could
not furnish material for a payment in kind, was settled in cash. 1. (G.
Id). -065 X -083 (broken below). 156 or 145 B.C. "Etovs Ke Mecropfj
k Ti(TaKTai) eirl rfjy kv 'Epfiw^vOei) rpa{iTi(av) e0' ris 'AiToW
 72 ///. GREEK TEXTS Egypt by Augustus. This view has ah-
eady been shown to be incorrect (Grenfell and Hunt, Hibek Papyri, i,
p. 384), and the present ostracon proves the existence of the tax at
Thebes in Ptolemaic times. I have another Ptolemaic ostracon from
Denderah, which records the payment of 160 copper drachmae for
bath-tax. For notes on the tax in Roman times see p. 99. 2. (G.
120). -090 X -064. 154 or 143 B.C. "Etovs k( 'E7Tel(p la Te{TaKTai)
kwl ttji/ kv 'EpiJ.{wv6€i) rpoHne^av) e(p' rjs 'Epfi.6(j)iXos
^aXaveioiy) K^L Miniyovdcov) Wen(ia>]/5 6r]S Tpicrxi'Xias
e^aKO(Tias e'lKoa-i /y'x'
 PTOLEMAIC 73 nasium was a very important institution. A
similar receipt (G. O. 318) for the price of oil apparently for the use
of the baths at Thebes about the same date is for 3000 copper
drachmae — i. e. six times the amount spent for the gymnasium.
No. 6, which shows a much larger payment, is probably for sums
received from the dealers who retailed oil to the general public : the
managers of the gymnasium perhaps did not obtain their oil from
these dealers, but got it direct from the government officials. 3. (G.
loa). -095 X -109. Possibly 107 B.C. Lt ^apfiovBi Ky TeraKTUi (TTi
TTju kv Aios TToXet Ttji fjLe{yd\]j) Tpd{ne{ai') e(p' ^s 'ATroWmvios
eXaiov Tov eis TO yvfivdaiov 21 ifidpLaros 5 x^Q^'^"^) t
 74 ///. GREEK TEXTS ' Year lo, Mesore 23. ApoUonios son
of Leonidas has paid into the bank at Diospolis Magna kept by
ApoUonios as the price of olive oil used in the gymnasium five
hundred drachmae of copper at par =500 (dr.). (Signed),
Herakleides. (Countersigned), Herakleides.' 5. (G. 138). -063 X -097.
Possibly 107 B.C. Lt Meaopfj icij Ti{TaKTai) knl ttji/ kv A LOS n6\[ei)
riji ^({ydXij) Tpdine^av) e^' ^y Ajijidivios kXa'CKfjs i\_ Tov ets TO
yvuvdaiov AttoWcovios 5 AecofiSov -^ocIXkoD) icrovodiov)
i^aKocrias / h X- AfiixSvios. (a h.) N iKOfj.a)(^ov. 7. 1. NiKo/Aaxos.
'Year 10, Mesore a8. ApoUonios son of Leonidas has paid into the
bank at Diospolis Magna kept by Ammonios for the dues on olive oil
used in the gymnasium for the tenth year six hundred (drachmae) of
copper at par = 600 dr. (Signed), Ammonios. (Countersigned),
Nikomachos.' 3. 'Afj.fidivLO's : the relationship between the various
bank officials who sign these ostraca is not clear. Presumably the
one who is named as ' over ' the bank is the head : and, if there was
only one bank concerned in the three payments recorded on nos. 3,
4, and 5, it would appear that Ammonios, who signed no. 3 as a
subordinate of ApoUonios on 2 3 Pharmouthi, succeeded him in
charge of the bank between 23 and 28 Mesore. 6- (G. 119). -064 X
-093 (broken on left). Second to first century B.C. 0]ap/jiovdi i€
TiiraKTai) knl ttju kv Alo^ TToiXn) rfji ixiiydXrj) Tpdire^au • •] . dwb
Ti{p.rjs) kXatov Kal /c//ct(os') 'EpfJioyivrjs ] . €^ 7^ wivTe
rpicTXiXias / y^e y. ^7ro[X]X(Bi'io(s) Tp^aire^iTrji). ' [Year x],
Pharmouthi 15. Hermogenes has paid into the bank at Diospolis
Magna [ ] as the price of olive and castor oil [ ] five talents three
thousand (drachmae) = 5 T. 3000 (dr.). (Signed), ApoUonios,
banker.' 3. e^ : this presumably relates to the amount of oil.
 PTOLEMAIC 75 The next ostracon is rather obscure: as it
refers to a payment in respect of sales of sesame, it would appear to
belong to the series of receipts dealing with the revenue from oils ;
but there is an entry, in a position in the formula which would
suggest that it was intended to give the general classification of the
tax, of the title vLrpLKrj. It is difficult to see the connexion between
the sale of sesame and that of natron, beyond the fact that the
latter very likely, as the former certainly, was a royal monopoly (cf.
next section). 7. (G. 1 1 6). -065 X '080. Latter part of third century
B.C. LkS Uavvi kS VlTpiKTJS Ko\ .... Lvoivc(Ke
 76 ///. GREEK TEXTS ments are in copper at a discount (G.
O. 339, 60 drachmae irpos dpyvpiov : G. O. 1497, 600 drachmae
accounted as 500 : this ostracon, 3400 drachmae accounted as
2085). 8. (G. 13a). •090X-I0I. 155 or 144 B.C. a-sm 15 ^ntrsthns
(tbn) 104 (qt) a| tbn lao L/f?" Uavvi li Ti{TaKTai) eni rrjv h Alos
wS^KeC) TTJt fi€[ydXrj) Tpd{ne^av) k
 PTOLEMAIC 77 •Year 36, Mesore 9. Isidores has paid into
the bank at Diospoh's Magna for ferry-boats for the thirty-sixth year
two talents five thousand one hundred and forty (drachmae) = 3 T.
5140 (dr.). (Signed), Diogenes, banker, 3 T. 1620 (dr.).' II. Receipts
for Taxe.s paid in Kind. (fl) 'Apra^ieca. The relationship of the
various and numerous land-taxes mentioned in papyri and ostraca is
still obscure. But there can be little doubt that the dpTa^uta was a
tax of one artaba per aroura on corn-land ; and variants of this may
be found in the ^fUTerapTapTa^ieia of P. Tebt. 346 — i.e. a tax of
three-quarters of an artaba per aroura — and the ^/iiapTa^ieta of P.
Reinach 9 bis. The latter impost occurs in these ostraca, once
coupled with the dpra^ieia (no. 11), where dpTalSiiia Kat
■^fiiapra^ifia may mean a tax of one and a half artabae per aroura,
and twice with the e7nypa(pr} (nos. 13 and 15). 10. (G. iai). -065 X
-089. 53 B.C. (?). "Erovs Kt) Uavyi i^ neijiirprfKi) dpTa^uias toD
aiirov L SeXovXis AveXiovs nvpov SeKa / \ i. &kmv ariToXoiyosi). (on
verso) hr 's hsp 25 hq (?) sw (?) i a i (?) i (?) ' Year a8, Pauni 17.
Seloulis son of Aueles has paid for the i artabatax of the same year
ten (artabae) of corn = 10 art. corn. (Signed), Theon, sitologus.' 'For
payment of year 25 i artaba of corn = | = i.' I. "Etovs Ktj : the
handwriting is distinctly of later Ptolemaic times, and, as Soter II
was not recognized in Egypt during his twenty-eighth year, the date
must beofPhilometor(i53 b.c), EuergetesII (142 b.c), or Neos
Dionysos (53 b.c). The attribution to the later reign is supported by
no. 11, which contains a payment by the same man in the third year.
As a rule, the ostraca in this collection referring to any one individual
are fairly close together in date ; and it would be more likely that
nos. 10 and n belong to the twenty-eighth year of Neos Dionysos
and L
 78 ///. GREEK TEXTS the third of Cleopatra VII and Ptolemy
XIV, with an interval of four years, rather than to the corresponding
regnal years of Euergetes II and Soter II respectively, with an
interval of twenty-eight. 5. The demotic docket on the verso relates
to a different transaction from that recorded on the redo. 11. (G.
122). -066 X -077. 49 B.C. (?). 'Erovi y IIayai(y) T^ ne{i^iTpr]Kep)
fls TTiv dp{TaPieiav) /cat [fniiapTa^iiiav) rod ai(Tov) L 5'eXoi'AtS'
AviKiovi nvpov (iKoa-i iriuTe 5 /*''«• ' Year 3, Pachon 16. Seloulis son
of Aueles has paid for the i^ artabatax of the same year twenty-five
(artabae) of corn = 25 art, corn.' 1. 'Etovs y : see note on 10. i. 2.
rj/xiapra^uiav '. written Z -3-. ((5) 'E7riypa(j>rj. Grenfell and Hunt
(Tebtunis Papyri, i, p. 3,9) have shown considerable reason for
doubting Wilcken's explanation {Ostr. i, p. 194) of kinypa
 PTOLEMAIC 79 ' Year 20, Epeiph 39. Pikos the younger, son
of Permamis, has paid for the epigraphe of the same year forty-three
and eleven-twelfths artabae of corn = 43xi art. corn. (Signed),
Memnon (?) and Hermias, sitologi.' I. 'Etous k: there are in this
collection six Greek ostraca referring to Pikos son of Permamis —
nos. 12, 13, 14,30, and 15, and G. 141 (not published), dated in
years zo, 21, 23, 30, g, and 6 respectively, and one demotic (D. 82)
of year 23. In the first three and the demotic he is described as
Pikos the younger, but the epithet is dropped in nos. 30 and 15,
which may suggest that they are later in date. The only successions
of regnal years which would fit this series, without a serious gap, in
the later Ptolemaic period are from 94 b.c. to 75b.c., which covers
the twentieth to twenty-sixth years of Alexander 1, the twenty-ninth
to thirty-seventh of Soter II after his restoration, and (after the brief
reign of Alexander II) the opening years of Neos Dionysos — or, as
an alternative, 61 b.c to 46 b.c, which covers the twentieth to
thirtieth years of Neos Dionysos and the first to sixth of Cleopatra
VII : but against the latter it may be urged that in the fifth and sixth
years of Cleopatra VII she was associated with Ptolemy XV, and
there should be a double date ; the former series is accordingly
preferable. 13. (G. 104). -loax-iaS. 93 b.c. (?). "Etovs Ka Uavvi k
/leijieTprjKev) us r^y kTnyp{a 6 /if(jiiTpr]Kev) ety Tri[i>) kiriyp{a
 8o ///. GREEK TEXTS ' Year 23, Epeiph 9. Pikos the
younger, son of Permamis, has paid for the epigraphe of the same
year seventeen and five-sixths artabae of corn. (Epeiph) 16, ao(?),
the same man, seventeen and one-third (artabae). Mesore 30, two
and five-sixths artabae = 38 art. corn. (Signed), Hermias, sitologus.'
I. "Etovs Ky : see note on 12. i. 15. (G. 113). ■079X-098. 76B.C. (?).
"Etovs e 'Eirelcp T^ /leijieTprjKev) els Tr]v kiriyp{tnf>riv) Kal
rmiaf^Ta^Uiav) tov ai(Tov) L IIiKw{s) Uep/jidnios irvpov — [fiiap
Tpi]TOP / * — «/ • 5 ire7€( ) a-iTo\(6yos). ' Year 5, Epeiph 13. Pikos
son of Permamis has paid for the epigraphe and I artaba-tax of the
same year one and one-third artabae of corn = i| art. corn. (Signed),
Pete( ), sitologus.' I. 'Etovs t : see note on 12. i. 16. (G. 138). -115 X
-087. Second to first century B. C. "Etovs X Ilavvi /cy /leQjieTpTjKfv)
els tw kv Aios 7rdA(et) TTji fie{yd\rj] Orjla'avpov) eiriypa{fis) els to
AL XeXovKis AqXfivios, Twi Se npoTepov ypa{(peuTi) pf] XRVi"^!!)'
™' ^^ ^'' ^^ '^^L els TTjv eTnypa{(f)r]v) tov avTov L els irXrjpeoa-
ii' ^e\ov(\ea>s) pfj y^prfatji, 5 % SeKa Tpeis L^ / % lyLS'.
'AiToXX{a)vios ?). Two lines demotic, mainly effaced. ' Year 30, Pauni
43. Seloulis son of Lolenis has paid into the granary atDiospolis
Magna for the epigraphe forthe thirtieth year — the receipt
previously given is not to be used, nor that given in the twenty-ninth
year for the epigraphe of the same year for the balance due from
Seloulis — thirteen and three-quarters artabae of corn = 13! art.
corn. (Signed), Apollonios.' 3. Tu>L §£ TvpoTipov ypa{
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