Compiled by S.
Khudze
A Brief History of Computer
The term 'Computer' was first introduced in 1640 and referred to as 'one who
calculates'. It was derived from the Latin word 'computare', which meant 'to calculate'.
In 1897, it was known as the 'calculating machine'. Later in 1945, the term 'computer'
was introduced as 'programmable digital electronic computer, which is now called a
'computer'.
When the computers were introduced, they were large and could fill an entire room.
Some computers were operated using large-sized vacuum tubes. In 1833, Charles
Babbage (known as the father of the computer) invented an early calculator, which
was named as the 'difference engine'. Later in 1837, he introduced the first
mechanical, general-purpose computer 'Analytical Engine'. Over time, computers
became powerful in performance and small in size.
Generations of Computer
There are five generations of the computer, which can be classified as below:
First Generation (1946 - 1959): During the first generation, computers were based
on electronic valves (Vacuum Tubes). Some popular computers of first-generation are
ENIAC, EDVAC, UNIVAC, etc.
Second Generation (1959 - 1965): During the second generation, computers were
based on Transistors. Some popular computers of second-generation are IBM 1400,
IBM 1620, IBM 7000 series, etc.
Third Generation (1965 - 1971): During the third generation, computers were based
on Integrated Circuits (ICs). Some popular computers of the third generation are IBM
360, IBM 370, PDP, etc.
Fourth Generation (1971 - 1980): During the fourth generation, computers were
based on very large scale integrated (VLSI) circuits. Some popular computers of
fourth-generation are STAR 1000, CRAY-1, CRAY-X-MP, DEC 10, etc.
Fifth Generation (1980 - Present): The fifth generation is still ongoing. The
computers are based on multiple technologies, such as ultra large scale integration
(ULSI), artificial intelligence (AI), and parallel processing hardware. The fifth
generation of computers includes Desktop, Laptop, NoteBook, etc.
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Functions of Computer
There are four core functions of the computer, as explained below:
Input: Whatever is given to a computer is called the input. The input data is given to
the computer using the input devices. The computer only takes data in a binary form
(raw format). The input devices help convert the entered data in the binary form to be
understandable by the computer. Data can be inputted in various forms, such as
letters, numbers, images, etc.
Processing: Processing is the primary function of the computer. CPU helps to process
the data according to the instructions entered into the computer system. The
processing of data is an internal process of the computer system, and the data is
executed in a queue. After the processing has been completed, the data is further
transferred as the output. The processor (CPU) is the computer's brain, and it is a
microchip. The processor's speed varies in different computers because it depends on
several factors, such as the type of CPU, memory, and motherboard.
Typically, the following operations are performed on the data during the processing:
o Arithmetic Operations, such as addition, subtraction, multiplication,
differentials, square root, etc.
o Logical Operations, such as equal to, not equal to, greater than, less than,
opposite, etc.
Output: Anything that comes out from the computer is called the output. It is the
human-readable data and displayed on the computer screen (monitor). Output can be
stored in the storage devices if desired. The output devices help convert the processed
data of the CPU into the human-understandable form.
Storage: The device used to store the data of a computer system is called the storage.
Storage devices help to store digital data. They can store the data while the computer
is operating and after processing. There are volatile and non-volatile storage options.
The volatile storage can store the data as long as the power source is connected,
whereas non-volatile can store the data permanently even after the power source is
disconnected.
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What is CPU Clock Speed?
The clock speed of a CPU or a processor refers to the number of instructions it can
process in a second. It is measured in gigahertz. For example, a CPU with a clock speed
of 4.0 GHz means it can process 4 billion instructions in a second.
Types of CPU:
CPUs are mostly manufactured by Intel and AMD, each of which manufactures its own
types of CPUs. In modern times, there are lots of CPU types in the market. Some of the
basic types of CPUs are described below:
Single Core CPU: Single Core is the oldest type of computer CPU, which was used in
the 1970s. It has only one core to process different operations. It can start only one
operation at a time; the CPU switches back and forth between different sets of data
streams when more than one program runs. So, it is not suitable for multitasking as
the performance will be reduced if more than one application runs. The performance
of these CPUs is mainly dependent on the clock speed. It is still used in various devices,
such as smartphones.
Dual Core CPU: As the name suggests, Dual Core CPU contains two cores in a single
Integrated Circuit (IC). Although each core has its own controller and cache, they are
linked together to work as a single unit and thus can perform faster than the single-
core processors and can handle multitasking more efficiently than Single Core
processors.
Quad Core CPU: This type of CPU comes with two dual-core processors in one
integrated circuit (IC) or chip. So, a quad-core processor is a chip that contains four
independent units called cores. These cores read and execute instructions of CPU. The
cores can run multiple instructions simultaneously, thereby increases the overall speed
for programs that are compatible with parallel processing.
Quad Core CPU uses a technology that allows four independent processing units
(cores) to run in parallel on a single chip. Thus by integrating multiple cores in a single
CPU, higher performance can be generated without boosting the clock speed.
However, the performance increases only when the computer's software supports
multiprocessing. The software which supports multiprocessing divides the processing
load between multiple processors instead of using one processor at a time.
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Functions of Computer
There are four core functions of the computer, as explained below:
Input: Whatever is given to a computer is called the input. The input data is given to
the computer using the input devices. The computer only takes data in a binary form
(raw format). The input devices help convert the entered data in the binary form to be
understandable by the computer. Data can be inputted in various forms, such as
letters, numbers, images, etc.
Processing: Processing is the primary function of the computer. CPU helps to process
the data according to the instructions entered into the computer system. The
processing of data is an internal process of the computer system, and the data is
executed in a queue. After the processing has been completed, the data is further
transferred as the output. The processor (CPU) is the computer's brain, and it is a
microchip. The processor's speed varies in different computers because it depends on
several factors, such as the type of CPU, memory, and motherboard.
Typically, the following operations are performed on the data during the processing:
o Arithmetic Operations, such as addition, subtraction, multiplication,
differentials, square root, etc.
o Logical Operations, such as equal to, not equal to, greater than, less than,
opposite, etc.
Output: Anything that comes out from the computer is called the output. It is the
human-readable data and displayed on the computer screen (monitor). Output can be
stored in the storage devices if desired. The output devices help convert the processed
data of the CPU into the human-understandable form.
Storage: The device used to store the data of a computer system is called the storage.
Storage devices help to store digital data. They can store the data while the computer
is operating and after processing. There are volatile and non-volatile storage options.
The volatile storage can store the data as long as the power source is connected,
whereas non-volatile can store the data permanently even after the power source is
disconnected.
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Benefits of Using a Computer:
o Increases your productivity: A computer increases your productivity. For
example, after having a basic understanding of a word processor, you can
create, edit, store, and print the documents easily and quickly.
o Connects to the Internet: It connects you to the internet that allows you to
send emails, browse content, gain information, use social media platforms, and
more. By connecting to the internet, you can also connect to your long-distance
friends and family members.
o Storage: A computer allows you to store a large amount of information, e.g.,
you can store your projects, ebooks, documents, movies, pictures, songs, and
more.
o Organized Data and Information: It not only allows you to store data but also
enables you to organize your data. For example, you can create different folders
to store different data and information and thus can search for information
easily and quickly.
o Improves your abilities: It helps write good English if you are not good at
spelling and grammar. Similarly, if you are not good at math, and don't have a
great memory, you can use a computer to perform calculations and store the
results.
o Assist the physically challenged: It can be used to help the physically
challenged, e.g., Stephen Hawking, who was not able to speak used computer
to speak. It also can be used to help blind people by installing special software
to read what is on the screen.
o Keeps you entertained: You can use the computer to listen to songs, watch
movies, play games and more.
The computer has become a part of our life. There are plenty of things that we do in a
day are dependent on a computer. Some of the common examples are as follows:
1. ATM: While withdrawing cash from an ATM, you are using a computer that
enables the ATM to take instructions and dispense cash accordingly.
2. Digital currency: A computer keeps a record of your transactions and balance
in your account and the money deposited in your account in a bank is stored
as a digital record or digital currency.
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3. Trading: Stock markets use computers for day-to-day trading. There are many
advanced algorithms based on computers that handle trading without involving
humans.
4. Smartphone: The smartphone that we use throughout the day for calling,
texting, browsing is itself a computer.
5. VoIP: All voice over IP communication (VoIP) is handled and done by
computers.
Computer Memory
A computer is an electronic device that takes raw data as input and, processes it, then
provides the desired result. It has the potential to execute programmed computations
quickly and with great accuracy. Put in another way, the computer receives input such
as data and stores it together with instructions in memory (use them when required).
The data is then processed and converted into valuable information. After that, it
provides the result according to the inputs. Here, input means the unprocessed data
that we want the machine to handle and then give us a response, and output refers to
the outcome of the machine's processing of the unprocessed data, which may include
data analysis, searching, distributing, storing, and more. Consequently, a computer is
also referred to as a data processing system.
Figure 1: Computer Memory
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What is Memory?
The computer memory holds the data and instructions needed to process raw data
and produce output. It is the same as a human mind, where data, information, and
instructions are stored. It is a data storage device or a data storage component where
instructions for processing data are kept along with the data that has to be processed.
Both the input and the output can be held here.
The computer memory is divided into large number of small parts known as cells. Each
cell has a unique address which varies from 0 to memory size minus one. Computer
memory is of two types: Volatile (RAM) and Non-volatile (ROM). The secondary memory
(hard disk) is referred as storage not memory.
Characteristics of Main Memory:
o It serves as the computer's main memory.
o As compared to secondary memory, it is faster computer memory.
o Typically, it is a volatile memory.
o Without primary memory, a computer system cannot run.
o These memories are semiconductors.
But, if we categorize memory on behalf of space or location, it is of four types:
o Register memory
o Cache memory
o Primary memory
o Secondary memory
How does computer memory work?
o A program is loaded from secondary memory to primary memory when it is
opened. There are several types of memory and storage, for example, a program
being moved from a solid-state drive (SSD) to RAM (Random Access Memory).
The opened software will be able to communicate with the computer's
processor at a faster rate because primary storage is accessed more quickly. The
main or primary memory can be accessed quickly from storage locations such
as temporary memory slots.
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o Data in memory is only saved temporarily since memory is volatile. Data saved
in volatile memory will be erased immediately whenever a computer is turned
off. A file is transported to secondary memory for permanently storage when it
is saved.
o There are numerous kinds of memory present in a computer. Depending on the
primary memory utilized, it will perform differently, but semiconductor-based
memory is typically connected with memory. Integrated circuits utilizing metal-
oxide-semiconductor (MOS) transistors based on silicon will be used to make
semiconductor memory
Types of computer memory
In general, memory can be classified into primary and secondary memory, however
even when just talking about primary memory, there are many different types of
memory. There are some examples of primary memory, such as follows:
o Cache memory: The cache, also known as a temporary storage area, is more
readily available to the processor as compared to the main memory source of
the computer system. It is mounted on a different chip that connects to the CPU
via a bus or is frequently built directly into the CPU chip; hence, it is also known
as CPU memory.
o RAM: The term refers to the fact that the processor can directly access any
storage location. Random Access Memory, or RAM, is a piece of hardware that
serves as the internal memory of the CPU. It is often found on a on the
motherboard of a computer. When the computer is turned on, it enables the
CPU to store programs, information, and result of the program. Also, it is a
computer's read-write memory, which means data can be added to it as well as
read from it.
o Read-only memory: ROM is often only read from and not written to, which is
a type of computer storage. It is non-volatile in nature, which means it stores
data permanently. The programming code is stored in the ROM that enables a
computer system to boot up or regenerate every time when it is turned on.
A register is a most elementary data-storing device that is implemented onto the
processor chip itself. It is a small, high−speed storage area within a computer's
processor or central processing unit (CPU). The processor can directly access the
data stored in registers. For this reason, registers are primarily used for storing those
instructions or operands on which the CPU is currently working. Registers allow the
processor to quickly access and manipulate the stored information.
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Registers have very high access speed; thus the CPU can access the register cells
within its one clock cycle. The storage capacity of a register is expressed in terms of
Bits such as 16bit register, 32bit register, and so on. The number of register Bits
provide information about the speed and power of the processor
Memory vs. Storage
o Although the terms "memory" and "storage" are frequently used
interchangeably, there are some distinct and important differences between
both. Simply said, storage is secondary memory, while memory is primary or
main memory. Storage refers to where long-term data is stored, whereas
memory refers to where short-term data is stored.
o On a computer, the term "memory" is most frequently used to describe the
main storage, such as RAM. Information is also processed in memory. With the
help of RAM, users have the potential to access data that is stored for a short
time. As primary memory is volatile, meaning it is not retained when the
computer is shut off, the data is only stored for a brief period of time.
o Data in a computer is stored in secondary memory, which is referred to as
storage. A hard drive (HDD), often known as a hard disk drive, is an example of
storage. Because storage is non-volatile, data is not lost even after the computer
is powered off and back on. For quick information retrieval, a running program
may be in the main memory of the computer, but when the program is closed,
it moves to secondary memory or storage.
o The amount of storage and memory space that is accessible differs as well. As
compared to memory, a computer will often have greater storage capacity. For
instance, a laptop may have 250 GB of storage space and 8 GB of RAM. The
reason for the difference in space is that a computer will not need to quickly
access all the data stored on it at once; therefore, assigning about 8 GB of space
will be plenty to run programs.
o Due to the inconsistent usage of this terminology in modern technology,
memory and storage can be difficult to understand. For instance, flash memory
is a sort of secondary storage, whereas RAM can be referred to as primary
storage. It may be simpler to talk about memory in terms of whether it is volatile
or non-volatile and storage in terms of whether it is primary or secondary in
order to avoid misunderstanding.
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