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Technology Review of Modern Gas Turbine Inlet Filtration Systems

Article in International Journal of Rotating Machinery · March 2012

DOI: 10.1155/2012/128134

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254
Proceedings of the Fortieth Turbomachinery Symposium
September 12-15, 2011, Houston, Texas

SUCCESSFUL SELECTION AND OPERATION OF GAS TURBINE INLET FILTRATION SYSTEMS

Melissa Wilcox Dr. Rainer Kurz

Research Engineer, Machinery Manager, Systems Analysis
Southwest Research Institute Solar Turbines Incorporated
San Antonio, Texas, USA San Diego, California, USA

Dr. Klaus Brun

Manager, Machinery
Southwest Research Institute
San Antonio, Texas, USA

___________________________________________________ member of the ASME-IGTI Board of Directors and the past

Chairman of the ASME Oil & Gas Applications Committee.
Melissa Wilcox is a Research Engineer He is also a member of the API 616 and 691 Task Forces, the
in the Machinery Structural Dynamics Gas Turbine Users Symposium Advisory Committee, the Fan
Group at Southwest Research Institute. Conference Advisory Committee, and the Latin American
Her background includes work related to Turbomachinery Conference Advisory Committee. Dr. Brun is
analysis and testing of gas turbines, the Editor of Global Gas Turbine News, Executive
compressors, and pipeline systems. Correspondent of Turbomachinery International Magazine, and
Recently she has been a primary author an Associate Editor of the ASME Journal of Gas Turbines for
on the GMRC Guideline for Gas Turbine Power.
Inlet Air Filtration Systems. Ms. Wilcox’s _________________________________________________
work experience is supported by a
Bachelors of Science in Mechanical Engineering from Texas ABSTRACT
A&M University and graduate work at Georgia Institute of
Technology. A gas turbine inlet filtration system is important for
_________________________________________________ successful operation. The filtration system minimizes the
occurrence of foreign object damage, erosion, fouling, and
Dr. Rainer Kurz is the Manager, Systems corrosion. The selection of the inlet filtration system is a
Analysis at Solar Turbines Incorporated, challenging process which involved choosing multiple filtration
in San Diego, California. His organization stages based on the desired performance of the gas turbine and
is responsible for predicting compressor the local operating environment. This tutorial walks through the
and gas turbine performance, for factors that should be considered when selecting an inlet
conducting application studies, and for filtration system: 1) The characteristics of filters and filter
field performance testing. Dr. Kurz systems, 2) A review of the many types of filters, 3) A detailed
attended the Universitaet der Bundeswehr look at the different environments where the gas turbine can
in Hamburg Germany, where he received operate, 4) A process for evaluating the site where the gas
the degree of a Dr.-Ing. in 1991. He has turbine will be or is installed, and 5) A method to compare
authored numerous publications about turbomachinery related various filter system options with life cycle cost analysis.
topics, and is an ASME fellow.
_________________________________________________ INTRODUCTION

Dr. Brun manages the Machinery Section Gas turbines ingest a large amount of ambient air during
at Southwest Research Institute. His operation. Because of this, the quality of the air entering the
experience includes positions in turbine is a significant factor in the performance and life of the
engineering, project management, and gas turbine. A filtration system is used to control the quality of
management at Solar Turbines, General the air by removing harmful contaminants that are present. The
Electric, and Alstom. He holds two selection of the filtration system can be a daunting task,
patents (4 patents pending), authored over because there are many factors to consider. The system should
80 papers, and published a textbook on be selected based on the operational philosophy and goals for
gas turbines. Dr. Brun won an R&D 100 the turbine, the contaminants present in the ambient air, and
award in 2007 for his Semi-Active Valve expected changes in the contaminants in the future due to
invention and ASME Oil & Gas Committee Best Paper awards temporary emission sources or seasonal changes. This tutorial
in 1998, 2000, 2005, 2009, and 2010. He was chosen to the "40 outlines the primary considerations for selecting and installing
under 40" by the San Antonio Business Journal. He is a a gas turbine inlet filtration system. First, the consequences
255
that can occur due to improper inlet filtration are reviewed, then the compressor section is referred to as “cold corrosion” and is
the different characteristics are discussed, after this the due to wet deposits of salts, acid, and aggressive gases such as
components of a filtration system and considerations for the chlorine, and sulfides. Corrosion in the combustor and turbine
operating environment are outlined, and lastly, a procedure for sections is called “hot corrosion.” It is also referred to as high
quantitatively comparing inlet filtration system options is temperature corrosion. Hot corrosion requires the interaction of
provided. the metal surface with another chemical substance at elevated
temperatures. Hot corrosion is a form of accelerated oxidation
CONSEQUENCES OF POOR INLET FILTRATION that is produced by the chemical reaction between a component
and molten salts deposited on its surface. Hot corrosion
When the quality of the air entering the gas turbine is not comprises a complex series of chemical reactions, making
well control, there are several consequences which can occur. corrosion rates very difficult to predict. It is the accelerated
Some of the most common degradation mechanicals are oxidation of alloys caused by the deposit of salts (eg Na2SO4).
reviewed below including erosion, fouling, and corrosion. Type I or high temperature hot corrosion, occurs at a
temperature range of 1346 to 1742°F (730 to 950°C). Type II
Erosion or low temperature hot corrosion occurs at a temperature range
of 1022 to 1346ºF (550 to 730°C). Some of the more common
forms of hot corrosion are sulfidation, nitridation, chlorination,
Erosion occurs when solid or liquid particles carburization, and vanadium, potassium and lead hot
approximately 10 μm and larger impact rotating or stationary corrosion. Sulfidation Hot Corrosion requires the interaction of
surfaces in the gas turbine. The particles will impact the the metal surface with sodium sulfate or potassium sulfate, salts
surface and remove tiny particles of metal which eventually that can form in gas turbines from the reaction of sulfur oxides,
lead to changes in the geometry of the surface. This change in water, and sodium chloride (table salt) or potassium chloride,
geometry causes deviations in the air flow path, roughening of respectively. It is usually divided into type 1 and type 2 hot
smooth surfaces, alteration of clearances, and reduction of corrosion and Type 1 hot corrosion takes place above the
cross-sectional areas possibly in high stressed regions. Erosion melting temperature of sodium sulfate (1623°F (884ºC)) while
is a non-reversible process; therefore, the gas turbine type 2 occurs below this temperature. Hot corrosion is caused
components must be replaced in order to regain their original by the diffusion of sulfur from the molten sodium sulfate into
condition. However, particles 10 μm and larger are easily the metal substrate which prevents the formation of the
removed by commercial filters (Kurz and Brun, 2007, protective oxidation film and results in rapid removal of surface
McGuigan, 2004, Howes, 2004). metal. One should note that for hot corrosion to occur both
sulfur and salt (eg sodium chloride or potassium chloride or
Fouling chloride) have to be present in the very hot gas stream in and
downstream of the combustor. Sulfur and salt can come from
Fouling of compressor blades is an important mechanism the inlet air, from the fuel, or water (if water is injected). The
leading to performance deterioration in gas turbines over time. potassium hot corrosion mechanism is similar to sulfidation but
Fouling is caused by the adherence of particles to airfoils and is less frequently observed in gas turbines, unless the fuel
annulus surfaces. Particles that cause fouling are typically contains significant quantities of potassium.
smaller than 2 to 10 μm. Smoke, oil mists, carbon, and sea Corrosion is a non-reversible degradation mechanism.
salts are common examples. Fouling can be controlled by an Therefore, corroded components must be replaced in order to
appropriate air filtration system, and often reversed to some regain the original gas turbine performance. Corrosion also
degree by detergent washing of components. The adherence is initiates or advances other damage mechanisms in the gas
impacted by oil or water mists. The result is a build-up of turbine. For example, corrosion can intrude into cracks or other
material that causes increased surface roughness and to some material defects and accelerates crack propagation (Kurz and
degree changes the shape of the airfoil (if the material build up Brun, 2007, McGuigan, 2004, Howes, 2004).
forms thicker layers of deposits). Fouling in turn causes a
decrease in the performance of the gas turbine. FILTRATION CHARACTERISTICS
Commercial filters can remove the majority of particles
which cause fouling. But there are several submicron particles Filtration Mechanisms
which are difficult to remove from the flow stream. The build-
up of particles not removed by the inlet filtration system is
removed with the use of compressor washing. This process Filters in the filtration system use many different
recovers a larger portion of the compressor performance, but mechanisms to remove particles from the air. The filter media,
cannot bring the gas turbine back to its original condition (Kurz fiber size, packing density of the media, particle size, and
and Brun, 2007, McGuigan, 2004, Howes, 2004, Syverud et al., electrostatic charge influence how the filter removes particles.
2007, Baden, 1980). Each filter typically has various different mechanisms working
together to remove the particles. Four filtration mechanisms
Corrosion are shown in Figure 1.

When chemically reactive particles adhere to surfaces in

the gas turbine, corrosion can occur. Corrosion that occurs in
256
particles captured on their surface occupy charged sites,
Flow Stream
therefore neutralizing their electrostatic charge. As the charge
Inertial Impaction is lost, the filter efficiency for small particles will decrease. On
Particle Filter Fiber the other hand, as the filter is loaded, the filtration efficiency
increases, thus counteracting the effect of lost charge to some
extent. This will offset some of the loss of filtration efficiency
Particle due to the lost charge. Figure 2 shows a comparison of a filter’s
Flow Stream total efficiency based on the various filtration mechanisms that
Diffusion are applied. The figure shows the difference between the
Filter Fiber filter’s efficiency curve before and after the charge is lost. The
Particle
performance of the filter should be based on the discharged
condition (HEPA, 2009, Principles, 2009).

When a new filter looses the charge

Flow Stream
Interception mechanism, the efficiency drops down
significantly (dashed line)
Filter Fiber
100
Total Efficiency
Filter Fiber 80

Efficiency (%)
Interception

60
Sieving Particle
Diffusion

Flow Stream 40
Inertial Impaction
Electrostatic
20
Filter Fiber
Figure 1. Common Filtration Mechanism (Wilcox et al.,
0 0.1 1 10
2010).
Particle Size (micron)
Figure 2. Combination of Filtration Mechanisms to Obtain
The first filtration mechanism is inertial impaction. This
Filter Efficiency at Various Particle Sizes (Wilcox et al.,
type of filtration is applicable to particles larger than 1 μm in
2010).
diameter. The inertia of the large heavy particles in the flow
stream causes the particles to continue on a straight path as the
flow stream moves around a filter fiber. The particulate then Filter Efficiency and Classification
impacts and is attached to the filter media and held in place as
shown in the top picture of Figure 1. This type of filtration Filter efficiency is a broad term. In general, the filter
mechanism is effective in high velocity filtration systems. efficiency is the ratio of the weight, volume, area, or number of
The next filtration mechanism, diffusion, is effective for particles entering the filter to the weight, volume, area, or
very small particles typically less than 0.5 μm in size. number of the particles captured in the filter and ratings,
Effectiveness increases with lower flow velocities. Small respectively. A general efficiency calculation is shown in
particles interact with nearby particles and gas molecules. Equation (1) where W is the variable for which efficiency is
Especially in turbulent flow, the path of small particles being calculated. The efficiency can be expressed in several
fluctuates randomly about the main stream flow. As these ways: maximum, minimum, or average lifetime value. Many
particles diffuse in the flow stream, they collide with the fiber filters have poor performance against small particles at the
and are captured. The smaller a particle and the lower the beginning of their lives, but as the filter media becomes loaded
flowrate through the filter media, the higher probability that the with particles, it is able to catch smaller particles. In this case,
particle will be captured. the average efficiency would actually be higher than the initial
The next two filtration mechanisms are the most well efficiency. Some of the filters will never reach the quoted
known; interception and sieving. Interception occurs with maximum efficiency before they are replaced.
medium sized particles that are not large enough to leave the
flow path due to inertia or not small enough to diffuse. The Wentering − Wleaving
particles will follow the flow stream where they will touch a η= *100% (1)
fiber in the filter media and be trapped and held. Sieving is the Wentering
situation where the space between the filter fibers is smaller
than the particle itself, which causes the particle to be captured Filter efficiency is a trade-off against the pressure loss
and contained. across the filter. Normally, the filtration system pressure loss
Another mechanism not shown in Figure 1 is electrostatic will increase with an increase in filtration efficiency. As filters
charge. This type of filtration is effective for particles in the become more efficient, less dust penetrates through them.
0.01 to 2 μm size range (Figure 2). The filter works through Also, the air flow path is more constricted with higher
the attraction of particles to a charged filter. In gas turbine efficiency filters. This leads to higher pressure loss. Filter
applications, this charge is applied to the filter before engineers must determine the acceptable pressure loss and
installation as a result of the manufacturing process. Filters efficiency for their application. Studies have shown that a
always lose their electrostatic charge over time because the higher pressure loss due to using a high efficiency filter has a
257
lower effect on gas turbine power degradation than poor inlet F7/F9/E10 system to as little as 0.11 lb/year (0.05 kg/year).
air quality. This indicates two conclusions: While large particles have an
The efficiency of a filter cannot be stated as a general impact on fouling degradation, a significant amount is due to
characteristic. The filter efficiencies vary with particle size, the finer particles. The overall contaminant ingestion can be
typically being lower for small particles and higher for large influenced by several orders of magnitude by using an
particles. They also vary with operational velocity. Filters appropriate air filtration system. Also, with filtration systems of
designed for medium and low velocities will have a poor this type, there are virtually no particles larger than a few
performance at higher velocities and vice versa. Therefore, a microns entering the engine (Kurz and Brun, 2011).
particle size range and flow velocity must be associated with
the stated efficiency. For example, a filter may have 95 percent Table 1. Summary of filter classification for ASHRAE
filtration efficiency for particles greater than 5 μm at a 52.2:2007, EN 779:2002, and EN 1822:2009.
volumetric flowrate of 3000 cfm (5097 m3/h), but the efficiency
could be reduced to less than 70 percent for particles less than 5
μm or at a volumetric flowrate of 4000 cfm (6796 m3/h).
Filters are rated for performance based on standards
established in the United States of America and Europe. These
filter ratings are based on the results of standard performance
tests. In the United States, ASHRAE standard 52.2: 2007
outlines the requirements for performance tests and the
methodology to calculate the efficiencies. In this standard, the
efficiencies are determined for various ranges of particles sizes.
The filter is given a Minimum Efficiency Reporting Value
(MERV) rating based on its performance on the particle size
ranges (particle count efficiency) and the weight arrestance
(weight efficiency). The weight arrestance is a comparison of
the weight of the dust penetrating the filter to the dust feed into
the flow stream. In this standard, a filter with a MERV of 10
will have 50 to 65 percent minimum efficiency for particles 1 to Filter Pressure Loss
3 μm in size and greater than 85 percent for particles 3 to 10
μm in size (Owens, 2009, Loud and Slaterpryce, 1991). As mentioned above, a higher pressure loss occurs with a
The European standards used to determine performance are more efficient filter due to air flow restrictions. Pressure loss
EN 779: 2002 and EN 1822:2009. EN 779: 2002 is used to rate has a direct impact on the gas turbine performance, as it causes
coarse and fine efficiency filters. EN 1822:2009 presents a a reduction in compressor inlet pressure. For the compressor to
methodology for determining the performance of high overcome the inlet system losses, the gas turbine will consume
efficiencies filters: Efficient Particulate Air filters (EPA), High more fuel, and it also has a reduced power output. As the
Efficiency Particulate Air filter (HEPA), and Ultra Low Particle pressure loss increases the power decreases and the heat rate
Air filter (ULPA). In EN 779: 2002, the performance is found increases linearly. A 0.2 inH2O (50 Pa) reduction of pressure
with average separation efficiency which is an average of the loss can result in a 0.1 percent improvement in power output.
removal efficiency of 0.3 μm particles at four test flowrates Typical pressure losses on inlet filtration systems can range
(particle count efficiency) for fine filters and with an average from 2 to 6 inH2O (500 to 1500 Pa) (Gas, 2009).
arrestance (weight efficiency) for coarse particle filters. This The filter’s performance needs to be assessed for the full
standards rates the filters with a letter and number designation: pressure loss range over its life, not just when it is new. The
G1 to G4 (coarse filters) and F5 to F9 (fine filters). Filter pressure loss will increase over the lifetime of the filter.
performance is determined by the Most Penetrating Particle Therefore, one can expect a lower gas turbine performance over
Size efficiency (MPPS) in EN 1822: 2009. The MPPS is the life of the filter, or filters have to be changed or cleaned
defined as the particle size which has the minimum filtration periodically in order to maintain a low pressure loss. The
efficiency or maximum penetration during the filter testing. change of pressure loss over time is highly dependent upon the
The particle sizes tested range from 0.15 to 0.3 μm. The filter filter selection and the type and amount of contaminants
efficiency is calculated based on particle count. These filters experienced.
are given a rating of E10 to E12 for EPA type filters, H13 to
H14 for HEPA type filters, and U15 to U17 for ULPA filters. Filter Loading (Surface or Depth)
Table 1 gives a general overview of the efficiencies for each
filter rating and a comparison of the filter ratings between During operation as the filter collects particles, it is slowly
American and European standards (ASHRAE 52.2, 2007, DIN loaded until it reaches a “full” state. This state is usually
EN 779, 2002, DIN EN-1-5 1822, 2009). defined as the filter reaching a specified pressure loss, or when
If an engine ingests 220 lb/year (100 kg/year) of the end of maintenance interval. Filters are loaded in two
contaminants if there were no filtration system in a typical off different ways: surface and depth loading.
shore application, an F5 filter would reduce this to about 46 Depth loading is the type of filtration where the particles
lb/year (21 kg/year), an F6 filter to 13 lb/year (6 kg/year), a are captured inside of the filter material. To regain the original
F7/E10 filter system to 0.44 lb/year (0.20 kg/year) and a
258
pressure loss or condition, the filter must be replaced. the particles, the life of the high efficiency filters is extended.
The other type of filter is a surface loaded filter. With this Overall, low velocity systems can be more effective at reducing
type of loading, the particles collect on the surface of the filter. the mass of contaminants which enter a system, thus extending
Few of the particles may penetrate the fiber material, but not the water wash intervals for the engine (Figure 3).
enough to call for a replacement of the filter. Surface loaded
filters are most commonly used in, but not restricted to, self-
cleaning systems, because the dust can easily be removed with
pulses of air once the filter differential pressure reaches a
certain level. Once the filter is cleaned, the pressure loss across
the filter will be close to its original condition. The surface
loaded filter’s efficiency actually increases as the surface is
loaded with dust, because a dust cake develops on the surface
of the media, creating an additional filtration layer and also
decreases the amount of available flow are in the filter media
(Retka and Wylie, 1987, Klink and Schroth, 1996).

Face Velocity
Figure 3. Comparison of fractional efficiency for filter
Filtration systems are distinctively classified as high, elements from different suppliers and different face
medium, or low velocity systems. The velocity of the filtration velocities in new and dirty conditions (Brekke et al., 2009).
system is defined as the actual volumetric air flow divided by
the total filter face area. Low velocity systems have air flow at Water and Salt Effects
less than 500 ft/min (2.54 m/s) at the filter face. Medium Many environments where gas turbines operate will have
velocities are in the range of 610 to 680 ft/min (3.1 to 3.45 wet ambient conditions. This could be in a tropical environment
m/s). High velocity systems have air flows at the filter face in where it rains a significant amount of time or coastal location
excess of 780 ft/min (4 m/s). with ocean or lake mist. Table 2 is a list of the different types
of moisture that can be experienced together with their particle
High Velocity Systems size. The difference between filter operation in wet and dry
conditions can be significant. In some cases, the pressure loss
Historically, high velocity systems are used on marine across a filter can increase significantly even with a little
vessels and offshore platforms where space and weight are moisture. This is true for cellulose fiber filters which swell
premiums. However, today, low, medium, and high velocity when they are wet. These filters will also retain the moisture
systems are found on marine and offshore applications. High which can lead to long periods of time when the pressure loss
velocity systems have the advantages of reduced size (cross across the filter is elevated.
sectional area), weight, and initial cost. Filter efficiencies for
small particles are significantly lower than those of lower Table 2. Different Types of Moisture Experience in Inlet
velocity systems, and dust holding capacities are lower. Filtration Systems (McGuigan, 2004, Stalder and Sire,
High velocity systems typically use vane separators 2001).
upstream, and often also downstream, of the filter media to Description Liquid Size (μm)
remove water from the air stream. For the vanes to work Humidity vapor form
effectively, higher flow velocities are necessary. Ultimately, Smog (more smoke than
0.01 to 2
this type of system requires more filter replacements when humidity)
compared to the lower velocity system of similar performance Cooling Tower Aerosols 1 to 50
(Mudge and Hiner, 2001, Oswald and Hiner, 2006). Water mist 1 to 50
Clouds and fog 2 to 150
Low Velocity Systems Water Spray (ship wake,
10 to 500
ocean spray)
Low velocity systems are the standard on land based Drizzle 50 to 400
applications; however, high velocity systems are also used in Rain 400 to 1000
some coastal applications. The low velocity systems are
characterized by large inlet surface areas, large filter housings, Salt can have a direct effect on the life of a gas turbine if
and usually multiple stages of filters. The two or three stage not removed properly. It is often carried into the engine
filters provide an advantage over high velocity systems, dissolved in water spray. Salt can lead to fouling and
because they have a high efficiency filter stage as the final corrosion. Gas turbine manufacturers usually recommend
stage to remove many small particles (especially salt) below 1 stringent criteria on the amount of salt which can be allowed to
μm. Recently developed filter media can also keep water from enter the gas turbine (less than 0.01 ppm). In coastal
penetrating the media, and thus entering the gas turbine. The environments, the air borne salt can easily range from 0.05 to
lower velocity also provides a lower pressure loss or higher 0.5 ppm on a typical day. If the filtration system is not
filtration efficiency. Using pre-filters to remove the majority of equipped to handle the salt, it can enter the compressor and the
259
hot section of the gas turbine. Salt is present in the air either as cardboard, bags, and other objects. The screens also deflect
salt dust or dissolved in seawater, and contains sodium birds, leaves, and insects. Screens that are installed specifically
chloride, magnesium chloride, and calcium sulfate. Salt may for preventing insects entering the filtration system are referred
also come from localized sources such as a dry salt bed to as insect screens. These screens will have a finer grid than
(McGuigan, 2004, Stalder and Sire, 2001). The salt on trash screens. Weather hoods, louvers, trash screens, and insect
compressor blades must be removed through water washing screens are used on the majority of filtration systems due to
methods or direct scrubbing of the blades. their inexpensive cost and construction, and negligible pressure
loss (Loud and Slaterpryce, 1991).
COMPONENTS OF A FILTRATION SYSTEM
Anti-icing Protection
In order to protect the gas turbine from the variety of
contaminants present in the ambient air, several filtration Anti-icing protection is used in climates with freezing
devices are used. Each of the devices used in modern filtration weather. Freezing climates with rain or snow can cause icing
systems are discussed below. of inlet components which can result in physical damage to
inlet ducts or to the gas turbine compressor. This ice can also
Weather Protection and Trash Screens affect the performance of the gas turbine. If ice forms on filter
elements, then ice on those filters will be blocking the flow
Weather louvers or hoods and trash screens are the most path which will cause the velocity at the other filters to
simplistic of the filtration mechanisms but they are important in increase. This causes a decrease in filtration efficiency. Also,
order to reduce the amount of moisture and particles which the filter elements with ice can be damaged. Figure 5 shows an
enter the main filtration system. These are not classified as example of ice formation on filters due to cooling tower drift.
filters, but they are part of the filtration system and provide Heaters or compressor bleed air are often used in the inlet
assistance in removal of large objects or particles carried in the system in frigid environments to prevent the moisture in the air
flow stream. from freezing on the inlet bell mouth or filter elements.
Weather hoods are sheet metal coverings on the entrance
of the filtration system (see Figure 4). The opening of the hood Inertial Separators
is pointed downward so the ambient air must turn upwards to
flow into the inlet filtration system. The turning of the air is Inertial separation takes advantage of the physical
effective at minimizing rain and snow penetration. Weather principles of momentum, gravity, centrifugal forces, and
hoods and louvers are used on the majority of inlet filtration impingement, and the physical difference between phases to
systems, and they are essential for systems in areas with large cause particles to be moved out of the gas stream in such a way
amounts of rainfall or snow. Weather hoods or another that they can be carried off or drained. The higher momentum
comparable weather protection system are strongly of the dust or water particles contained in the air stream causes
recommended for all systems with high efficiency filter. them to travel forward, while the air can be diverted to side
ports and exit by a different path than the dust. There are many
types of inertial separators, but the ones commonly used with
gas turbine inlet filtration are vane and cyclone separators
(Loud and Slaterpryce, 1991, Principles, 2009).

Figure 4. Weather Hood on inlet Filtration System

(Offshore, 2009).

After the weather hood is a series of turning vanes called Figure 5. Cartridge Filters with Frost Build Up Due to
weather louvers which redirect the air so that it must turn. The Cooling Tower Drift (Wilcox et al., 2010).
weather louvers are also effective at minimizing water and
snow penetration. After the weather hood or louver is a trash or
insect screen. Trash screens capture large pieces of paper,
260
Moisture Coalescers Three common types of high efficiency filters are EPA, HEPA
and ULPA. EPA and HEPA filters are defined as having a
In environments with high concentration of liquid moisture minimum efficiency of 85 percent and 99.95 percent,
in the air, coalescers are required in order to remove the liquid respectively, for all particles greater than or equal to 0.3 μm.
moisture. The coalescer works by catching the small water ULPA filters have a minimum efficiency of 99.9995 percent for
droplets in its fibers. As the particles are captured, they particles the same size or larger than 0.12 μm (DIN EN 779,
combine with other particles to make larger water droplets. 2002, DIN EN-1-5 1822, 2009). Often, these names are used
Coalescers are designed to allow the droplets to either drain loosely with discussion of high efficiency filtration. However,
down the filter or be released back into the flow stream. If the the majority of the high efficiency filters used in gas turbine
larger drops are released, then they are captured downstream by inlet filtration do not meet these requirements.
a separator. Figure 6 shows an example of how the droplet size The high efficiency filters used with gas turbines have
distribution changes across the coalescer which releases the pleated media which increases the surface area. In order to
droplets (Loud and Slaterpryce, 1991, Principles, 2009). achieve the high filtration efficiency, the flow through the filter
fiber is highly restricted which creates a high pressure loss,
25 unless the face velocity is kept low. The pleats help reduce this
Upstream pressure loss. Initial pressure loss on high efficiency filters can
Downstream be up to 1 inH2O (250 Pa) with a final pressure loss in the
20 range of 2.5 inH2O (625 Pa) for rectangular filters and 4 inH2O
Distribution (%)

(2000 Pa) for cartridge filters. The life of the filters is highly
15 influenced by other forms of filtration upstream. If there are
stages of filtration to remove larger solid articles and liquid
moisture, then these filters will have a longer life. Minimal
10
filtration before high efficiency filters will lead to more
frequent replacement or cleaning. High efficiency filters are
5 rated under various standards. The majority of filters used in
gas turbines are not classified as EPA, HEPA, or ULPA. The
0 filters used in gas turbines are rated with ASHRAE 52.2: 2007
and EN 779: 2002.
10 0 20 30 There are many different constructions of high efficiency
Particle Size (micron) type filters: rectangular, cylindrical/ cartridge, and bag filters.
Figure 6. Coalescer Droplet Formation Distribution (Wilcox The rectangular high efficiency filters are constructed by
et al., 2010). folding a continuous sheet of media into closely spaced pleats
in a rectangular rigid frame. Rectangular filters are depth
Prefilters loaded; therefore, once they reach the maximum allowable
pressure loss, they should be replaced. Two examples of
The air has a mixture of large and small particles. If a one- rectangular high efficiency filters are shown in Figure 7. High
stage high efficiency filter is used, the build-up of large and efficiency filters can also be made from media that doesn’t
small solid particles can quickly lead to increased pressure loss allow water to seep through the filter media.
and filter loading. Prefilters are used to increase the life of the
downstream high efficiency filter by capturing the larger solid
particles. Therefore, the high efficiency filter only has to
remove the smaller particles from the air stream which
increases the filter life. Prefilters normally capture solid
particles greater than 10 μm, but some prefilters will also
capture the solid particles in the 2 to 5 μm size range. These
filters usually consist of large diameter synthetic fiber in a
disposable frame structure. Bag filters are also commonly used
for prefilters. These offer higher surface area which reduces
the pressure loss across the filter (Loud and Slaterpryce, 1991,
Principles, 2009). In many installations, the prefilters can be Figure 7. Rectangular High Efficiency Filters (Cam, 2009,
exchanged without having to shut the engine down. Industrial, 2009).

High Efficiency Filters Cartridge filters are also made up of closely spaced pleats,
but they are in a circular fashion (Figure 8). Air flows radially
As discussed above, there are filters for removing larger into the cartridge. They are installed in a horizontal or vertical
solid particles which prevent erosion and FOD. Smaller fashion (hanging downward). These types of filters can be
particles which lead to corrosion, fouling, and cooling passage depth or surface loaded. The surface loaded filters are
plugging are removed with high efficiency filters. These types commonly used with a self-cleaning system, but not all of them
of filters have average separations greater than 80 percent. are designed for self-cleaning. Cartridge filters used in self-
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cleaning systems require a more robust structural design in typically only pulses 10 percent of the elements at a given time.
order to protect the filter fiber media during the reverse air With this type of cleaning, the filter can be brought back to near
pulses. The more common structural support is a wire cage the original condition (Retka and Wylie, 1987, Neaman and
around the pleated media on the inside and outside of the filter. Anderson, 1980).
The filters shown in Figure 8 are not designed for a self-
cleaning system since there are no structural supports on the Staged Filtration
outside of the filter. Self-cleaning filtration systems are
discussed in the next section (Loud and Slaterpryce, 1991, Any gas turbine application typically needs more than one
Principles, 2009). type of filter, and there are no “universal filters” that will serve
all needs. Therefore, two-stage or three–stage filtration
systems are used. In these designs, a prefilter or weather louver
can be used first to remove erosive particles, rain, and snow.
The second may be a low to medium-performance filter
selected for the type of finer-sized particles present or a
coalescer to remove liquids. The third filter is usually a high-
performance filter to remove smaller particles less than 2 μm in
View of Pleats in Cartridge Filter size from the air. Figure 10 shows a generalized view of a
filtration arrangement. This arrangement is not correct for all
cases due to the fact that the filter stages are highly influenced
High Efficiency Cartridge Filters
by the environment they are operating in.
Figure 8. High Efficiency Cartridge Filters (Wilcox et al.,
2010). Weather Protection Prefilter
Snow, rain, birds, large
Particles 2-5 microns High Efficiency
debris
Air In Filter Gas Turbine
Inertial Separator Coalescer Particles < 2 microns

Self-Cleaning Filters Particles > 10 microns Remove moisture

Figure 10. Multi-Stage Filtration System.

All of the filters with fiber type media previously discussed
are required to be replaced once they reach the end of their OPERATING ENVIRONMENT
usable life. In some environments, the amount of particles can
be excessive to the point where the filters previously discussed The selection of the inlet filtration system should be
would have to be replaced frequently to meet the filtration primarily dependent on the environment where it operates.
demand. A prime example of one of these environments is a This includes the contaminants in the ambient air from
desert with sand storms. In the 1970s, the self-cleaning surrounding vegetation, weather events, local emissions,
filtration system was developed for the Middle East where gas temporary emissions, and seasonal changes. Several different
turbines are subject to frequent stand storms. Since then, this common environments with their typical contaminants are
system has been continually developed and utilized for gas reviewed below.
turbine inlet air filtration.
Coastal, Marine, or Offshore
Pulsed Air
Filtered Air
Gas turbines operating near or on the ocean are classified
as being in a coastal, marine, or offshore environment. The gas
turbine is in a coastal environment when the gas turbine is
installed on land and within 10 miles (16 km) of the ocean. At
distances from approximately 8 to 12 miles (13 to 19 km) from
Filter Cartridge the shoreline, the salt concentration in the air drops to natural
Unfiltered
background levels for an environment far away from the ocean
Ambient Air (Stalder and Sire, 2001). The offshore and marine environments
Figure 9. Example of Operation of an Updraft Self- are defined as being in the middle of the ocean. The gas
Cleaning Filters (Wilcox et al., 2010). turbine is considered in an offshore environment when it is
located at least 100 ft (30.5 m) off of the ocean surface. Gas
The self-cleaning system operates primarily with surface turbines located below 100 ft (30.5 m) are considered to be in a
loaded high efficiency cartridge filters. The surface loading marine environment.
allows for easy removal of the dust which has accumulated The primary contaminant that is a concern in the coastal,
with reverse pulses of air (Figure 9). The pressure loss across marine and offshore environments is salt. Salt as previously
each filter is continuously monitored. Once the pressure loss discussed can lead to fouling and corrosion. Salt is prevalent in
reaches a certain level, the filter is cleaned with air pulses. The these environments due to the sea water. In coastal
pressure of the air pulses ranges from 80 to 100 psig (5.5 to 6.9 environments it is present as dry particles (areas with lower
barg). The reverse jet of compressed air (or pulse) occurs for a humidity), sticky particles (humidity between 40 and 70
length of time between 100 and 200 ms. To avoid disturbing percent), or as liquid aerosols (humidity greater than 70
the flow and to limit the need for compressed air, the system percent) (McGuigan, 2004). In the offshore environment salt
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is usually present in the sticky particle or liquid state. The crumbled into fine particles. These particles can range from
marine environment (closest to the ocean surface) has salt large (500 μm) to very fine (submicron size). Due to the lack
present in the liquid aerosol state. In all these environments, of vegetation and protection of the ground dust from the wind,
the amount of salt depends on the wind speed and direction and more dust can be lofted into the air than in other environments.
the elevation of the gas turbine. This leads to a high concentration of dust.
Coastal environments also have land based contaminants The filtration systems in deserts are usually solely designed
that must be removed from the air. These will be discussed in for dust removal. However, some desert locations experience
more detail below. Offshore environments have industrial periods of dense fog and high humidity. This is especially true
contaminants such as exhaust fumes, by-products of for deserts near a coastal region. The moisture can collect on
maintenance (such as dust from grit blasting), and unburned the surface of cartridge filters on self-cleaning systems and
hydrocarbons from flares. Many of these particles are on the cause the dirt to form a cake on the filter. This cake of dust can
submicron size; therefore, high efficiency filtration is often significantly reduce the effectiveness of filtration and pulse
employed. The marine environment most often does not have cleaning. If fog and high humidity are present at the desert type
as many additional contaminants to remove from the air. site, then this should be considered for the filtration system.
However, when a ship is near a coast, land based contaminants Dust loads in the desert can range from mild (low wind) to
may be present. In addition, icing in colder environments is fairly high (dust storms). Conventional non-self-cleaning
often a concern. Icing can also be an issue in offshore and filtration systems can quickly become loaded and require
coastal environments. frequent filter change outs. Also, high pressure losses can
The filtration system for a coastal environment is similar to trigger a shutdown if they become excessive. In order to avoid
that of a land based environment which will be discussed later. the constant maintenance and labor required for changing filters
However, in coastal environment it is important to have mist out, a self-cleaning system is needed. Filtration systems
eliminators for water and salt water removal and high without self-cleaning filters have proven to be more expensive
efficiency filtration for salt removal. The filtration system in an due to the labor cost and maintenance required with filter
offshore environment is similar to a coastal filtration system, replacements (Hill, 1973, Brake, 2007).
but may have increased air velocity due to size and weight
limitations. The filtration system on a marine vessel is most Arctic
commonly comprised of a vane-coalescer-vane system. This
system has two vane axial separators with a coalescer in The arctic environment is characterized by freezing
between them. This system is a high velocity system which is weather (below 32°F (0ºC)) for an extended period of time.
designed for removing salt water. It has limited solid particle The location will not necessarily be classified as arctic for the
removal capability (McGuigan, 2004, Stalder and Sire, 2001, entire year. It will have other land based contaminants which
Brekke et al., 2009, Hill, 1973). must be considered. However, the arctic seasons of the year
will influence the design of the inlet filtration system.
Land Based Environment Ice build-up is the primary concern in this environment
during the cold months. Ice can form from the ingestion of
The land based environment is very diverse. It can be snow or freezing rain and also due to the depression or cool
classified in many different ways depending on weather humid air in the inlet system. Placement of the inlet of the
patterns, vegetation, and local emission sources. Several land filtration system, weather hoods with large openings (referred
based environments are described below. to as snow hoods), and self-cleaning filters are often adequate
to protect against the ingestion of snow and freezing rain. To
Desert prevent the formation of ice from the depression of cool humid
air requires an anti-icing system such as re-circulated exhaust
The desert is classified as an area with a dry and hot air or a compressor bleed.
climate. Large amount of dust is present and there is little In addition to ice, warm season contaminants must be
vegetation. Sand storms are common and can quickly load considered for the design of the inlet filtration system. These
filters to their maximum dust holding capacity. The main contaminants can be similar to any of the other land based
regions of the world which can be characterized by desert like environments discussed in this section (Hill, 1973).
environments are across the Sahara desert in Africa, the Middle
East, and parts of Asia. However, small localized areas with Tropical
high dust concentrations do exist. These can include gas
turbines installed near quarries, dried lakebeds, loess, industrial Tropical areas are characterized by hot climate, high
areas, dirt tracks, dry agricultural land, and construction sites. humidity, monsoons, high winds, and insect swarms. Due to
There are three typical conditions that exist in the desert: clean the extensive vegetation, there is not much erosion concern. It
air, dust haze, and sand storms. Dust is the main contaminant is considered a low dust environment. The area has little
in the desert for these conditions. This can be sand or other seasonal variation with the exceptions of periods of intense
fined grained material such as desert pavement. Desert rainfall. Typhoons, dust, insects, and the remoteness of
pavement is the layer of large stones left on the floor of the systems in the tropics should be considered when choosing the
desert. While these stones are not harmful in their solid state, correct system.
they can easily be broken by human or animal traffic and The main contaminants in this area are water (from rain),
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insects, and salt (if the location is near a shoreline). Dust is used to remove any erosive dust present in the air. The pre-
minimal, since the overgrown vegetation protects the ground filter also protects the high efficiency filter from being
dust from winds. Of course, there are always exceptions to overloaded too quickly. The high efficiency filter removes the
this. If the gas turbine is installed in a construction site, then smaller particles. If the gas turbine is installed near an
the dust levels will be higher than normal. Also, unpaved roads agricultural area, the filter engineer may consider a self-
can contribute to the dust in the environment. Pollen can be an cleaning system. This type of system would be beneficial
issue. Salt will be present in aerosol form due to the high during plowing or harvest season when the air has a high
humidity and moisture present. erosive dust concentration. A self-cleaning system can also be
The filtration systems for tropical environments are beneficial in an area with a dry, cold climate during the winter
specifically built to handle large amounts of rain. Weather season. It can effectively prevent ice from forming on the filter
hoods are used as a primary defense. Extended area insect elements and influencing the gas turbine operation (Hill, 1973).
screens are used for blocking insects. These screens have a
lower air velocity (in the range of 260 ft/min (1.3m/s)) which Large City
allows the insects to move away from the screens. This
prevents obstruction of the inlet air flow. This is followed by a Large cities can experience all the types of gas turbine
mix of pre-filters, coalescers, and vane separators. The water degradation: corrosion, erosion, and fouling. Contaminants
removal system must be designed in order to handle the highest from many different sources ensure the requirement of a multi-
expected water ingestion and prevent corrosion. If this is not staged filtration system.
done, then water will be able to travel farther downstream in All different types of weather can occur throughout the
the inlet filtration system. Any pre-filters or high efficiency year in a large city. The amount of contaminants varies
filters used should be selected to prevent water travel through throughout the season as discussed above for the rural
the filter. If water is allowed to penetrate the filter, then it can countryside. One example is salt or grit that is laid down on icy
absorb the capture soluble contaminants and transport them roads during the winter. The city also has smog and pollution.
through the filter into the gas turbine. This can have These can also be seen in the countryside due to high winds,
detrimental effects if salt is being removed from the air stream. but are much more concentrated in the city. Some other
These filters should also be selected for the expected considerations for large cities are noise issues and vandals.
contaminants such as pollen and road dust (Hill, 1973, Cleaver, The system has a multi-stage approach with specific filters
1990). installed for the local contaminants. Weather hoods are used
the majority of the time due to the changing weather conditions
Rural with seasons. This protects the system from rain, snow, and
windy conditions. The filtration system is composed of a pre-
The rural countryside is a diverse environment. Depending filter and a high efficiency filter. The pre-filter removes the
upon where the gas turbine is located in this environment, it can larger erosive particles. The high efficiency filter is typically of
be subjected to hot, dry climate, rain, snow, and fog throughout the non-self-cleaning type with rectangular filters or cartridges
the year. The majority of the year there is a non-erosive filters. The self-cleaning systems are not used due to the sticky
environment with low dust concentrations in the range of 0.02 aerosols present in the air. If freezing conditions are expected,
to 0.1 ppm (0.01 to 0.05 grains per 1000 ft3 (28.3 m3)). The then an anti-icing system is included. Urban/ industrial areas
area can be near a local forest or be near agricultural activities. typically do not have airborne particulate concentrations that
The contaminants in this environment vary depending on warrant the use of self-cleaning filtration systems, but self-
the season. Throughout the year, insects and airborne cleaning systems are used successfully in these areas, when
particulate will need to be filtered. If the gas turbine is installed these are in regions of heavy snow and minimal sticky particles
near an agricultural area, then during plowing and harvesting (Hill, 1973).
season, the concentration of dust will increase. During
plowing, insecticides and fertilizers will be airborne. At Industrial Area
harvest, the particles or grains from cutting plants down will be
lofted into the air. The particles that travel to the gas turbine
Many gas turbines are installed in heavy industrial areas.
are relatively small (less than 10 μm), unless strong winds are
These locations can be in any of the environments discussed
present to carry large particles. Gas turbines near forests may
above, but they have additional concerns. There are several
not have as high dust concentration. The foliage of the forest
emission sources in an industrial location which contribute to
will protect the ground dust from being lifted by the wind.
the contaminants which must filtered out.
With the change in season, snow, rain, fog, pollen, airborne
The most prevalent contaminant in industrial areas is
seeds, and insects will be present. This climate has one of the
contaminants from exhaust stacks. These can be in the form of
most diverse filtration requirements as compared to other
particles, gases, and aerosols. Many of the particles emitted by
environments.
the exhaust stack are in the submicron size range. These size
These systems are typically comprised of three stages:
particles are difficult to filter and can collect on compressor
weather hood, pre-filter, and high efficiency filter. The weather
blades and cause fouling. The gases emitted in the exhaust can
hood protects the filters farther downstream from rain and
contain corrosive chemicals. For example, exhaust gases from
snow. They also minimize the amount of dust entering the
fossil fuel plants has SOx which contains sulfur. Sulfur is one
filtration system. Insect screens are used, especially if insects
of the corrosive components that can lead to hot corrosion in
are present in swarms during parts of the year. The pre-filter is
264
the turbine section. Gas cannot be removed by mechanical have high variability in the type of contaminants experienced
filtration. Aerosols also present a challenge. These are (temporary or seasonal), the filter engineer may consider a
typically on the submicron size and difficult to filter. Many of filtration system which allows the use of many different filters.
these aerosols are sticky, and when they are not removed by the This would then allow the filtration system to be adapted to the
filters, they stick to compressor blades, nozzles, and other current conditions.
surfaces. One example of this already mentioned in this
guideline is the compressor blade fouling due to oil vapors. Site Layout
Industrial locations can also experience contaminants that
are not typically seen, unless near a localized source. Some The layout of the site where the gas turbine is installed can
examples of these are dust from mining operations, sawmills, have a significant effect on the type and amount of
foundries, and other industrial facilities. Also, if the gas turbine contaminants that need to be removed from the inlet air. This
is near a petrochemical plant, the air may be contaminated with has been mentioned in several of the environmental type
specific chemicals. These chemicals could be harmless, but discussions above, but is summarized here for completeness.
they also could have corrosive properties. Listed below are general recommendations. Gas turbine
One commonality between all industrial locations is that manufacturers may have their own set of guidelines for placing
the inlet of the filtration system is subjected to the local plant the gas turbine (Wilcox et al., 2010).
emissions. This condition typically requires a more robust high
efficiency filtration system to remove fine particles that are • When installing other combustion type equipment, such as
entrained in the air. One way to reduced the amount of a diesel engine, near the gas turbine, the exhaust of the
emissions that are ingested into the inlet is to direct the inlet air equipment should be directed away from the gas turbine
flow away from these emission sources. Several inlet. This reduces the possibility of the exhaust gas
recommendations in regards to the inlet placement and site entering the gas turbine inlet system. This exhaust can
layout are discussed in a later section. Even so, there are still contain unburned hydrocarbons or corrosive gases.
some emissions that are ingested by the turbine. Additional
• Cooling towers can be a major source of aerosol drift.
filter elements should be included in the filtration system to
Cooling towers are open to the atmosphere and, therefore,
address these emission particles. For example, if the industrial
release aerosols into the air due to agitation from cross
location is near an open coal storage site, then the gas turbine
winds and the flow of the water down the tower. The
should have pre-filters and high efficiency filters to remove the
water in the cooling tower also contains water treatment
coal dust that is in the air.
chemicals that could be detrimental to the gas turbine. The
One contaminant that is often in the air at industrial
drift of aerosols from a cooling tower is confined within a
locations is sticky aerosols. These aerosols can be from oil
few hundred feet. If possible, the gas turbine inlet should
vapors from lubrication systems or unburned hydrocarbons
be positioned away from cooling towers and placed
emitted from exhaust stacks. These aerosols are very difficult
upstream of the prevailing wind direction to minimize the
to remove from the air and often lead to blade fouling. High
aerosol drift. CFD can be a useful tool to model how the
efficiency filters should be used to minimize the aerosol’s
wind will carry aerosols over to the gas turbine inlet. This
effect on the gas turbine, but a compressor washing scheme is
will help the filter engineer to properly place the gas
needed to keep the compressor blades clean and to minimize
turbine to minimize cooling tower drift effects.
the effects of fouling on gas turbine performance (Hill, 1973).
• Pressure relief valves are installed on many gas lines and
equipment to protect the equipment in case of an over
Temporary and Seasonal Contaminant Sources
pressurization event. The vents to these relief devices
should be directed away from the gas turbine inlet.
In many of the applications discussed above, temporary or Release of any hydrocarbon could result in high
seasonal conditions are mentioned. As gas turbines become concentration ingestion at the filtration system. The filters
more advanced and more sensitive to the inlet air quality, it at the inlet to the gas turbine do not remove gas phase
becomes more important to address these conditions. contaminants.
In order to address seasonal changes, the expected • Piping connections on gas, fluid, or steam lines will
conditions must first be defined. During the design phase, the generally leak after some time. The leaks at these
air quality at the site where the gas turbine is going to be connections can impact the filtration system. Piping
installed should be monitored for at least 1 year. This will should be routed away from the inlet in order to prevent
provide the filter engineer with information about which this influence.
contaminants they can expect in each season. Also, the filter • Lube oil vents should be directed away from the inlet to
engineer should map out any potential construction, prevent oil vapor ingestion.
agricultural, or dust-generating projects that will occur in the • The exhaust of the gas turbine should be directed away
first 5 to 10 years of the life of the gas turbine. Combining the from the inlet of the gas turbine. Carbon smoke and
expected contaminants will allow the filter engineer to develop hydrocarbon fumes released at the exhaust could lead to
a more holistic approach to their inlet filtration. accelerated fouling of the compressor blades. If the
Currently, the majority of the filtration systems installed compressor blades are fouled, then the performance of the
have a fixed filtration system. The number of stages, types of gas turbine will be reduced.
filters, and level of filtration remain constant throughout the
operation. If the future site for the gas turbine is expected to
265
• The gas turbine inlet system should not be directed toward
or installed near any exhaust stacks. These exhaust stacks Life Cycle Cost Basics
release chemical exhaust and unburned hydrocarbons
which can lead to compressor fouling and corrosion. This section covers the inputs that should be considered for
• Avoid placing the inlet near gravel or dirt roads. The dust the LCC analysis for a filtration system. It also provides
thrown into the air from vehicle traffic and wind can be methods to calculate the cost impact for each input. This type
carried into the inlet of the gas turbine. of analysis focuses on the overall or lifetime cost of a system.
o If the gas turbine is operated during construction It is a tool that estimates the total cost to purchase, install,
activities, consider adding more robust filters to operate, maintain, and dispose of equipment. This analysis can
remove the excess dirt that will be ingested. assist in determining the best design options which will
• Direct the inlet away from any open storage of coal, salt, or minimize the overall cost of a system.
other grainy particles. The wind can carry the smaller It is important to include initial cost in the analysis, but it is
grains from the storage area into the inlet of the gas just as important to include operation and maintenances cost.
turbine. The operating and maintenance cost over the life of a piece of
equipment can have a more significant effect, especially if a
Site Evaluation poorly designed system is chosen. An LCC analysis can help
to determine which system configuration can minimize lifetime
As discussed previously, there are several different types costs. Some of the costs that are typically considered are
of environments where a gas turbine can operate. Also, there shown below. Examples of how this would apply to filtration
are many possible local, seasonal, and temporary contaminants systems are provided in parentheses.
that can be present. Therefore, each gas turbine installation site
has a unique make-up of contaminants. When selecting the • Initial cost (filters, filtration system, spares filters,
inlet filtration system, this make-up should be determined. This instrumentation)
includes determining what contaminants and how much are • Installing and commissioning costs (labor, cost of
present at the site. Once this information is known, the types of installation equipment (such as cranes), shipping costs)
filters needed and filtration efficiency required can be • Energy costs (pulse system for self-cleaning filters)
established. Below is a list of items that should be considered • Operating costs (labor, inspections)
when evaluating the site where the gas turbine will be installed • Maintenance (replacing filters, repairing system, labor for
(Wilcox et al., 2010, Loud and Slaterpryce, 1991). maintenance)
• Downtime (replace filters, complete offline water washes,
• Environment where the gas turbine will be installed: anything outside of normal shutdowns for other
Coastal, marine, offshore, desert, arctic, tropical, industrial maintenance)
area, rural countryside, or large city • Gas turbine effects (degradation, performance loss)
• Contaminants present in that environment • Decommissioning and disposal (disposal of filters)
• Local contaminants (mining operating, foundries,
agricultural activities, inland salt lakes, etc.) In a LCC analysis, estimates are provided for each cost
• Temporary contaminants (construction activity, dirt roads, component of the system. An inflation rate can be applied to
etc.) the costs which will occur later in the life of a system (such as
• Future emission sources (new industrial facility or 10 years from the installed date). Once these costs are
residential development) established, they are brought back to present value using
• Site layout (vents and exhaust, cooling tower drift, open Equation (2). The Net Present Value (NPV) term represents the
storage of grainy particles, etc.) value of the cost in present terms. A is the value of the cost in
• Weather patterns the year it occurs. The term i is the discount rate and n is the
year the cost occurs in. If there is a price increase (inflation) or
LIFE CYCLE COST ANALYSIS decrease, then this can be accounted for by using Equation (3).
The term e is the increase or decrease in price.
When selecting a filtration system, the filter engineer is
NPV = A(1 + i )
−n
burdened with deciding the level of quality they want their (2)
system to achieve. This includes the efficiency of filtration, the
NPV = A(1 + (i − e ))
particle size to be filtered, the amount of maintenance that will −n
(3)
be needed to maintain the filtration system, what rate of
degradation is acceptable for the gas turbine, the required
availability and reliability of the gas turbine, what type of Projected costs over the lifetime of the system cannot be
washing scheme will be used (online, offline, or a combination combined directly when calculating the LCC, because the funds
of both), and cost of the filtration system. The cost impact of spent at different times have different values to the investor.
each of the items mentioned can be quantified. A Life Cycle The discount rate, i, is used to bring the costs to present terms,
Cost (LCC) analysis provides a convenient means to compare where they can be directly added together, and is defined as the
different filtration system options quantitatively. rate of return that is used to compare expenditures at different
points in times. For example, the investor would be equally
266
satisfied to have one amount received earlier and the other in the analysis. This is often the cost which drives the analysis
amount received later. to favor one filtration system option over another. The cost of
If a cost occurs yearly, the NPV of the total recurring costs gas turbine degradation is calculated based on the reduced
can be calculated with Equation (4). If inflation or price power output and increased heat rate due to inlet air quality.
escalation is considered in the analysis, the NPV of the total The rate of degradation due to inlet air quality is difficult to
recurring cost can be calculated with Equation (5). calculate and is best found from past operating history. There
are several degradation models discussed in literature which

NPV =
A
i
(
1 − [1 + i ]
−n
) (4)
can provide estimates of the expected degradation rate. A few
examples are the models presented by Zaba (1985), Kurz and
Brun (2001), and Meher-Homji et al (2009).
 1 + e  1 + e  
n Once the degradation rate is calculated the lost profit due
NPV = A  1 −
 1 − e   1 + i  
(5) to reduced gas turbine output and increased fuel cost due to
increased heat rate can be calculated. This cost should be
included in each year of the analysis.
The NPVs must be determined for each cost. Then the cost will Compressor washing is often performed in a gas turbine in
be added together to obtain the total NPV or LCC cost order to minimize the effects fouling on the performance of the
(Europump, 2001). gas turbine. The use of compressor washing may reduce the
rate of degradation in the gas turbine. However, the most
Considerations for an Inlet Filtration System effective type of washing is on-crank washing, which requires
that the engine is shut down. This results in a lower availability
of the engine, and, associated with this, may cause the cost of
In a LCC analysis for a gas turbine inlet filtration, there are lost production.
six main parameters: purchase price/initial cost, maintenance
cost, availability/reliability of the gas turbine, gas turbine Pressure Loss
degradation and compressor washing, pressure loss, and
failures of the filtration system or gas turbine due to inlet air
quality (Wilcox et al., 2010). The pressure loss across the inlet filtration system can also
have a significant effect on the cost of the inlet filtration
Purchase Price/Initial Cost system. An increase in the pressure loss across the filtration
system leads to reduced power output from the gas turbine and
an increased heat rate. The cost of these effects should be
The purchase price occurs in the first year of the LCC included yearly in the LCC analysis.
analysis. It is the cost to purchase and install the inlet filtration
system. An estimate for this value can be obtained from the Failure/Event Cost
filter vendor or gas turbine manufacturer.

Maintenance Cost The last cost is any cost associated with a failure or event
that occurs due to the inlet filtration system or inlet air quality.
This could be a failure of a filter material which requires
The maintenance cost includes the cost of filter
shutdown for replacement or a failure of a gas turbine blade
replacement and disposal and any maintenance to auxiliary
which occurred due to corrosion from poor inlet air quality.
systems for the inlet filtration system. It is a recurring cost that
These costs are often included based on past experience with
should be included in each year that the cost is acquired. This
the gas turbine or other filtration systems.
cost can be calculated based on estimated filter change out
frequencies, cost of filters from vendors, labor cost for
SUMMARY
maintenance, and cost of downtime to replace filters.

Availability/Reliability of Gas Turbine In summary, the selection and operation of an inlet

filtration system is highly dependent on the environment where
the gas turbine is operating. The contaminant present in the
The availability/reliability of a gas turbine impacts the cost
ambient air will dictate the type filters that are used. It is
due the lost production as a result of the non availability of the
important to quantify what type and size of contaminants are
gas turbine. Filter exchanges requiring the shutdown of the
present in order to correctly select the filters to be used.
engine, as well as on-crank water washing negatively impact
Temporary and seasonal variations must also be considered for
the availability of the engine. On the other hand, if the engine is
the inlet filtration system. A life cycle cost analysis provides a
not used 100 percent of the time, for example because it is a
convenient method to quantify and compare various filtration
standby or peaking unit, the cost of degradation has to be
system options such that the optimal system can be selected.
adjusted accordingly

Gas Turbine Degradation and Compressor Washing

NOMENCLATURE

Gas turbine degradation is perhaps the most important cost e = Escalation rate
267
i = Discount rate 8-12.
n = Year cost occurs Howes, S., 2004, “Selecting Gas-Turbine Inlet Air Systems for
New, Retrofit Applications,” Combined Cycle Journal,
A = Cost in present value Second Quarter.
HEPA = High Efficiency Particle Air filter “Industrial Filtration,” 2009, Burgess-Manning Bulletin BM-2-
NPV = Net Present Value 301A.
W = Weight, volume, area, or particle number Klink, A. and Schroth, T., 1996, “New Solutions for Improved
Intake Air Filtration of Gas Turbines and
η = Efficiency Turbocompressors,” Proceedings of ASME Turbo Expo
1996.
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