PIA TRAINING CENTRE (PTC) Module 6 – MATERIALS & HARDWARE

Category – B1.1 Sub Module 6.2 – Aircraft Materials – Non-Ferrous Metals

MODULE 6
Sub Module 6.2

Aircraft Materials – Non-Ferrous Metals

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Category – B1.1 Sub Module 6.2 – Aircraft Materials – Non-Ferrous Metals

Contents

(a) CHARACTERISTICS, PROPERTIES AND

IDENTIFICATION OF COMMON NON-FERROUS
MATERIALS USED IN AIRCRAFT; ............... 1

HEAT-TREATMENT AND APPLICATION OF NON-FERROUS

MTERIALS USED IN AIRCRAFT ............................................. 5

(b) TESTING OF NON-FERROUS METERIALS FOR

HARDENESS, TENSILE STRENGTH, FATIGUE STRENGTH
AND IMPACT RESISTANCE .................................................. 12

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(a) CHARACTERISTICS, PROPERTIES AND gauges and vacuum pumps (it can also be found in the
IDENTIFICATION OF COMMON NON-FERROUS detonators of some explosive devices).
MATERIALS USED IN AIRCRAFT;
In a similar manner to steels, it has been discovered that
tremendous advantages are to be gained by alloying non-
NON-FERROUS MATERIALS
ferrous metals with each other and, indeed, with other (ferrous)
A metal in which there is little or no iron is said to be non- metals and elements.
ferrous. The purposes of this course, the topics must be Aluminum, copper, magnesium and titanium alloys are among
confined to the more common non-ferrous metals, their qualities
the more common non-ferrous metals that are used in aircraft
and their uses in aerospace engineering.
construction and repair.
PURE METALS
PURE ALUMINIUM
Certain non-ferrous metals, such as aluminum, copper and Pure aluminum is extracted from the mineral rock bauxite
lead, are used in the commercially ‘pure’ state for engineering
(named after the town of Les Baux, in France, where it was first
purposes – usually in the form of sheets, tubes, wires or as thin found). It is a soft, weak, ductile and malleable metal. Aluminum
coatings on other metals.
is approximately one third the weight of steel and has
Cadmium, chromium, nickel, tin and zinc are also often used to approximately one third the stiffness of steel. while its strength
provide protective coatings on other metals in order to retard the may be improved by cold working, it remains a low-strength
effects of corrosion. material. Aluminum is highly corrosion-resistant, due to the
rapid formation of a thin, but very dense oxide surface film,
Precious metals, such as gold, platinum and silver have been which limits further corrosion and it is an excellent conductor of
used for special work in high-grade electrical instruments, electricity (and heat).
aircraft windshields and, of course, space vehicles.

Mercury (quicksilver) – the only metal to remain liquid at room

temperature – may be found in certain types of barometers,
discharge lamps, small, electrical circuit breakers, pressure

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PURE COPPER or an appropriate powder extinguisher but WATER MUST NOT

BE USED.
Copper also has the ability to retard the progress of corrosion,
by developing a patina of green copper carbonate (also called Magnesium is obtained primarily from electrolysis of seawater
verdigris or aerugo) on its surface. or brine from deep wells. In its pure state it lacks sufficient
strength and characteristics for use as a structural metal. It can,
With a conductivity (of electricity and heat) second only to silver, however, be alloyed with a range of other elements to greatly
and having the ability to be beaten, cast, drawn, forged, improve its strength. These elements include aluminum,
pressed, rolled or spun into many different (and often manganese, thorium, zirconium, and zinc.
complicated) shapes, copper is a very versatile metal.
PURE TITANIUM
Despite a relative density of 8.96, copper’s ductility and
malleability allow it to be used in electrical systems (in bus bars, WARNING: - TITANIUM FIRES MUST BE EXTINGUISHED
bonding, electrical motors, wiring etc.), though neither copper, WITH THE CORRECT EXTINGUISHANT (DRY ASBESTOS
nor its alloys, find much use as structural materials in the WOOL AND CHALK POWDER) AND NOT WATER.
construction of aircraft.
Pure titanium at approximately 56% the weight of stainless
PURE MAGNESIUM steel, has almost the same strength as iron. It is highly
resistance to corrosion, non-magnetic and is readily shaped by
WARNING; - WATER MUST NOT BE USED TO EXTINGUISH all of the methods, which relate to steel. Titanium is also soft
MAGNESIUM FIRES. and ductile.
Two thirds the weight of aluminum (with a relative density of Care should be taken when working with titanium. Titanium fires
1.74), no metal can be cut, drilled, filed or shaped so easily as usually start through high-speed rubbing. The low thermal
magnesium – provided that certain precautions are taken to conductivity of titanium prevents therapid dissipation of heat,
prevent it over-heating. which progressively builds up locally, until ignition finally occurs.
Magnesium burns readily, especially in small particles and dust. Accumulations of small particles of swarf and dust are a
possible fire risk and all such accumulations should be avoided.
Great care must be taken when filing and grinding this metal
and, if a fire should occur, it must be extinguished with dry sand

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ALUMINIUM ALLOYS IDENTIFICATION OF ELEMENTS IN ALUMINIUM ALLOYS

Because pure aluminum lacks sufficient strength to be used for Various national Standards Institutions have evolved their
aircraft construction and, to achieve medium/high-strength individual systems for identifying the many variants of aluminum
properties, aluminum must be alloyed with other elements. The alloys (in a similar manner to that shown with SAE Steels).
most common alloying elements in the wrought aluminums
alloys are copper, manganese, magnesium and zinc. A While it would be impossible (and unsafe) to attempt to
common element used when casting aluminum is silicon. memories them all, these notes provide examples of the
American system of identifying aluminum (or aluminum) alloys.
Aluminum alloys may be designated as being either heat-
treatable or as non-heat-treatable, though both types can be American aluminum alloys are classified by a code, which refers
strengthened and hardened through work-hardening (or strain- to the element that makes up the major percentage of the alloy.
hardening). This process requires mechanically working an alloy
As previously stated, the elements most commonly used for
at a temperature below its critical range and can be achieved by alloying with aluminum are copper, manganese, silicon,
rolling, drawing or pressing. magnesium, and zinc.
Note: - Alloys, which have aluminum or magnesium as their
Table 1 shows a four-digit number, which identifies aluminum,
base elements, are referred to as Light Alloys, while the either in its commercially ‘pure’, or in its alloyed state.
remainder are termed Heavy Alloys.
The first digit of the designating code represents the major
alloying element, while the second digit of the code indicates a
specific alloy modification, such as controls over impurities.

The last two numbers of the 1xxx group indicate the hundredths
of 1% above the 99% of pure aluminum. For example, if 75
were the last two digits, the metal would be 99.75%pure.

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The 2xxx to 8xxx groups use the last two digits to identify the if the alloy is not correctly heat- treated, intergranular corrosion
different alloys in the group. can occur between the aluminum and copper grains within the
metal. These are probably the commonest aluminum alloys
Table 1 used in aircraft construction.
American System of Identifying Alloying Elements with The 3xxx group has manganese as its major alloying agent and
Aluminum it is not possible to heat-treat.

The 4xxx series utilizes silicon as its major element. This lowers
its melting point and improves its welding and brazing
Code Major Alloying capabilities.
Element
The 5xxx group has magnesium as the main alloying element.
1xxx aluminum This is good for welding and corrosion resistance although, if
2xxx copper exposed to high temperature or cold working, it can corrode
3xxx manganese quite badly.
4xxx silicon
5xxx magnesium The 6xxx group has silicon and magnesium added to the
6xxx Mg and Si aluminum. This makes the alloy heat-treatable and with good
7xxx zinc forming and corrosion resistance properties.
8xxx other elements
The 7xxx alloys are made harder and stronger by the addition of
zinc. These are difficult to bend and are more often used where
In the 1xxx group, commercially ‘pure’ aluminum (over 99% flat plates are required.
pure) is good for corrosion resistance, has good electrical and
thermal conduction properties, is easy to work but is not very
strong.

The 2xxx group uses copper as its major alloying element. The
major benefit of copper is a large increase in strength, although

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CLAD MATERIALS Caustic soda solution has no effect on pure aluminum but will
remain in as white powder.
Though strong, aluminum alloys are not as resistant to
corrosion as pure aluminum and, for external use such as skins,
the high-strength sheet has a thin layer of pure aluminum hot- HEAT-TREATMENT AND APPLICATION OF NON-FERROUS
rolled onto the surfaces. These are then known as clad MATERIALS USED INAIRCRAFT
materials with commercial names such as Alclad, and Pure-
clad.
Heat-treatment is a series of operations involving theheating
Alclad is a ‘pure’ aluminum coating that is rolled onto the and subsequent coolingof alloys in their solid state. Its purpose
surface of an aluminum alloy, which may, then, be heat-treated. is to make the metal harder, stronger and more resistant to
The thickness of the coating is approximately 5% of the material impact but it can also make the metal softer and more ductile for
thickness on each side. For example, if an Alclad sheet of working into a required shape (bending etc.). One treatment
aluminum alloy has a thickness of 1.2 mm (0.047”), then 0.06 cannot give all of these properties. Some treatments are
mm (0.0024”) of ‘pure’ aluminum is applied to each side. achieved at the expense of others when, for example, a
hardened material usually becomes more brittle.
This clad surface greatly increases the corrosion resistance of
an aluminum alloy. If, however, the cladding is penetrated, The heating and cooling cycles occur in most treatments and it
corrosive agents can attack the alloy under the cladding. For is only the time and temperatures which differ. Aluminum alloys
this reason, sheet metal should be protected from scratches have two main heat-treatments, which are referred to as
and abrasions. A simple test can be carried out to determine solution heat-treatment and precipitation heat-treatment.
duralumin from aluminum by applying a caustic soda solution to
The procedures for heat-treating aluminum alloys are critical if
the surface of the specimen to be tested. The results being
correct properties are to be obtained.
- If it turns black then it is duralumin.
Uniform heating is absolutely essential and two methods are
- If no effect on the metal then it is aluminum used:

The reason for the Dural turning black, where solution is applied 1. Muffle furnace
is because of the copper content (3% to 4.5%) in duralumin. 2. Salt bath

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The muffle furnace uses hot air, which circulates around an There is no limit to the number of times that heat-treatment may
inner chamber in which the aluminum alloy is placed. be carried out on normal aluminum/copper alloys but, if the
material is clad with pure aluminum, for corrosion resistance
The salt bath employs molten mineral salts (water would (Alclad), then a maximum of three treatments is imposed.
evaporate long before the required temperatures were reached.
The salts (usually nitrate of soda or similar) are solid at room This is to limit the migration of copper, from the alloyed material,
temperature, but become liquid when they are electrically into the pure aluminum cladding, which would significantly
heated. Gradual heating of the bath is necessary to avoid reduce its corrosion resistance.
spattering or spitting. The aluminum alloy (pre-dried, also to
avoid spattering) can then be submerged within the heated SOLUTION TREATMENT
liquid. Another precaution when using a salt bath is to avoid any Solution treatment is sometimes called ‘re-crystallization H.T’.
adjacent flames or sparks, because the salts are inflammable.
This operation serves to distribute the copper uniformly
Accurate thermostatic control is vital, as narrow tolerances on throughout the aluminum (i.e. to create a solid solution). The
temperatures are specified (typically plus or minus 5ºC). heating may be achieved (as previously stated) in an oven or,
more commonly (to obtain better overall heating), in a bath of
Quench tanks must be sited nearby the furnace or salt bath, to special, molten salts. However, although the aluminum can
avoid delay between removing from the heating source and accommodate 5% or so of copper in solid solution at high
quenching. Most quench tanks contain cold water but hot water temperature, this condition is unstable at lower temperatures
is sometimes specified (especially for heavy sections e.g. large and, after the alloy has cooled to room temperature, most of the
forgings). Limits are also stipulated for the permissible period copper slowly comes out of solution and separates into local
between heating and quenching which is known as the lag-time `islands of copper aluminide.
(typically 10 seconds max.). If these lag-times are exceeded,
material properties or corrosion resistance may be adversely By cooling the alloyed metals very quickly (quenching), the
affected. If the cooling rate, during quenching, is too slow this copper becomes trapped'in solution', making the aluminum very
may also affect the corrosion resistance. strong.

Thorough washing of the material is essential after salt bath

heat-treatment to remove any salt residue.

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AGE-HARDENING approximately 2 days’ delay while one of -20ºC will provide

approximately 1 week’s delay in the age-hardening process
The gradual formation of the copper alumide ‘islands’ (also
referred to as ‘slip’), causes an increase in hardness and Typical annealing procedure may be achieved by raising the
strength and these properties reach maximum values after temperature of the alloy to between 340°C and 410C. The alloy
several days (or weeks in some instances). Because of the time is then cooled slowly at about 10C per hour (rates will differ
lapse involved, this gradual hardening is termed ‘age- with each particular alloy), until it reaches a pre-determined
hardening’. Although copper may be the major alloying element temperature. At this point it is allowed to cool naturally.
(in the ‘2000 series’ alloys) other elements, including
magnesium and manganese can also be present. These, heat-treatable type, alloys must never be installed in an
aircraft structure while in the annealed state, since material
Although the aluminum/copper alloys are the most common properties and corrosion resistance will be severely affected.
age-hardened, high-strength metals, they are not unique.
Aluminum, when alloyed with 5%-7% Zinc, is also able to be Note: Alloys, in the annealed state, are very prone to corrosion.
age-hardened. This is a more modern alloy than the aluminum/
copper type and is the highest-strength aluminum alloy in
general use. This alloy is used in heavy loaded applications
such as Main Spars, Landing Gear and MainPlane Attachment
brackets etc.

ANNEALING

Annealing, as with steel, serves to soften the aluminum alloy, to

enable it to be worked without cracking. Even in this condition,
ageing will gradually occur and 24 hours is the normal limit for
working after annealing, although this can be extended if the
material is stored under refrigerated conditions to slow the
ageing process. A temperature of -5ºC will provide

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PRECIPITATION TREATMENT IDENTIFICATION OF HEAT-TREATED ALUMINIUM ALLOYS

Solution-treated aluminum alloys are comparatively soft, Aluminum alloys that have been subjected to heat-treatment are
immediately following quenching although, with time, the metal usually identified by markings that indicate the heat-treatments
gradually becomes harder and gains strength. involved. Three typical identification systems are those of the
British Standards Institute (BS), the Ministry of Supply (MoS),
When the alloys are left at room temperature, after quenching, and the American systems as can be seen in Table 2.
the hardening process (natural ageing)occur, and can take from
several hours to several weeks. An aluminum/copper alloy, for
example, is only at 90% strength within 30 minutes of quench,
but is at maximum strength after four or five days.

We have already discussed how the natural ageing process can

be drastically retarded (allowing the metal to be kept in a soft
condition until required for use), by storing the alloys at sub-zero
temperatures (refrigeration) for prescribed periods of time.

Alternatively, following quenching, by re-heating the metal to a

lower temperature than that employed for the solution treatment
and allowing it to ‘soak’ at that heat for a period of time, the
ageing process (and, thus, the hardening of the alloy) can be
accelerated. This process is referred to as artificial ageing or
precipitation treatment.

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Table 2
IDENTIFICATION MARKINGS OF HEAT-TREATED An example of one of these marking systems would be an alloy
ALUMINIUM ALLOYS with the designation 2024-T4, which indicates an
aluminum/copper alloy that has been solution-treated only, and
then naturally aged.
BS System Meaning
M As manufactured state Examples of some of these aircraft BS codes are:
O Annealed state
OD Annealed and lightly drawn L159 DURAL Solution-Treated - Artificially aged
T Solution-treated, no precipitation required L163 ALCLAD Solution-Treated - Naturally aged
W Solution-treated, can be precipitated
WP Solution-treated and precipitation treated DURAL is, actually, a Trade name for an Al/Cu/Mg/Si/Mn alloy,
MoS originally manufactured by the Duren Aluminum Company
System Meaning (Germany), but it tends to be used as a generic name for similar
A Annealed state alloys, regardless of source of manufacture.
N Solution-treated, no precipitation required
W Solution-treated, and requires precipitation D.T.D. Specifications: - these are material identification
WP Solution-treated and precipitation treated numbers issued by the Directorate of Technical Development (a
American Meaning Ministry Department) for specialized applications. i.e. when
System widespread use is not anticipated.
T3 Solution-treated and cold worked If such a material finally becomes commonly used, a British
T4 Solution-treated only (naturally aged) Standards specification is compiled and issued.
T6 Solution-treated and artificially aged
T8 Solution-treated, cold worked and artificially
aged
T9 Solution-treated, artificially aged and cold
worked

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CAST ALUMINIUM ALLOYS Cast aluminum alloys often contain silicon, which creates high
fluidity and, thus, is good for producing complex shapes. It also
These are not used extensively on airframes mainly due to their reduces the coefficient of linear expansion, so is often included
lack of strength, poor fatigue characteristics and lack of in piston castings.
elasticity when compared to the wrought aluminum alloys.
MAGNESIUM ALLOYS
The lack of elasticity is particularly relevant, as the very nature
of an airframe structure requires the ability to flex considerably WARNING; - WATER MUST NOT BE USED TO EXTINGUISH
without cracking. MAGNESIUM ALLOY FIRES.

Although their use is obviously limited on airframes, cast Magnesium alloys are used for castings and, in their wrought
aluminum alloys are used extensively on engines, where there form, are available as sheet, bar, tubing and extrusions. They
is a need to produce complex cored shapes such as are among the lightest metals having sufficient strength and
crankcases, drive casings, cylinder heads etc. No other method suitable working characteristics for use in aircraft structures.
than casting would be viable for such items. The stresses can
be kept to a modest level on these parts by producing robust There are some serious disadvantages to using magnesium
castings of adequate stiffness. alloys in aircraft construction. These include a high susceptibility
to corrosion and cracking.
Very few non-heat-treatable cast alloys are used in aerospace
applications and, for high-duty engine casings and pistons, The corrosion problem is minimized by treating the surface of
some very strong, temperature-resistant alloys exist. One of the the metal with chemicals, which form an oxide film, to prevent
most common in the category is RR 58 (sometimes known as oxygen reaching the metal.
`Y' Alloy), which is an age-hardening material containing Another way of minimizing corrosion is to use hardware such as
approximately 2½% copper, l½% magnesium, 1½% nickel, and rivets, nuts, bolts and screws that are made from compatible
l% iron. A derivative of this material was also used (in wrought materials.
form) for the skin of the supersonic Concord aircraft, due to the
high metal temperatures encountered.

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The cracking problem contributes to the difficulty in shaping There are other copper alloys that contain practically no tin and
magnesium alloys and, thus, limits its use. One method used to yet are still referred to as ‘bronzes’. High-Tensile Brass, for
overcome the tendency for cracking is to form the metal whilst it instance, because of its manganese content is called
is hot. ‘Manganese Bronze’, while Phosphor and Silicon bronzes also
contain practically no tin. Wrought aluminum bronzes are almost
Magnesium alloys can also be solution heat-treated, which will as strong as medium-carbon steel while cast aluminum bronzes
improve their tensile strength, ductility and resistance to shock. are found in bearings and pump parts
To improve their hardness and yield strength they can also be
precipitation heat-treated after the solution heat- treatment. Probably, the most common of these is Beryllium Bronze. This
contains 97% copper, 2% beryllium and small amounts of nickel
COPPER ALLOYS to increase its strength. Once it has been heat-treated, beryllium
Of those (Heavy) alloys that use copper as a base; brasses and bronze is very strong (300-400 Brinell) and is used for
various bronzes are the primary types used on aircraft. diaphragms, precision bearings and bushings, ball bearing
cages and spring washers.
Brasses may contain zinc and small amounts of aluminum, iron,
lead and other elements such as manganese, nickel (and even Leaded Bronze is found in the bearings of some aero engines.
The very high pressures (and speeds) tend to squeeze the
very small amounts of tin!). Depending on the percentage
content of zinc, brass can be made ductile (30%-35% Zn) or lubricant out of normal journal bearings, so the addition of lead
strong (45% Zn). acts as a sort of lubricant in the event of the oil film breaking
down.
Bronze is a copper alloy that contains comparatively higher
Solder is a general term frequently used for joining metals
percentages of tin and is usually found in the form of castings. A
together. The principal types are ‘soft solder’ (which is a mainly
true bronze contains up to 25% tin, and bronze, along with
brass, is used in bushings, bearings, valves and valve seats. lead-tin alloy), and ‘hard solder’ which is an alloy of copper,
silver and zinc.
Bronzes with less than 11% tin are normally used for tubes and
pipes.

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TITANIUM ALLOYS

WARNING: - TITANIUM ALLOY FIRES MUST BE Two practical methods of identification apart from weight are:
EXTINGUISHED WITH THE CORRECT EXTINGUISHANT
(DRY ASBESTOS WOOL AND CHALK POWDER) AND NOT Spark test - a light touch of a grinding wheel will produce a
WATER. brilliant white trace, ending in a brilliant white burst.

Titanium alloys, apart from being light and strong, also have Moisten the titanium and draw a line on a piece of glass - this
excellent corrosion resistance, particularly in a salt-laden will leave a dark line similar to a pencil mark.
atmosphere. To prevent reaction with oxygen and nitrogen, in
its pure form, titanium is treated with chlorine gas and a
reducing agent, to produce a coating of titanium dioxide.

There are three types of titanium, which are called alpha, alpha-
beta and beta. They have different strength and forming
properties, depending on their heat-treatments. Commercially
pure titanium is ‘non-heat-treatable’ (It can be annealed, but its
strength/hardness cannot be improved by heat-treatment).

Titanium alloys are used extensively in aerospace gas turbines,

but their use is limited on subsonic civil airframes to fasteners,
and high temperature areas such as engine bays, heat shields,
hot zone bulkheads, air ducts etc.

In appearances titanium is similar to 18/8 stainless steel.

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(b) TESTING OF NON-FERROUS METALS

HARDNESS TESTING

BRINELL HARDNESS TEST

The Brinell hardness test gives the largest indentation of all the
hardness tests and is able to reflect the full feature of the
material being tested. The test is unaffected by the un-
evenness of the material and is hence an accurate test of
hardness.

Brinell hardness testing is used commonly in metallurgy,

forging, casting, un-tempered steel and in the non-ferrous
metals industry.

The typical test uses a 10 millimeters (0.39 in) diameter steel

ball as an indenter with a 3,000 kgf(29 kN; 6,600 lbf) force.

For softer materials, a smaller force is used; for harder Fig. 01 Brinell hardness test
materials, a tungsten carbide ball is substituted for the steel ball.

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VICKERS HARDNESS TEST

The Vickers hardness test was developed in 1921 by Robert L.

Smith and George E. Sand land at Vickers Ltd as an alternative
to the Brinell method to measure the hardness of materials. The
Vickers test is often easier to use than other hardness tests
since the required calculations are independent of the size of
the indenter, and the indenter can be used for all materials (
ferrous, non- ferrous) irrespective of hardness.

The basic principle, as with all common measures of hardness,

is to observe the questioned material's ability to resist plastic
deformation from a standard source.

The Vickers test can be used for all metals and has one of the
widest scales among hardness tests. The unit of hardness given
by the test is known as the Vickers Pyramid Number (HV) or
Diamond Pyramid Hardness (DPH).

The hardness number can be converted into units of Pascals,

but should not be confused with a pressure, which also has
units of Pascals. The hardness number is determined by the
load over the surface area of the indentation and not the area
normal to the force, and is therefore not a pressure.
Fig. 02 Vickers tester

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ROCKWELL HARDNESS TESTING

Rockwell hardness testing is suitable for measuring the

hardness of ferrous, non-ferrous and plastic materials.

The determination of the Rockwell hardness of a material

involves the application of a minor load followed by a major
load, and then noting the depth of penetration from a dial, on
which a harder material gives a higher number.

The chief advantage of Rockwell hardness is its ability to

display hardness values directly, thus obviating tedious
calculations involved in other hardness measurement
techniques.
Fig. 03 Rockwell Hardness Test
In order to get a reliable reading the thickness of the test-piece
should be at least 10 times the depth of the indentation.

Also, readings should be taken from a flat perpendicular

surface, because convex surfaces give lower readings. A
correction factor can be used if the hardness of a convex
surface is to be measured.

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PIA TRAINING CENTRE (PTC) Module 6 – MATERIALS & HARDWARE
Category – B1.1 Sub Module 6.2 – Aircraft Materials – Non-Ferrous Metals

TENSILE TESTING OF NON-FERROUS MATERIALS FATIGUE TESTING

Tensile testing is the most commonly used test to determine Fatigue is the loss of strength and energy resulting from
mechanical properties of metals. Electromechanical testing physical work. Fatigue testing is the applying of continuous
instruments are widely used throughout the metals industry for loading to a test specimen in order to determine how it performs
evaluating important properties such as Tensile strength, under repeated vibration or strain conditions. The fatigue life of
Young’s modulus of elasticity, yield strength, Poisson’s ratio, the specimen is the number of cycles of fluctuating stress and
elastic and plastic deformation, and strain hardening behavior. strain that a specimen can withstand before failure occurs.
The fatigue life will change for each specimen because it’s The fatigue life will change for each specimen because it’s
dependent on the magnitude of the fluctuating stress, the dependent on the magnitude of the fluctuating stress, the
specimen geometry and testing conditions. specimen geometry and testing conditions. Fatigue behavior is
classified into two domains, high cycle and low cycle fatigue.
Also many components such as springs, pipes, containers, etc. High cycle fatigue is associated with low strain conditions and a
rely on compression tests that provide data on force versus fatigue life greater than 104 to 105 cycles.
deformation. The mechanical requirements for many metals are
typically specified as “tensile strength”, “yield point” and High cycle fatigue creates stress levels that are under the yield
“%elongation” in addition to other properties. strength of a given material. It results from vibrations or strain
from high cycles that can reach thousands of cycles per second,
The strength of a material under tension has long been at frequencies that can be induced by many sources. Low cycle
regarded as one of the most important characteristics required fatigue is associated with high vibration or strain conditions. Low
for design, production quality control and life prediction of cycle fatigue failure generally occurs in a relatively small
industrial plants. The uni-axial tensile test is the primary method number of fatigue cycles.
used for quality control and certification of virtually all metallic
materials produced by casting, rolling and forging processes. Endurance limit is the limit below which repeated stress does
not induce failure, theoretically, for an infinite number of cycles
of load.

ISO 9001 – 2015 Certified For Training Purpose Only

PTC/CM/B1.1 Basic/M06/01 Issue-04, Rev. 00
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PIA TRAINING CENTRE (PTC) Module 6 – MATERIALS & HARDWARE
Category – B1.1 Sub Module 6.2 – Aircraft Materials – Non-Ferrous Metals

S-N CURVES

Many non-ferrous metals, however, show a different

characteristic from steel. In this instance there is no fatigue limit
as such and it can be seen that these materials will fail if
subjected to an appropriate number of stress reversals, even at
very small stresses. When materials have no fatigue limit an
endurance limit together with a corresponding number of cycles
is quoted instead.

It follows that components made from such materials must be

designed with a specific life in mind and removed from service
at the appropriate time. The service fatigue lives of complete
airframes or airframe members are typical examples of this
philosophy.

An S-N Curve for an Aluminum Alloy

ISO 9001 – 2015 Certified For Training Purpose Only

PTC/CM/B1.1 Basic/M06/01 Issue-04, Rev. 00
6.2 - 17 July 2022