CORE OF AN EMBEDDED SYSTEM:

The core of an embedded system is the main processing unit that controls the entire system. It is the brain of
the system which executes instructions, processes data, and communicates with other parts like memory and
input/output devices

Types of Cores in Embedded Systems:

1. General Purpose and Domain-Specific Processors

A General Purpose Processor is a processor designed to perform a wide range of tasks — not made
for one specific job.
o Microprocessors
o Microcontrollers

A Domain-Specific Processor is designed to do a specific group of tasks (domain = area), like signal
processing, networking, or automotive control.
o DSPs

2. Application Specific Integrated Circuits (ASICs)

3. Programmable Logic Devices (PLDs)

o CPLDs
o FPGAs

4. Commercial Off-The-Shelf Components (COTS)

1. General Purpose and Domain-Specific Processors

These are the most commonly used cores in embedded systems. They are divided into 3 main types:
1.1 Microprocessors
1.2 Microcontrollers
1.3 Digital Signal Processors (DSPs)
1.1 Microprocessors
• A microprocessor is a silicon chip that contains the central processing unit (CPU). The CPU is
capable of performing arithmetic and logical operations based on a predefined set of instructions
(known as an instruction set).
• ➤ The CPU generally includes:
• Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU)
• Control Unit (CU)
• Registers
• But a microprocessor is a dependent unit – it requires external components such as:
• Memory (RAM, ROM)
• Timer units
• Interrupt controllers
• Input/output ports
• to perform a complete function..
Examples:
• Intel 4004: First microprocessor (1971)
• Intel 8080, Intel 8085, Zilog Z80

Uses:
• Computers, laptops, some industrial machines.

1.2 Microcontrollers
Definition:
A microcontroller is a single-chip device that integrates:
• CPU (Central Processing Unit)
• Memory (RAM and ROM)
• I/O ports
• Timers and counters
• Interrupt controllers
• Serial communication interfaces
All in one compact chip.

Popular Microcontrollers
• Intel 8051
• PIC series (Peripheral Interface Controller)
• AVR series (by Atmel)
• ARM Cortex-M series

2.DSP
A Digital Signal Processor (DSP) is a specialized microprocessor designed specifically for processing digital
signals using math
• Audio signals
• Video signals
• Sensor data
Key Units of DSP
1. Program Memory
➤ Stores the instructions (program) for signal processing.
2. Data Memory
➤ Temporarily holds signals and data during processing.
3. Computational Engine
➤ Does the actual math (add, multiply) using special units like MAC.
➤ Works fast and in parallel to save time.
4. I/O Unit
➤ Connects DSP with outside world.
➤ Takes input signals and sends out processed results.
DSPs are optimized for fast mathematical calculations, especially:
• Addition
• Multiplication
• Filtering
• Fourier transforms (FFT)

Key Features
1. High-Speed Arithmetic
o Executes multiply and accumulate (MAC) instructions in a single clock cycle.
2. Real-Time Processing
o DSPs can process data as it arrives — important for live audio/video/communication.
Popular DSPs
• Blackfin Processors – Analog Devices
• Texas Instruments (TI) DSPs

Applications of DSPs:
• Mobile phones (audio, image processing)
• Digital TVs
• Medical imaging
• Speech recognition
• Telecommunication systems
• Radar and sonar processing
• Automotive control

3.Application Specific Integrated Circuits (ASICs)

An ASIC is an Integrated Circuit (IC) that is custom-designed for a specific application or specific function
rather than being intended for general-purpose use.
In simple words, it's a chip built for one particular job only.

• The functionality of an ASIC is fixed during design time.

• It is not programmable like a microcontroller or DSP.
• Once designed and manufactured, it cannot be changed.

Key Points
1. Efficient
– Since it is built for one specific task, it works very efficiently (faster + less power).
2. Not Programmable
– Unlike microcontrollers or PLDs, you cannot write new code for an ASIC.
3. Fixed Function
– ASIC chips do only one job, like handling Bluetooth, audio decoding, or encryption.
4. Cost
– Making an ASIC is very expensive at first (for design & setup),
but when produced in large quantities, the cost per chip becomes very cheap.
Examples
• Mobile phones – ASICs for signal processing (baseband processor)
• Digital watches – Timekeeping ASIC
• Set-top boxes, smart cards, robotic chips

Advantages
• High performance
• Low power consumption
• Compact and space-saving
• Faster execution of specific tasks

Disadvantages:
• Not reusable or reprogrammable
• High initial cost (only economical for mass production)

4.Programmable Logic Devices (PLDs)

PLD = Blank chip (you design what it does with logic)
PLDs are electronic chips that can be programmed by the user to perform custom digital logic functions.
These chips are blank when manufactured — but later you can configure them to do specific logic-based tasks.

• PLDs are reprogrammable.

• Suitable for applications where the logic might change often or where you need custom control.
• Very useful in prototyping or when trying out designs before creating an ASIC.

Advantages of PLDs – Short Notes

1. Reprogrammable – You can change the logic anytime.
2. Fast development – No need to design new hardware.
3. Low cost – Cheaper than making custom chips (ASIC).
4. Compact – One chip replaces many logic ICs.
5. Easy updates – Fix errors or add features easily.
6. Flexible use – Suitable for many applications (robots, control systems, etc.)
Eg: traffic light

How a Traffic Light Works – Basic Idea

A typical traffic light follows this order:
1. Red ON for a few seconds
2. Green ON for a few seconds
3. Yellow ON for a short time
4. Then repeat

Types of PLDs
1. CPLD (Complex Programmable Logic Device)
2. FPGA (Field Programmable Gate Array)
CPLD (Complex Programmable Logic Device)
Definition

A CPLD is a type of Programmable Logic Device (PLD) that contains a limited number of logic blocks
which are connected together inside one chip.

It’s called “complex” because it can handle more logic than basic PLDs, but not as much as FPGAs.
Structure :
• Contains logic blocks (also called macro cells)
• All blocks are connected using an interconnection matrix
• Each block can be programmed to perform logic functions (like AND, OR, NOT, etc.)

Uses / Applications:
• Traffic light controller
• Motor control circuits
• Simple communication interfaces
• Real-time control in embedded systems
•
FPGA (Field Programmable Gate Array)
Definition :
An FPGA is a type of programmable logic device (PLD) that has a large number of logic blocks (called
Configurable Logic Blocks - CLBs) which can be programmed by the user to do any complex digital
function.
Think of an FPGA as a blank digital chip where you design the circuit inside it using software.

Structure
• Contains thousands of logic blocks (CLBs)
• These blocks are connected by a programmable routing network
• Also includes I/O blocks for input/output and clock circuits
• Highly flexible and powerful

5. Commercial Off-The-Shelf Components (COTS)

COTS are pre-designed and pre-manufactured components available in the market, which can be directly
purchased and used in embedded systems without needing custom development.

• COTS components are not made for one specific user or system, but for general use.
• They are mass-produced and sold as standard parts.
Examples
• Microcontroller boards (like Arduino, STM32, Raspberry Pi)
• Modules like GSM, GPS, Wi-Fi, Bluetooth
• Displays, Keypads, Relays
• Third-party software libraries and drivers
MEMORY IN EMBEDDED SYSTEMS
• Memory is a very important part of an embedded system with a processor or controller
memory is used to:

• Store program code

• Hold data temporarily during operations
• Some processors have built-in memory inside the chip — this is called on-chip memory.
• Other processors don’t have internal memory, so they need external memory — this is called off-chip
memory.

1) Program Storage Memory in Embedded Systems(ROM)

• This is the memory used to store the program (control algorithm) in embedded systems. The
processor or controller reads instructions from this memory to perform tasks.
• It is a type of non-volatile memory, meaning it does not lose data when power is turned off. It is
mainly used to store permanent code or firmware.

Memory Type Description

Masked ROM This is a factory-programmed memory. The program is permanently
(MROM) written during manufacturing and cannot be modified or erased. It is very
cheap for mass production but inflexible. Used when the code will never
change.
PROM /OTP PROM is blank when manufactured and can be programmed only once
(Programmable by the user using a special device. After programming, it cannot be
ROM) changed. Suitable for applications with fixed code.
EPROM (Erasable EPROM can be erased using UV light and then reprogrammed. The chip
Programmable ROM) has a small quartz window to expose it to UV. It must be removed from
the circuit for erasing and reprogramming. Used for development and
testing.
EEPROM EEPROM is a reprogrammable memory that can be erased and written
(Electrically Erasable electrically. It supports byte-level access, meaning individual bytes can be
PROM) updated. Used to store device settings or calibration data.
Flash Memory Flash memory is a type of EEPROM but faster and more efficient. It is
erased and written in blocks or sectors. It is widely used in embedded
systems to store program code and data. Comes in NOR (for code
execution) and NAND (for storage) types.
NVRAM (Non- NVRAM behaves like RAM but retains data even when power is off,
Volatile RAM) usually with a battery backup or using special non-volatile technology.
Used to store critical data like system state, logs, or configuration.

2)Working Memory or Temporary Memory(RAM) in Embedded Systems

RAM (Random Access Memory) is used to store data temporarily while the embedded system is running.
Unlike ROM, RAM is volatile — it loses data when power is off.

RAM is essential for:

• Holding temporary variables

• Stack operations
 • Buffers
• Runtime data during program execution

Types of RAM

1. Static RAM (SRAM)

• Uses flip-flops to store each bit.

• Retains data as long as power is supplied.
• Fast access speed
• No need to refresh like DRAM.
• Expensive and low-density (stores less data per chip).
• Typically used in cache memory or on-chip RAM in microcontrollers.

Example: Internal RAM of microcontrollers, CPU cache.

2. Dynamic RAM (DRAM)

• Stores data using capacitors.

• Needs constant refreshing to retain data.
• Cheaper and higher capacity than SRAM.
• Slower than SRAM.
• Mostly used as external memory in systems that need large RAM.

Example: Main memory in computers, external RAM for embedded systems with OS.

Difference Between SRAM and DRAM

SRAM DRAM
Static Random Access Memory Dynamic Random Access Memory
Stores data using flip-flops Stores data using capacitors
Does not need refreshing Needs continuous refreshing
Faster in speed Slower compared to SRAM
More expensive Less expensive
Lower storage density (less data per chip) Higher storage density (more data per chip)
Used in cache memory and on-chip memory Used as main memory or external RAM
Consumes less power (small memory size only) Consumes more power due to refresh
Physically larger per bit Physically smaller per bit

3. Non-Volatile RAM (NVRAM)

• Combines the speed of RAM with the non-volatility of ROM.

• Retains data even when power is off, often using battery backup.
• Used to store critical data that must be preserved after shutdown
Memory Based on Interface Type in Embedded Systems

In embedded systems, memory can also be classified based on how it connects to the processor or
controller. This is called the interface type.

There are mainly two types:

1. Parallel Interface Memory

• In this type, multiple data lines are used (e.g., D0 to D7 for 8-bit data).
• Data is transferred all at once, one byte or word at a time.
• Requires more pins and more I/O lines on the processor.
• Faster data transfer because multiple bits move together.
• Used when speed is more important than saving space.

Example: Parallel EEPROM, SRAM, older Flash memory chips.

2. Serial Interface Memory

• Data is transferred bit by bit over fewer lines.

• Needs fewer pins (saves space and cost).
• Slower than parallel interface but simpler design.
• Ideal for systems with limited I/O pins.
• Often used in low-speed or small-memory applications.

Example: I²C EEPROM, SPI Flash memory, serial NVRAM.

Interface Type Data Transfer Speed Pins Required Examples

Parallel Interface Multiple bits at once Fast More SRAM, Parallel
EEPROM
Serial Interface One bit at a time Slower Fewer SPI Flash, I²C
EEPROM

Memory Shadowing in Embedded Systems

Memory shadowing is a technique where the contents of slower memory (like ROM) are copied into faster
memory (like RAM) during system startup or booting.

How it works:

1. At boot time, the system copies the program from ROM into RAM.
2. After copying, the CPU executes the program from RAM.
3. This gives the speed of RAM while retaining the stability of ROM.
Memory Selection for Embedded Systems

Choosing the right memory is crucial when designing an embedded system. The selection depends on
various technical and application-specific factors.

1. Based on Type of Processor/Controller

• If the microcontroller or SoC has built-in memory:

o You may not need external memory.
• If the controller has limited or no memory, you’ll need to add external memory (off-chip).

2. Based on Application Needs

Ask:

• Does the system need to store only small firmware?

• Does it require large data buffers, like in image/audio processing?
• Will it need read/write memory, or just read-only program storage?

3. Based on Performance

• For speed-critical systems, use fast memory like SRAM or NOR Flash.
• For high-density storage, use DRAM or NAND Flash.

4. Based on Cost and Power

• Use low-cost memory in consumer devices.

• Use low-power memory in battery-operated embedded systems.

5. Based on Interface Requirements

• If fewer processor pins are available: prefer serial memory (I²C, SPI).
• If speed is critical: prefer parallel memory.

Key Parameters or factors to Consider:

Parameter Description
Size How much memory is needed (in KB/MB)?
Type ROM (for code), RAM (for working data), EEPROM, etc.
Speed How fast must data be read/written?
Interface Parallel or Serial (SPI, I²C)?
Non-volatility Should it retain data after power-off?
Cost & Availability Budget and ease of sourcing the memory
Power Consumption Important for portable/battery-powered systems
Environment Must it work in industrial or rugged environments?
SENSORS
• Sensors (also called detectors) are devices that detect changes in the environment or system variables.
• They are usually connected to the input port of an embedded system.
• Sensors act as transducers — they convert one form of energy into another for a specific purpose.

Example:
• In an ECG machine, sensors (electrodes) are attached to the patient's body.
• They monitor heartbeat status but do not control it.
• The variations detected by the sensors are shown on a display or printed chart.

ACTUATORS
• An actuator is a type of transducer that converts electrical signals into physical actions.
• It acts as an output device.
• If an embedded system is designed to control something (like motor speed, valve position), it uses
actuators to perform the action.
• If the system is only for monitoring, actuators are not needed.

Types of Actuators

Multi-turn Actuator

• A multi-turn actuator is a type of actuator that provides rotational movement — it turns a valve or
similar device for more than one full revolution (360°).
• It converts electrical signals from the embedded system into mechanical rotary motion to control
something like a valve.

Part-Turn Actuator

• A Part-Turn Actuator is an actuator that provides rotary motion but only for less than one full
revolution (i.e., less than 360°).
• It is used to open or close valves that need to turn just a little — not fully rotate.

Linear Actuator

• A Linear Actuator is a device that converts electrical signals into straight-line (linear) motion, instead
of rotary movement.
• So instead of rotating like a motor, it pushes or pulls in a straight direction.

Type Description
Multi-turn Produces torque for at least one full rotation. Withstands thrust. Used in gate valves.
Actuator
Part-turn Produces torque for less than one full rotation. Cannot withstand thrust. Used in
Actuator butterfly valves, ball valves.
Linear Actuator Produces linear motion (up/down or forward/backward). Used in control valves like
pressing a plug into a seat.
THE I/O SUBSYSTEM IN EMBEDDED SYSTEMS

The I/O (Input/Output) Subsystem is the part of the embedded system that connects it to the outside world.
It allows the system to receive input (like sensor data) and send output (like signals to actuators).

• The I/O subsystem lets the embedded system sense and control the environment.
• Without I/O, the system would not know what’s happening around it or be able to respond.

How It Works:
1. Sensors are connected to the input ports.
2. Actuators are connected to the output ports.
3. Input signals are often analog, so they pass through:
o Signal conditioning units
o ADC (Analog to Digital Converters)
4. The embedded system processes the signal and may output a response.
5. Output signals may go through:
o DAC (Digital to Analog Converters)
o Drivers (to control power to actuators)

Components of the I/O Subsystem:

Component Function
Sensors Detect and send real-world signals to the system
Signal Conditioning Amplifies or filters signals from sensors
ADC (Analog to Digital Converter) Converts analog signals to digital for processing
Processor/Controller Processes input and decides output
DAC (if needed) Converts digital output to analog signals
Actuators Perform actions based on system output

COMMUNICATION INTERFACES in Embedded Systems

Communication interfaces help an embedded system (E.S.) to interact with internal subsystems and the
external world.
These interfaces are categorized into two types:

1. Onboard (Device/Board Level) Communication Interface

Used for communication between internal components of an embedded product (like microcontroller and
memory/peripherals).
Examples:
• I²C
• 1-Wire
• Parallel Bus Interface

I²C (Inter-Integrated Circuit) Bus

• A two-wire, synchronous, bi-directional, half-duplex serial bus.
• Developed by Philips in the 1980s for connecting microcontrollers and chips in TVs.
 Features:

Line Function
SCL Serial Clock Line — provides synchronization pulses
SDA Serial Data Line — transfers data between devices
• Supports multi-master configuration.
• Master device: starts/stops communication, sends data, and generates clock signals.
• Slave device: responds to master’s commands.
• Both master and slave can act as transmitter or receiver.
• Shared bus: multiple I²C devices can be connected.

2. External (Product Level) Communication Interface

Used for communication between the embedded system and external systems or modules.
It can be:
• Wired or Wireless
• Serial or Parallel
Examples:
• Infrared (IR)
• Bluetooth (BT)
• Wi-Fi (Wireless LAN)
• RF (Radio Frequency)

Infrared (IR) Communication

• A wireless, serial, half-duplex, line-of-sight technology.
• Common in TV and AC remotes.
• Uses infrared light (a part of the electromagnetic spectrum) to transmit data.
Features:
• Supports point-to-point and point-to-multipoint communication.
• Range: 10 cm to 1 meter (can increase with power).
• Data rate: 9600 bps to 16 Mbps.

Type Scope Examples Medium

Onboard Communication Internal component-level I²C, 1-Wire, Parallel Bus Wired (serial/parallel)
External Communication System-to-system level IR, Bluetooth, Wi-Fi, RF Wired or Wireless

All The best