Clauses: The Essential Building-Blocks

Definition

A clause is a group of related words containing a subject and a verb. A clause can be usefully distinguished from a
phrase, which is a group of related words that does not contain a subject-verb relationship, such as "in the morning"
or "running down the street" or "having grown used to this harassment." A review of the different kinds of phrases might
be helpful.

An independent clause, "She is older than her brother" (which could be its own sentence), can be turned into a dependent
or subordinate clause when the same group of words begins with a dependent word (or a subordinating conjunction in
this case): "Because she is older than her brother, she tells him what to do."

Clauses are also classified as restrictive and nonrestrictive clauses. (The words essential and nonessential are
sometimes used and mean the same thing as restrictive and nonrestrictive, respectively. British grammarians will make
this same distinction by referring to clauses with the terms defining and non-defining.) A nonrestrictive clause is not
essential to the meaning of the sentence; it can be removed from the sentence without changing its basic meaning.
Nonrestrictive clauses are often set apart from the rest of the sentence by a comma or a pair of commas (if it's in the
middle of a sentence).

• Professor Villa, who used to be a secretary for the President, can type 132 words a minute.

Relative clauses are dependent clauses introduced by a Relative Pronoun (that, which, whichever, who, whoever,
whom, whomever, whose, and of which). Relative clauses can be either restrictive or nonrestrictive. In a relative clause,
the relative pronoun is the subject of the verb (remember that all clauses contain a subject-verb relationship) and refers
to (relates to) something preceding the clause.

• Giuseppe said that the plantar wart, which had been bothering him for years, had to be removed.

(In this sentence, the clause that the plantar wart is a restrictive [essential] clause [a noun clause — see below] and will
not be set off by a comma; the underlined relative clause [modifying "wart"] is nonrestrictive [nonessential — it can be
removed from the sentence without changing the meaning of the sentence] and is set off by commas.)

Some relative clauses will refer to more than a single word in the preceding text; they can modify an entire clause or
even a series of clauses.

• Charlie didn't get the job in administration, which really surprised his friends.

• Charlie didn't get the job in administration, and he didn't even apply for the Dean's position, which really
surprised his friends.

A relative clause that refers to or modifies entire clauses in this manner is called a sentential clause. Sometimes the
"which" of a sentential clause will get tucked into the clause as the determiner of a noun:

• Charlie might very well take a job as headmaster, in which case the school might as well close down.

Independent Clauses

Independent Clauses could stand by themselves as discrete sentences, except that when they do stand by themselves,
separated from other clauses, they're normally referred to simply as sentences, not clauses. The ability to recognize a
clause and to know when a clause is capable of acting as an independent unit is essential to correct writing and is
especially helpful in avoiding sentence fragments and run-on sentences.
Needless to say, it is important to learn how to combine independent clauses into larger units of thought. In the following
sentence, for example,

• Bob didn't mean to do it, but he did it anyway.

we have two independent clauses — "Bob didn't mean to do it" and "he did it anyway" — connected by a comma and a
coordinating conjunction ("but"). If the word "but" is missing from this sentence, the sentence would be called a comma
splice: two independent clauses would be incorrectly connected, smooshed together, with only a comma between them.
Furthermore, a long series of clauses of similar structure and length begins to feel monotonous, leading to what is called
"Dick and Jane" or primer language (after the kind of prose that we find in first grade textbooks or "primers"). (See the
section on Avoiding Primer Language for advice and exercises on combining sentences.) It would also be helpful at
this time to review the section on Punctuation Between Two Independent Clauses.

Clauses are combined in three different ways: coordination, subordination, and by means of a
semicolon. Coordination involves joining independent clauses with one of the coordinating conjunctions: and, but, or,
nor, for, yet, and sometimes* so. Clauses thus connected are usually nicely balanced in length and import.

• Ramonita thought about joining the church choir, but she never talked to her friends about it.

Subordination involves turning one of the clauses into a subordinate element (one that cannot stand on its own) through
the use of a Subordinating Conjunction (sometimes called a dependent word) or a Relative Pronoun. When the clause
begins with a subordinating word, it is no longer an independent clause; it is called a dependent or subordinate clause
because it depends on something else (the independent clause) for its meaning. There are other ways of combining ideas
— by turning independent clauses into various kinds of modifying phrases. Again, see the section on Avoiding Primer
Language.

• Although Ramonita often thought about joining the choir, she never talked to her friends about it.

• Ramonita never talked to her friends about joining the choir, because she was afraid they would make fun of her.

• Yasmin is Ramonita's sister. Yasmin told Ramonita to join the choir no matter what her friends said.
Joining these with the use of a relative clause:

Yasmin, [who is] Ramonita's sister, told Ramonita to join the choir. . . .

Semicolons can connect two independent clauses with or without the help of a conjunctive adverb (transitional
expression). Semicolons should be used sparingly and only when the two independent clauses involved are closely
related and nicely balanced in terms of length and import.

• Ramonita has such a beautiful voice; many couples have asked her to sing at their wedding.

• Ramonita's voice has a clear, angelic quality; furthermore, she clearly enjoys using it.

Dependent Clauses

Dependent Clauses cannot stand by themselves and make good sense. They must be combined with an independent
clause so that they become part of a sentence that can stand by itself. (Review the section on Commas Usage for advice
and plenty of exercises on the punctuation requirements when dependent and independent clauses are combined.) Unlike
independent clauses, which simply are what they are, dependent clauses are said to perform various functions within a
sentence. They act either in the capacity of some kind of noun or as some kind of modifier. There are three basic kinds
of dependent clauses, categorized according to their function in the sentence. Remember that a dependent clause always
contains a subject and a verb, but it cannot stand by itself.
 • Adverb clauses provide information about what is going on in the main (independent) clause: where, when, or
why. "When the movie is over, we'll go downtown." or "John wanted to write a book because he had so much to
say about the subject."

• Adjective clauses work like multi-word adjectives. "My brother, who is an engineer, figured it out for me." or
"The bridge that collapsed in the winter storm will cost millions to replace." A special kind of adjective clause
begins with a relative adverb (where, when, and why) but nonetheless functions as adjectivally.

• Noun clauses can do anything that nouns can do. "What he knows [subject] is no concern of mine." or "Do you
know what he knows [object]?" or "What can you tell me about what he has done this year [object of the
preposition "about"]?"

Adverbial clauses

Like a single-word adverb, an adverbial clause describes a verb (in the sentence's main clause) and answers one of these
questions

where? why? how? when? to what degree?

An adverbial clause begins with a subordinating conjunction, which makes the clause subordinate (dependent).

Examples

The team had fallen behind by ten points before they were able to figure out the opponent's defense.

Since he started working nights, he doesn't see much of his kids.

While Josie sat inside watching television, Gladys shoveled the driveway.

Common subordinating conjunctions:

after in order (that) unless

although insofar as until

as in that when

as far as lest whenever

as soon as no matter how where

as if now that wherever

as though once whether

because provided (that) while

before since why

even if so that

even though supposing (that)

how than
 if that

inasmuch as though

in case (that) till

Example of adverbial clause answering when?

When will the flowers bloom? Answer: when spring arrives

Example of adverbial clause answering why?

Why didn't the poor woman have money? Answer: because she had lost her job

Example of adverbial clause answering where?

Where is there fire? Answer: where there is smoke

Example of adverbial clause answering how?

How did he answer the question? Answer: as if he knew the subject quite well
Example of adverbial clause answering to what degree?

To what degree of lateness will Jones arrive? Answer: (later) than Smith (will arrive)

Another example of an adverbial clause answering to what degree?

To what degree is he young? Answer: (younger) than his brother (is)

Comma uses with adverbial clauses

Comma use with adverbial clauses depends upon placement of the adverbial clause.

If the adverbial clause introduces the sentence, place a comma between it and the main clause.

If the adverbial clause follows the main clause in a sentence, do not place a comma between the two.

Adjectival clauses

Like a single-word adjective, an adjectival clause describes a noun (in the sentence's main clause) and answers one of
these questions

which one? what kind?

An adjectival clause usually begins with a relative pronoun, which makes the clause subordinate (dependent).
Examples

My brother, who now teaches math in a small college, never liked math in high school.
The dealership that sold more cars ended up actually losing money.
The Federated Bank, which was founded nearly two centuries ago, folded during the state's economic crisis.

Common relative pronouns:

that which who whom whose

NOTE: Use who, whom, and whose to describe people.

Use that and which to describe things.

Adjectival clauses always follow the person, place, or thing they describe, usually immediately.

Example of adjectival clause answering which one?

Which book did Joe read? Answer: the one that I gave him

Example of adjectival clause answering what kind?

What kind of politician has the support of the people? Answer: one who is trustworthy

Adjectival clauses may also begin with selected subordinating conjunctions:

when - to describe a time

where - to describe a place

why - to describe a reason

Comma uses with adjectival clauses

Comma use with adjectival clauses depends upon essentiality of the adjectival clause.

If the adjectival clause is essential (or "needed"), no commas should be used to separate it from the main clause.

Generally, essential adjectival clauses should not begin with which.

Examples

Since the adjectival clauses in the above examples are needed to clarify the noun that they describe, they
are essential and should not be separated from the rest of the sentence with commas.

If the adjectival clause is nonessential (or "not needed"), commas should separate it from the main clause.

Nonessential adjectival clauses should not begin with that.

Examples
Since the adjectival clauses in the above examples are not needed to clarify the noun that they describe, they
are nonessential and should be separated from the rest of the sentence with commas.

Note the difference between the sentences in each pair:

Nominal Clauses

Like a noun, a nominal clause names a person, place, thing, or idea. A nominal clause may function in a sentence as any
of the following:

subject subjective complement appositive object of preposition direct

object indirect object retained object

Nominal clauses may begin with interrogatives:

who whom what which whoever whomever whatever when where how why

An interrogative beginning a nominal clause has a function within the nominal clause.

Each of the following examples illustrates

• a nominal clause

• the function of the nominal clause within the sentence

• the function of the interrogative within the nominal clause

Examples

Noun Clause as Subject

What they did with the treasure remains a mystery.

Whatever you want for dessert is fine with me.
That you should feel this way about her came as a great surprise to us.

Noun Clause as Object

Juan finally revealed what he had done with the money.

Her husband spent whatever she had saved over the years.
I don't know what I should do next.

Noun Clause as Object of Preposition

In fact, he wrote a book about what he had done over the years.
We are interested in what he does for a living.

Noun Clause as Predicate Nominative

The trouble was that they had never been there before.
The biggest disappointment of last season was that the women's team didn't make it to the final four.

Nominal clause as subject in sentence

Nominal clause as subjective complement in sentence

Nominal clause as object of preposition in sentence

Nominal clause as direct object in sentence

Nominal clause as indirect object in sentence

Nominal clause as retained object in sentence

Nominal clauses may also begin with expletives: that whether if

An expletive beginning a nominal clause has no function within the nominal clause.

Nominal clause beginning with expletive that

Nominal clause beginning with expletive whether

Nominal clause beginning with expletive if

Combinations of Clauses

It is difficult to know if you're using different patterns unless you keep in mind the way that clauses are combined in
larger sentence-units of thought. Pay special attention to the variety of sentence types: simple, compound, complex, and
compound-complex sentences. These are defined by their essential ingredients, the clauses that make them up. There is
also a quiz at the end of that section that will test your ability to distinguish among the kinds of clauses that make up a
sentence.

Elliptical Clauses

Elliptical Clauses are grammatically incomplete in the sense that they are missing either the relative pronoun (dependent
word) that normally introduces such a clause or something from the predicate in the second part of a comparison. The
missing parts of the elliptical clause can be guessed from the context and most readers are not aware that anything is
missing. In fact, elliptical clauses are regarded as both useful and correct, even in formal prose, because they are often
elegant, efficient means of expression. (The omitted words are noted in brackets below).

• Coach Espinoza knew [that] this team would be the best [that] she had coached in recent years.

• Though [they were] sometimes nervous on the court, her recruits proved to be hard workers.

• Sometimes the veterans knew the recruits could play better than they [could play].

*The conjunction "so" is sometimes a coordinating conjunction — "The sun is high in the sky right now, so put on some
sunscreen." — but it often serves as a subordinating conjunction: "Pedrito kept looking in the rearview mirror so he could
see his brother driving the truck behind him."

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