PHYSICS RESEARCH WORK ON INTRODUCTION TO CURRENT

ELECTRICITY
What is an Electric Cell?
An electric cell is a device that converts chemical energy into electrical energy. It is the basic
unit of a battery.
Classification of Electric Cells
Electric cells are classified into two main types:
1. Primary Cells
These are non-rechargeable cells. Once the chemicals inside are used up, the cell stops working
and must be thrown away.
Key Features:
 Can only be used once.
 Cannot be recharged.
 Common in low-power devices.
Working:
 A chemical reaction occurs inside the cell, producing electricity.
 Once the chemicals are finished, the cell is dead.
Examples of Primary Cells:

Cell Type Usage

Zinc-Carbon Cell Flashlights, toys, clocks

Alkaline Cell Remote controls, radios

Lithium Cell Watches, cameras, calculators

Silver Oxide Cell Hearing aids, watches

2. Secondary Cells
These are rechargeable cells. They can be used, recharged, and used again many times.
Key Features:
 Reusable after recharging.

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  Environmentally friendly in the long run.
 Used in high-power devices.
Working:
 The chemical reaction that produces electricity can be reversed by passing electric
current through the cell during charging.
Examples of Secondary Cells:

Cell Type Usage

Lead-Acid Battery Cars, inverters

Nickel-Cadmium (NiCd) Power tools, emergency lights

Nickel-Metal Hydride (NiMH) Cameras, toys

Lithium-Ion (Li-ion) Phones, laptops, electric cars

Comparison Table: Primary vs Secondary Cells

Feature Primary Cells Secondary Cells

Rechargeable? No Yes

Cost per use Higher Lower (in the long term)

Lifespan Single use Multiple use

Environmental impact More waste Less waste

Common Use Small electronics Phones, cars, laptops

Absolutely! Here’s a neat, easy-to-understand set of class notes for you on:
 Simple Cells and their Defects
 Primary Cells: Simple Cells, Dry Cells, and Button Cells
1. Simple Cells
Definition:
A simple cell is the basic electric cell made from two different metals dipped in an electrolyte to
produce electrical energy.
Components:

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  Two different metal electrodes (usually Zinc and Copper)
 Electrolyte (usually dilute acid like sulfuric acid)
Working:
 Chemical reactions occur causing electrons to flow from zinc to copper.
 Converts chemical energy into electrical energy.
Limitations:
 Produces low voltage (~1.1 V)
 Not practical for long-term use.

2. Defects of Simple Cells

Defect Cause Effect Solution

Hydrogen gas bubbles Blocks current flow and Use a depolarizer or stir
Polarization
form on copper electrode reduces efficiency electrolyte

Impurities in zinc create Zinc corrodes even without Use amalgamated zinc
Local Action
small circuits current flow (self-discharge) (zinc + mercury)

Limited by basic materials Not enough power for many

Low Voltage Connect cells in series
and reactions devices

Short Chemicals get used up

Cell stops working fast Use better designed cells
Lifespan quickly

Zinc reacts with acid Use protective coatings

Corrosion Wears out zinc electrode
continuously or better materials

3. Types of Primary Cells

Primary cells are non-rechargeable cells. Here are three common types:

A. Simple Cell
 Basic, low voltage (~1.1 V)
 Used in experiments or demonstrations
 Not practical for everyday use

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B. Dry Cell
 Most common primary cell
 Uses paste electrolyte instead of liquid → portable and safer
 Example: Zinc-carbon dry cell
 Voltage: ~1.5 V
 Used in flashlights, remote controls, clocks

C. Button Cell
 Small, round cells shaped like buttons
 Uses various chemistries like alkaline, silver oxide, or lithium
 Voltage varies (1.5 V to 3 V)
 Used in small devices like watches, hearing aids, calculator

1. What are Secondary Cells?

 Secondary cells are electric cells that can be recharged and used multiple times.
 When the cell is connected to an external power source, the chemical reaction reverses,
restoring the original chemicals.
 Used in devices requiring frequent use and higher power.
2. Classification of Secondary Cells
Secondary cells are mainly categorized into:
A. Lead Acid Accumulator
It is a secondary cell that can be recharged.
 Consists of lead (Pb) and lead dioxide (PbO₂) electrodes immersed in dilute sulfuric
acid (H₂SO₄) electrolyte.
 Commonly used in cars, UPS systems, and solar energy storage.

2. Construction
 Positive Electrode (Cathode): Lead dioxide (PbO₂)
 Negative Electrode (Anode): Sponge lead (Pb)

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  Electrolyte: Dilute sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄) solution
 Electrodes are submerged in the electrolyte in a container.

3. Working Principle
⚡ Discharging (Supplying Current)
 Chemical reaction produces electrical energy by converting lead and lead dioxide into
lead sulfate.
 The electrolyte’s sulfuric acid concentration decreases as the battery discharges.
At Anode (Pb):
Pb + SO₄²⁻ → PbSO₄ + 2e⁻
At Cathode (PbO₂):
PbO₂ + SO₄²⁻ + 4H⁺ + 2e⁻ → PbSO₄ + 2H₂O
Overall Reaction:
Pb + PbO₂ + 2H₂SO₄ → 2PbSO₄ + 2H₂O
 Electrons flow through the external circuit, providing current.

⚡ Charging (Reversing the Reaction)

 Applying an external electric current reverses the chemical reaction.
 Lead sulfate (PbSO₄) converts back to lead, lead dioxide, and sulfuric acid.
Reactions reverse:
2PbSO₄ + 2H₂O → Pb + PbO₂ + 2H₂SO₄
 The electrolyte regains its sulfuric acid concentration.
 The battery is restored to full charge and ready to provide current again.

4. Charging Process
 Charging should be done slowly using a regulated power source.
 Overcharging causes water in the electrolyte to break down (electrolysis), releasing
hydrogen and oxygen gases (gassing), which leads to water loss.
 Charging voltage is typically around 2.3 to 2.4 V per cell.
 Charging methods:
o Constant voltage charging
o Constant current charging
 Smart chargers use sensors to prevent overcharging.

5. Maintenance of Lead Acid Battery

Maintenance Task Explanation

Check Electrolyte Ensure electrolyte covers electrodes; top up with distilled

Level water if low.

Keep Terminals Prevent corrosion on terminals; clean with baking soda

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 Maintenance Task Explanation

Clean solution if needed.

Avoid Overcharging Prevents excessive gassing and water loss.

Avoid Deep
Deep discharges shorten battery life.
Discharge

Periodic controlled overcharge to mix electrolyte and

Equalizing Charge
remove sulfate crystals.

Store fully charged; recharge periodically if unused for

Storage
long.

6. Curing of Lead Acid Battery

 Curing refers to the initial chemical treatment after the battery is assembled.
 The battery plates are formed by charging them in dilute sulfuric acid.
 This process converts the lead plates into porous sponge lead and lead dioxide.
 Proper curing ensures:
o Better battery capacity
o Longer life span
o Efficient chemical reactions during charge and discharge

7. Advantages and Disadvantages

Advantages Disadvantages

Low cost Heavy and bulky

High surge current capability Contains toxic lead

Well-established technology Requires maintenance (water topping)

Reliable for automotive use Sulfuric acid electrolyte is corrosive

Easily recyclable Sensitive to deep discharge

8. Summary
 Lead acid batteries are widely used because they deliver high current and are
relatively inexpensive.
 Regular maintenance, controlled charging, and proper curing maximize battery life.
 Understanding their chemical reactions helps in troubleshooting and optimizing
performance.

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 If you want, I can provide diagrams showing the battery structure and chemical
reaction flow! Would you like that?

B. Alkaline Accumulator
These are secondary cells with alkaline electrolyte (usually potassium hydroxide, KOH).

Feature Explanation

Common Types Nickel-Cadmium (Ni-Cd), Nickel-Metal Hydride (NiMH)

Electrolyte Alkaline solution (KOH)

Voltage per cell Ni-Cd: ~1.2 V; NiMH: ~1.2 V

Reversible chemical reactions involving nickel and cadmium/hydride

Working
electrodes

Applications Portable tools, mobile phones, cameras

Advantages Rechargeable, better energy density than lead acid, less maintenance

Disadvantages Ni-Cd has memory effect and toxic cadmium; NiMH is safer but costs more

3. Summary Table

Feature Lead Acid Accumulator Alkaline Accumulator

Lead (Pb) / Lead dioxide Nickel (Ni) and Cadmium (Cd) or Metal
Electrodes
(PbO₂) hydride

Electrolyte Dilute Sulfuric Acid (H₂SO₄) Potassium Hydroxide (KOH)

Voltage per cell ~2 V ~1.2 V

Car batteries, UPS, solar

Applications Portable electronics, power tools
storage

Rechargeable Yes Yes

Environmental
Toxic lead Toxic cadmium in Ni-Cd; NiMH safer
Concerns

Maintenance Requires periodic checking Low maintenance

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  Lead acid cells are widely used in automobiles because they can deliver large currents.
 Alkaline accumulators like Ni-Cd and NiMH are preferred for portable devices due to
their lighter weight and better energy density.
 Both types can be recharged many times, which saves cost and reduces waste.

Other Sources of EMF

1. Thermocouple (Thermoelectric Effect)
 Definition: A thermocouple is a device that generates an electromotive force (EMF) due
to a temperature difference between two junctions of different metals.
 Working Principle: When two different metals are joined at two junctions and those
junctions are kept at different temperatures, a voltage (EMF) is produced. This
phenomenon is called the Seebeck effect.
 Applications: Temperature measurement, thermoelectric generators.
 Key points:
o EMF generated is proportional to the temperature difference.
o Used in devices to measure temperature precisely.

2. Solar Cells (Photovoltaic Effect)

 Definition: Solar cells convert light energy directly into electrical energy by generating
EMF when exposed to sunlight.
 Working Principle: When light photons hit a semiconductor material (usually silicon),
they excite electrons, creating electron-hole pairs. The movement of these charge
carriers generates an EMF and current.
 Applications: Solar panels for power generation, calculators, remote sensors.
 Key points:
o EMF depends on the intensity and wavelength of incident light.
o No moving parts, clean and renewable source of electricity.

3. Piezoelectric Effect
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  Definition: Certain crystals and materials generate EMF when mechanical stress
(pressure or vibration) is applied.
 Working Principle: Mechanical deformation causes a displacement of charge centers
within the crystal lattice, leading to the creation of an electric potential (EMF).
 Applications: Sensors, microphones, actuators, quartz watches.
 Key points:
o EMF produced is proportional to the applied mechanical force.
o Used in devices where mechanical energy is converted to electrical signa

Nature of Electric Current

Definition
 Electric current is the rate of flow of electric charge through a conductor or circuit.
 It is a flow of electric charges, usually electrons in metals or ions in electrolytes.

Nature of Electric Current

1. Flow of Charges:
o In metallic conductors, electric current is due to the flow of free electrons.
o In electrolytes (like salt solutions), current is due to the movement of ions
(positive and negative).
o In gases, current can flow when ionized particles (ions and electrons) move.
2. Direction of Current:
o Conventional current flows from positive terminal to negative terminal.
o Actual electron flow is opposite to the conventional current (from negative to
positive).
3. Types of Current:
o Direct Current (DC): Electric charges flow in one direction only (e.g., battery-
powered devices).
o Alternating Current (AC): Electric charges periodically reverse direction (e.g.,
household power supply).

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 4. Unit of Electric Current:
o The SI unit is the Ampere (A).
o 1 Ampere = 1 Coulomb of charge passing through a point per secon
How to Measure Electric Current Passing Through a Conductor
Tools Needed:
 Ammeter (or multimeter set to current mode)
 Connecting wires
 Power source (battery or power supply)
 The conductor (wire or device) through which current flows

Procedure:
1. Switch off the power supply before making any connections.
2. Break the circuit at the point where you want to measure the current.
o This means opening the conductor (wire) so you can insert the ammeter.
3. Connect the ammeter in series with the conductor:
o Connect one terminal of the ammeter to one end of the broken conductor.
o Connect the other terminal of the ammeter to the other end of the conductor.
o Ensure the positive terminal of the ammeter is connected toward the positive
side of the circuit (conventional current flow).
4. Switch on the power supply.
5. Read the current value directly on the ammeter scale or display.
o This value is the current flowing through the conductor.
6. After measurement, switch off the power and reconnect the conductor to restore the
circuit.

Series and Parallel Connections

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1. Series Connection
Definition:
 Components are connected end-to-end so the same current flows through each
component.
Characteristics:
 Current (I): Same through all components.

 Voltage (V): Divides across components.

 Resistance (R): Total resistance is the sum of individual resistances.

Example:
 Connecting bulbs in a string light.
2. Parallel Connection
Definition:
 Components are connected across the same two points, so voltage across each
component is the same.
Characteristics:
 Voltage (V): Same across all components.

 Current (I): Divides among components.

 Resistance (R): Reciprocal of total resistance is the sum of reciprocals of individual

resistances.

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Example:
 Household electrical wiring.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Series and Parallel Connections

1. Series Connection
Advantages:
 Simple to connect.
 Current is the same through all components, useful in some applications like string
lights.
 Easy to calculate total resistance.
Disadvantages:
 If one component fails (like a bulb burns out), the entire circuit stops working.
 Voltage is divided among components, so each component receives less voltage.
 Not suitable for devices requiring full voltage.

2. Parallel Connection
Advantages:
 Voltage across each component is the same as the source voltage.
 If one component fails, the rest continue to work.
 Allows independent control of components.
 Useful for household wiring.
Disadvantages:
 More complex to connect than series circuits.
 Total current is divided, so wires must handle higher total current.
 Requires more wiring material.

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