Tugs:

[Link]:

In some localities, the assistance of a tug is essential, particularly in

conditions of strong current or wind. Elsewhere, the use of tug will
greatly add to the speed and safety of manoeuvre. In very
restricted waters, the tugs have almost complete control over the
ship, the M/Es of tug being used to assist the vessel in gathering
way or to complete a swing.

When using a tug to push, the force should be applied at the

position of the c.g. If this is done, the vessel will move bodily.
When a strong wind is blowing on to the other side of the ship, the
tug’s stem should be a little forward of the c.g. to correct for the swing
of the ship’s bow downwind.

When a tug is being used to swing a ship, a pushing force is

usually more effective than a towing force. The tug should
position herself just abaft the ship’s stem and at right angles to
the hull plating. The tug’s F&A line will then make an angle of
roughly 70 degrees with the ship’s F&A line. The effect of tug’s
headway will then be partly to turn the ship and partly to push it
astern. This latter movement is counteracted by working ship’s
engines slow ahead; with the helm over towards the turn, the ship is
then assisting the turn and it is often achieved in the vessel’s own
length.

If instead the tug is similarly positioned aft, it cannot get

sufficiently close to astern; this combined with the fact the c.g.
of the ship is generally abaft the amidships, places the tug too
close to this point to give any effect other than a very sluggish
swing and considerable side drift. The M/Es should not be used
with the tug so close to propellers. Even if it is clear to use them,
the tug will be unable to maintain its position in the slipstream.
When a tug is used aft to heave a ship clear of a berth, it will first
tow at right angles to the ship’s F&A line so as to get the stern
well clear of the berth. During this time, the headlines and forward
springs must be kept taut. This will then ensure that the stem remains
steady without raking the quay. As soon as the stern is clear, the ship
works her engine astern for a moment, the tug swings around so that
it leads out on the quarter, and the forward lines are let go.

When casting off an after tug, if the vessel has sternway on her,
whether or not the Engines are stopped, the line will be very
liable to run in under the stern and foul the rudder or screws.
The line should, therefore, be let go while ship is carrying
headway. There is no need to stop engines when letting go a tug
while the ship has headway upon her.

When ordering tugs, the following factors need to be kept in mind:

-Total bollard pull and number of tugs
-Total bollard pull depends upon vessel’s displacement and
environmental forces.

[Link] of Tugs:
To gain a broad insight into the use of tugs, it is first important to be
aware of the types of tug commonly available and in particular their
strengths or weaknesses. To do this it is helpful to group the many
different types of tugs according to their working methods and
this provides the following broad categories .....

* conventional tugs.
* tractor tugs.
* azimuth stern drive tugs (ASD).

[Link] Tugs:
The conventional or traditional tug, for years the work horse of the
maritime industry and still widely employed, has two inherent design
features which can, by modern standards, limit its efficiency. These
are .....

* the traditional propulsion unit.

* the towing hook position.
The propulsion unit is usually a single right or left handed
propeller with a standard rudder configuration. To increase
bollard pull, with the installed power unit, the propeller may be
placed in a shroud or rotating nozzle, some may have controllable
pitch screws and some may be twin screwed. Whilst they may be
economical, powerful, have good sea keeping qualities and be well
proven over the years, they may, nevertheless, by modern standards,
be restricted by fairly basic manoeuvrability.

This means that the conventional tug, if required to do so by the pilot,

might be slow and sometimes limited in its ability to reposition quickly.
The tug's master must also be very careful to avoid difficult situations
whereby the tug may become trapped and unable to manoeuvre
freely to a safer position, if it is beyond its handling capabilities.

Like most traditional vessels, propulsion is at the stern, and this

dictates the design position of the towing hook. When a tug is
making way as an ordinary vessel, with no tow connected, or when
making way and towing, but the tow line is slack, the pivot point will
be approximately a 1/4 of the length of the tug from forward and
the tug may be expected to handle like any other conventional
vessel.

Once however, a tow is connected and the tug takes the weight,
it is likely that the pivot point (P) will move aft towards the
position of the towing point or hook, which will usually be as far
forward as design permits and as near amidships as possible.
Although the distance of (P) from the propeller and therefore thrust
(T) is now reduced, it is still substantial and the tug retains a good
turning moment (PT) and a fair degree of manoeuvrability under
the tow.

If, however, any attempt is made to rigidly fix the tow, at or

closer to the stern, it results in a large or total reduction of (PT),
which will affect a serious loss of manoeuvrability. The towing
hook therefore needs to be positioned as far forward of the
propulsion unit as possible, thus allowing the tug freedom of
movement under the tow line.
This combination of towing hook amidships and limited
manoeuvrability, has a tendency to place the conventional tug at
particular risk to either “interaction or girting”.

[Link]:
[Link].Interaction Forward:
In 1950 a leading tug manufacturer conducted a research programme
into a large number of tug accidents all of which had resulted in the
loss of life. The most common cause of these accidents was
found to be "interaction". Since then the size of ships using tugs
has increased enormously and the tug, still relatively small and often
working alongside, must be very much more at risk from this invisible
phenomenon.

In simple terms, a ship making headway through the water has

zones of differing water pressures surrounding it. This results in
a positive pressure forward of its pivot point extending out from
the ship, whilst a low pressure or suction area exists all the way
down the ship's side from the pivot point to the propeller. Near
the stern this suction area is augmented by the flow of water into the
propeller aperture whilst the engine is turning ahead and, it should be
noted, at any time whilst controllable pitch propellers are engaged.
It should be remembered that the strength of these interaction zones
and the distance they extend out from the ship can increase
dramatically, not only with a small increase in ship speed but also if
the ship passes into shallow water and the pressure zones are
restricted.

When a tug is working its way in towards the ship's forebody,

with the intention of passing a line forward, it may pass through
one or more of these important areas and experience adverse
handling characteristics.

If the ship's speed is too high and the interaction forces

correspondingly severe, or if the tug master fails to keep control, the
tug can find itself in position near the stem with alarming and fatal
rapidity. The consequences may be flooded decks and serious
collision damage, particularly from underwater contact with the ship's
bulbous bow, with the possibility of capsize and loss of life.
A sudden and catastrophic loss of stability is the most likely cause of
a capsize and this can occur even with a very slight collision. Tugs, it
should be noted, roll over and flood extremely quickly, thus affording
little time for the crew to escape!

[Link].Interaction Aft:
When a tug is approaching to pass a line aft it is also likely to feel the
effect of interaction and may, similar to the forward tug, experience
some handling difficulties. This will be particularly evident if the
ship's speed has not been sufficiently reduced. The resultant
interaction forces may be too strong, causing vigorous suction, or low
pressure area, around the after body of the ship. This is compounded
by the more obvious and widely recognised risk that is associated
with working under the stern, in close proximity of the ship's propeller.

The danger from the propeller is a more obvious threat and, naturally,
care should be exercised whenever a tug is working close under the
stern. Whilst it is the safest 'best practice' for a conventional
propeller to be stopped it is not always practicable, particularly
with controllable pitch propellers, and the tug's master should
always be kept fully informed as to the status of the propulsion unit
when coming in close.

[Link] (girding or girthing) a Tug:

Unfortunately, it is not practical to secure a towline to a tug

close by its stern rail. The line is usually secured very near the
centre of flotation, and for this reason, the tug may be girded or
girted. Girding occurs when a towline under stress is allowed to
lead directly abeam from the tug. The craft is unable to turn, and
may capsize, often with heavy loss of life. The list taken by the tug
may be so acute and rapid that the crew may not be able to slip
the hook. The men standing by the towline on board the towed
vessel should therefore be instantly ready, at all times, to let go the
line.

There have, in the past, been serious accidents involving tugs that
have resulted in a tragic loss of life. With their towing hook
amidships conventional tugs have always been vulnerable to
girting and their basic manoeuvrability makes it all the more
difficult to extricate this type of tug, should it be caught in such an
unenviable position.

Girding can be caused by one, or both of the following .....

* the ship turning independently and too quickly away from the tug.
* excessive straight line speed with a tug made fast.

A conventional tug working aft, is perhaps more at risk than the

forward tug, as its design characteristics frequently oblige it to lay
with the tow line much more inclined towards its beam.

It frequently happens too quickly to activate quick release gear

and allows absolutely no time whatsoever for the evacuation of the
crew who may become trapped in the submerged tug.

In all these cases, the danger of girting can be removed, by

tripping the quick release gear on the towing hook, thereby
releasing the towing line.

The Gob Rope:

The conventional tug, in comparison with the more manoeuvrable
tractor tug and azimuth stern drive tug, may be at a disadvantage
as a result of .....

* interaction.
* girting.
* excessive ship speed.
* confined locks and dock areas.
* traditional manoeuvrability.

In certain cases, some conventional tug masters might be seen

working a gob, or gob rope in order to improve safety and
performance. This is a rope of suitable length and strength which
a crewman will use on the towing deck, to bowse down or 'gob
down' the main tow rope and which may subsequently be
adjusted in length when required by the master.
Its use brings the pivot point of the tug aft to the area of the gob
rope and this encourages the tug to pivot around that point and
keep its stern up to the tow.

Using the tug's weight:

The conventional tug is clearly at its best when it can utilise its
maximum power and apply full bollard pull to the tow line or
ship when so required. Naturally, there is a tendency for this to be
at its best when the ship is fairly static i.e. when swinging,
positioning, breasting or lifting off etc.

An alternative, if the bollard pull cannot be applied directly,

usually because the ship is making way, is to 'lay' on the tow
line and use the tug's weight to do the job, while the power is
used primarily to maintain position and headway.

A conventional tug deployed aft may occasionally be seen working

with the tow line secured forward but bearing in mind that this might
then have to be let go and re-secured on the main towing hook in
order to work in the conventional way. This is generally considered
inconvenient and not commonplace.

Two important things must be remembered if the tugs are being

used in this way .....

* the risk of girting is increased and the tug master must keep a close
eye on the ship's speed.
* the tugs may impart an insidious increase in speed to the ship which
needs to be monitored.

Whilst there are clearly limitations associated with conventional

tug design, they are still economical, well proven and invaluable
in the hands of a good tug master. They can be very powerful,
modest horse power often belying excellent bollard pull, particularly
by placing the propellers in shrouds or tunnels and the master can
'dig in' on a tow line and put this power to enormous effect.
Manoeuvrability can also be improved by using twin propellers
and bow thrusters. Notwithstanding this, however, manufacturers
have developed totally different concepts in tug design in an effort to
achieve outstanding tug performance and manoeuvrability.

[Link] Tugs:

The tractor tug represents a complete departure from the traditional

design of the conventional tug, but with companies like Voith
Schneider and Schottel developing tractor tugs between 1950 and
1960 it is, perhaps surprisingly, not a particularly new concept.

The key to the true tractor tug lies in the use of two multi-
directional propulsion units, of which some are rather like large
rotating outboard motors with others consisting of rotating
vertical blades. They enable the thrust units of the tug to be placed
side by side more or less under the bridge, thereby facilitating
spectacular manoeuvrability in the right hands.

On a tractor tug, the towing point (P) can be placed much nearer
the stern because the propulsion units, and therefore the thrust
(T) is always 'outside' of the towing point, thus creating a good
positive turning moment (PT). If this is compared with the
conventional tug, it can be seen that this is completely the opposite to
the traditional configuration.

In many cases versatility is further enhanced by working the tug's tow

line directly from the winch drum with a remote control joy stick from
the bridge. The tug master can thus alter the length of the tow
line at will and with considerable ease.

The tractor tug can perhaps best be defined as one where, like a farm
tractor towing a trailer, the power unit is always ahead of and
pulling on the towing point, unlike a conventional tug where the
propulsion is actually behind the towing point and pushing it.

It may be imagined, quite correctly, when steaming at speed without

a tow, that with the propulsion unit thus sited this type of tug suffers
from a lack of directional stability. With the power driving the tug
close to the pivot point, the steering lever is indeed poor, but this
is easily overcome by the versatility of the thruster units.
Directional stability is also improved by fitting a large skeg on
the centre line of the hull aft and this also supports the tug if it is
dry docked or grounded.

The argument for and against tractor tugs by comparison with

conventional tugs are as follows:

Advantages of Tractor Tugs:

* full thrust over 360 degrees.
* rapid power-on response time.
* outstanding manoeuvrability.
* able to re-position quickly if so required by the pilot.
* simple control systems.
* very low risk of girting.
* can more effectively overcome interaction forces close in to a ship.
* improved operational capability in a restricted area such as a lock or
an enclosed dock.
* may decrease the 'turn round time' of port movements that normally
use tug assistance.
* reliable, robust propulsion units.

It is reasonable, therefore, to view these types of tugs as extremely

versatile, ideally suited to the confines of a busy harbour, river, canal
or sheltered estuarial waters.

Disadvantages of Tractor Tugs:

* high capital investment costs.
* less bollard pull per kilowatt power.
* repair and maintenance of complex underwater units may be
expensive.
* handling in an open seaway is poor due to the short distance
between pivot point and thrust, creating a short steering lever.
* heeling angle with full side thrust may be up to 21 degrees with
some tugs. Therefore, risk of damage can exist when laying
alongside a ship.
* sophisticated underwater units may be damaged if grounded and/or
fail if choked with debris.
* draft may be up to 5m, which is large in comparison to conventional
tugs.
* the re-training of conventional tug masters is essential in order to
fully maximise a tractor tug's potential.

[Link] Stern Drive (ASD) Tugs:

There are throughout the many pilotage districts of the world, but
particularly so in Japan and Australia, a substantial number of tugs
known as azimuth stern or 'Z' drive tugs.

This tug is not, strictly speaking, a tractor tug in the true sense of the
word but more of a compromise, utilising some of the benefits of
both conventional and tractor tug alike. It can employ two
towing positions, one amidships and one forward, and main
propulsion is from two rotating azimuth units which although
similar to those employed in tractor tugs, are placed aft, rather
like a traditional twin screw tug.

The ASD tug can therefore be used in the same manner as a

conventional tug, using the amidships towing position but with
considerably improved handling. However, it is when using the
forward towing position, usually direct from a bow towing winch,
that the ASD tug realises its full potential secured alongside a
ship in the push-pull mode. With virtually the full length of the
tug between the thrust units (T) and the forward towing point (P)
the ASD tug can be used to great effect. It is perhaps best
compared to the pure tractor tug by listing its relevant advantages
and limitations.

Advantages of an Azimuth Stern Drive Tug:

* better directional stability at speed.
* more suitable hull form for open waters and working in a seaway.
* improved bollard pull per kilowatt power.
* azimuth units easy to withdraw for maintenance and repair.
* maximum heel with side thrust less at 15°.
* shallower average draft of 3m.
Limitations of an Azimuth Stern Drive Tug:
* side stepping ability not as good.
* squat at the stern and flooding of the aft deck has been known to
occur with certain design types when backing with full power.
* still susceptible to girting when using the after towing position.
* slightly more at risk from the effects of interaction.
* it is not uncommon for 99 % of all towing to be limited to the forward
position.
* complex control systems.
* more susceptible to rubbish damage in propellers.

[Link] a tug:

In order to make the best use of a tug and achieve the desired result,
it is important to position it in the right place. To do this it is necessary
to ask the following questions .....

* what is the intended movement and/or manoeuvre?

* will the ship be predominately with headway, backing, or stopped?
* where will the ship's pivot point be?
* where will the tug be in relationship to the ship's pivot point?
* what type of tug is being used?

There is, therefore, given the very nature of the questions, every
indication that there is a very important interactive link between
the ship's pivot point and the position of the tug. This is best
illustrated by looking more closely at some specific examples.

[Link] of ‘Tugs on long lines’:

Tugs made fast with long lines provide the most effective turning pull.
At the same time, they require large manoeuvring room.
In this example the ship is of 160 metres length with two 20 tonnes
bollard pull tugs in attendance, one forward and one aft, both on
long lines. It is assumed for the example that the ship is on even
keel, in deep water, with no wind or tide and is therefore
influenced by no other obvious factors or forces.
[Link] stopped:
With the ship stopped and on even keel the centre of gravity of the
ship, and pivot point, is approximately amidships. If both tugs now
take the weight with full power, they will be both be operating on
similar turning levers of 80m and the turning moments will be:-
Forward Tug 80m x 20t = 1600 tm
Aft Tug 80m x 20t = 1600 tm
As a result the ship will lift off, moving bodily sideways with no
residual rate of turn.

[Link] making headway:

Once the ship gathers headway, even a small amount, the pivot
point will move forward to a position approximately one quarter
of the ship's length from the bow. This substantially alters the
lengths of the respective turning levers and upsets the balance
between the two tugs whose turning moments will now be:-
Forward Tug 40m x 20t = 800 tm
Aft Tug 120m x 20t = 2400 tm
The tug aft is therefore considerably more efficient than the tug
forward and will lift the ship's stern out much more quickly than the
bow, which will appear sluggish.

[Link] making sternway:

If the ship, which was previously making headway, is now allowed to
develop sternway, either intentionally or otherwise, the balance of the
two tugs is completely changed. This is due to the shift of the ship's
pivot point, from forward to a position approximately one
quarter of the vessel's length from the stern. The respective
turning levers and turning moments are now completely altered and
are as follows .....
Forward Tug 120m x 20t = 2400 tm
Aft Tug 40m x 20t = 800 tm

The tug aft, which was previously doing well, is now poor in
comparison to the forward tug and the stern of the ship will appear
to be sluggish when lifting off.
[Link] the Tugs:
In the preceding examples with two 20 tonnes bollard pull tugs the
maximum lift for the ship was:-
Forward tug 20t; Aft tug 20t; Total 40t
Unfortunately, if the ship is developing an undesirable swing due to
headway or sternway and the tugs are at full power, it will be
necessary to instruct the appropriate tug to ease back in order to
balance the tugs and correct the swing. In this particular example,
with the ship making sternway, the forward tug would have to
ease back to approximately one third of its potential.

Aft tug 40m x 20t = 800 tm, Forward tug 120m x 7t = 800 tm
Totals 27t = Nil tm (Note: 20T+7T=27T)
Having ordered two tugs that appear to be quite adequate, it is very
important to appreciate that there will be occasions when they will be
forced to work considerably short of their full potential, particularly
when compensating for an undesirable turning moment, in a situation
that has previously been demanding full power.

[Link] alongside:
As previously mentioned in this section, some countries and some
tugs notably tractor/ASD tugs, may favour working alongside. To
understand this, it is necessary to be aware of the interaction that
exists between the tug's position alongside a ship and the
position of that ship's pivot point.

[Link] Making Headway:

When the ship is making headway, even a small amount, there is
a very important difference between using a tug alongside
forward, as opposed to somewhere aft. The forward tug is likely
to be working very close to the ships pivot point. In this position it
is working on a turning lever that is either very small, or negligible and
as a consequence will be relatively poor at assisting the ship to
develop rate of turn or swing. However, by working close to the
ship's pivot point it will be most effective in assisting the ship to
develop bodily 'lateral movement', particularly when used in
conjunction with full rudder and short kicks ahead by the ship.
This would, for example, be most useful when approaching a
berth and it becomes necessary to press the ship in towards it,
or also when lifting off during departure. With the tug being used
extensively in this position, there is a considerable similarity to driving
a ship with a bow thruster, but with the added advantage of much
greater power over a 360° arc of operation. This also enables the
pilot to use the tug for braking, or stopping the ship, with good
control, if so required.

If the tug is used aft, its role is very much altered. Wherever it is
placed, it is likely to be some distance from the ship's pivot
point, working on a substantial turning lever and as such will
always be best placed to help increase or decrease the ship's rate of
turn, whilst making headway.

Under certain circumstances, however, this is not as successful as

one would expect and may be due to the close proximity of the tug to
the ship's side which creates too much backwash and turbulence for
the tug to be effective, noticeably when the tug is thrusting hard
away from the ship.

[Link] making sternway:

If, after having been making headway, the ship now begins to make
sternway, or if the ship will be predominately making sternway, for
example when backing up to a berth, it should be appreciated that
the role of the two tugs previously illustrated will be reversed.

The ship's pivot point will have moved, to a position approx a

quarter of the length of the ship from the stern and the tug aft
will now be actively engaged quite close to this point. In this
position it is not therefore best placed to assist the ship in turning, but
will be very useful in assisting the ship to develop bodily lateral
motion especially when breasting in towards the berth stern first.
Although perhaps, less efficient, due to its own backwash and
turbulence, the tug aft will also be useful in lifting the ship 'bodily* off,
typically during a stern first departure. It should still however, be
borne in mind that a tug in this position is not naturally inclined
towards assisting a swing, or developing a rate of turn and the
outcome may therefore be quite disappointing.
Given just one tug working alongside and the need to control
heading whilst making sternway, it is best placed as far forward
as practicable. In this position it is some distance from the ship's
pivot point, working on a substantial turning lever and therefore able
to produce a powerful turning moment when required.

If the ship is fitted with a 'good' bow thruster, it can effectively

replace a tug, which might normally work alongside forward. If,
on the other hand, the ship does not have a bow thruster and
only one tug is available, this may perhaps be best positioned
well forward in roughly the same location as a bow thruster and
used accordingly.

[Link] Pull of Tugs:

Statement of installed horsepower is not sufficient to understand how

strong a tug is - this is because other factors, like transmission
losses, propulsion type, propulsion system efficiency, have an
influence as well.
Bollard pull values are stated in tons. They are an indication of
the maximum pulling force that a ship can exert on another ship
or an object.

Bollard pull is simply the theoretical thrust (pulling capability of

the tug) achieved at zero speed of advance and full engine rpm.
Bollard pull rating is just an abstract (theoretical or an
academic) concept that cannot be achieved in real operation.
This is due to 2 reasons:
-propellers accelerate water as they spin so they never really see
water at zero speed
-engines typically do not reach full rpm at towing speeds (as their
propellers are ‘overloaded’ at towing since the pitch is typically sized
for a speed higher than the towing speed).

[Link] to estimate necessary bollard pull for the vessel:

Methods for estimation of bollard pull varies from port to port.

Formulae are intended to meet local conditions such as wind, current,
depths etc.
a)European ports (for all vessels):
Total Bollard pull in Tonnes = Displacement / 3000
b)Japanese ports (for small vessels):
Total Bollard pull in Tonnes = Displacement / 1000
c)Japanese ports (for large vessels above 50,000 Ts displacement):
Total Bollard pull in Tonnes = [(Displacement X 60) / 100,000] + 40

Bollard Pull in Tonnes for various displacement of vessels as per

formulae a, b and c are given below:

Displacement -- 20,000 50,000 100,000 200,000 300,000

Bollard Pull (T): a) 7 17 33 67 100

b) 20 50 - - -
c) - - 100 160 220

[Link] of tug’s SHP(shaft horse power) to bollard pull

(Ts):

Bollard pull, like horsepower, is a selling point for tugs and is

sometimes overstated. For instance, there are rules of thumb for
converting propeller power (SHP) to bollard pull, such as one ton pull
per 100 shaft horsepower(SHP) for a conventional propeller, or 1.2 to
1.5 tons pull per 100 horsepower for a propeller fitted with a nozzle. It
is to be noted that bollard pull mentioned is for the new tugs. About
80% of that can be expected for older tugs.

Propulsion System Bollard Pull (Tonnes/100SHP)

Ordinary Propeller 1.0
Nozzle Propeller 1.3
Voith Schneider 0.8
ANCHOR WORK:

[Link] Purpose of Anchors:

On the basis of generally accepted criteria, a ship is expected to

remain at anchor:
(a) In good holding grounds.
(b) In sheltered and semi-sheltered waters.
(c) In winds up to gale force 8.

The master is expected to put to sea if severe storms are

forecast.

[Link] existing equipment is not intended by the classification

societies to be suitable as:
(a) A last means of defence in case of a machinery breakdown off a
lee shore in a storm.
(b) A means of bringing a large moving ship to a stop.

[Link] Power:
Knowledge of the type of anchor on the ship is necessary because
the holding power of each type is different. The holding power of an
anchor is normally expressed in tonnes. The maximum holding
power is reached when the anchor starts to drag but without
reduction in its stability.
Holding power
Holding efficiency = Anchor deadweight

Figure 1 illustrates the holding efficiency and holding power of the

OSS (Ordinary Standard stockless) and HHP(High Holding Power)
anchors in various types of holding ground. Note the HHP anchor has
been granted a 25 per cent reduction in rule weight by Lloyds
Classification Society. In all cases, the holding efficiency of the
HHP in the seabed materials is between two and four times that
achieved by the OSS anchor. If the ship is anchored on a seabed
of rock, the holding power of the anchor is reduced to 1/3 of the
weight of the anchor.
Anchor Weight Holding Efficiency Holding power (tonnes)
type (tonnes)
Sand Mud Clay Sand Mud Clay
Stockl
ess 29.9 4 2 3 120 60 90
(OSS)
AC14
22.4 14 8 6 310 180 130
(HHP)

Figure 1: Holding Power

Note: Lloyds allow mass of HHP anchors to be 75 per cent of
comparable OSS anchors.

Maximum Holding Power is reached when the anchor starts to

slip but without reduction in its stability.

Weight of the anchor is chosen according to the size of the vessel eg

Deadweight Anchor Weight (Ts)
40,000 7
200,000 21
480,000 28

[Link] Considerations:
The anchor is most efficient when subjected to a horizontal pull
by the cable on the seabed. The aim should be to ensure that
enough cable is veered to achieve this situation.

If insufficient cable is veered to exert a horizontal pull at the

anchor, its holding power will be reduced in accordance with the
following scale:
Angle of inclination Percentage of maximum
of cable at anchor holding pull of anchor
5° 80
10° 60
15° 40
When the ship drags her anchor, more cable is veered and the
anchor holds. This action is correct, but the belief that it is the
resistance of the extra cable on the seabed that lets the ship
hold is a fallacy; the veering of the cable removed the
shank/cable angle and the anchor holds once more.
[Link] of Cable to Use:
In addition, the amount of cable to veer depends upon a number of
factors:
(a) Holding characteristics of the anchor.
(b) Length of stay.
(c) Strength of wind, tidal stream or current, and sea / swell.
(d) Swinging room.
(e) Type of cable.
(f) Depth/draught ratio.
(g)Distance from chartered dangers.
(h)Proximity of shallows

There are a number of guidelines given for the amount of cable to

veer. The Admiralty Manual of Seamanship quotes the amount of
cable to veer in shackles is twice the square root of the depth of
water in fathoms.

In a questionnaire survey of Nautical Institute members, the scope

used as a function of ship size is given below:
Ship size Scope
dwt Loaded Ballast
20,000 - 50,000 7 9
50,000 - 90,000 7 9
> 90,000 6 8
"Scope" is generally considered to be the ratio of the cable veered:
water depth.

[Link] of Cable:
The type of cable on the ship is also an important consideration. The
three types are:
Mild steel grade 1
Special quality grade 2
Extra special quality grade 3
Grade 3 is the lightest; therefore, additional cable may have to
be veered to ensure a horizontal pull.

[Link] Depth - Draft Ratio:

The depth: draught ratio is also an important consideration. It has
been shown that for a 200,000 dwt tanker in a sheltered anchorage
free of waves, a 50 knot wind and 5 knot current conveniently acting
head on, the total force on the ship, with a depth: draught ratio of 2.0,
is 89 tonnes. This rises to 158 tonnes for a depth: draught ratio of 1.1.
Note that the OSS holding pull in these conditions is 132 tonnes. For
those ships equipped with an OSS anchor, the thrust on the ship
increases considerably with decreasing depth which, in some
conditions, is greater than the holding power of the anchor.

Ex: Thrusts on tankers due to 50 knot wind and 5 knot current in

sheltered anchorage free of waves:

Tanker ddwt Depth to draft All Factors Acting OSS Anchor

Tonnes Ratio Head on Holding Pull(Ts)
Wind Current Total
---------------- ----------------- -------------------------------- -----------------
50,802 3.0 20.05 18.79 38.84 60.9
2.0 20.05 30.56 50.61 60.9
1.1 20.05 63.37 83.42 60.9
152,407 3.0 23.42 34.33 57.75 112.7
2.0 23.42 55.85 79.27 112.7
1.1 23.42 115.86 139.28 112.7
304,814 3.0 24.78 53.56 78.34 171.5
2.0 24.78 87.11 111.89 171.5
1.1 24.78 180.69 205.47 171.5

[Link] Aspects:
When anchoring in an area where other ships are anchored, the
approach course opposed to the resultant of the wind and
current can be visually appreciated. This is more difficult to
achieve when anchoring in an area devoid of other shipping,
especially at night. The larger the ship, the smaller the limiting
speed before dropping anchor. In a VLCC, the speed over the
ground must be less than 0.5 knot.

A rule of thumb method often used is to reverse the engines

until the propeller wash reaches the bridge or manifold (chosen
by experience) and then let go the anchor. However, even if the
experience of the master is such that he knows the ship is stopped
through the water on these occasions, the ship is not necessarily
stopped over the ground. Is a doppler log the answer? The wash from
an astern movement can give errors of 1/2 knot. The log can also
have been poorly calibrated.

Prior to anchoring, the set and drift of the current and wind should be
established as well as possible and the ship placed on a heading
opposed to the resultant of these forces. The anchor position should
be marked on the chart and the forecastle officer briefed on the
bridge.

In large ships, in order to establish that the ship is on the correct

heading and the ship is stopped over the ground, the anchor should
be lowered to the seabed, brake applied and taken out of gear.
The cable should then be paid out slowly until the forecastle
officer can use the lay of the cable to ascertain the correct ship's
heading. Provided that the length of the cable does not exceed twice
the depth of water, the anchor will trip or drag, thus obviating undue
stress on the tackle. Some pilots and masters prefer to carry out this
operation with the anchor still in gear. When the forecastle officer is
satisfied that the ship's heading and headway are correct, then
the rest of the cable should be paid out and finally brought up.

Excessive sternway, once the anchor has dug into the seabed
material, can cause some part of the tackle to fail or carry away. The
inertia of large ships is considerable. A VLCC making one knot over
the ground has the same kinetic energy as Concorde at 1000 kts.

When the ship is brought up, the position of the bridge should
be marked on the chart and swinging circle annotated with
clearing bearings.

[Link] Anchors:

a)General:
In the coastal trades of Europe small ships frequently resort to
dredging anchors when berthing as an aid in confined areas, often in
difficult tidal and wind conditions. On larger tonnage, with the
exception of a limited number of pilotage districts, or in cases of
emergencies, it is an art which over the last two or three decades has
declined in usage. This may be for fear of damaging the anchor
equipment on ships which are common today. Such reservations are
unnecessary if the equipment is used correctly and within the
operational limitations of the anchor, cable and windlass.
A vessel is said to dredge when she moves under the influence of the
tidal stream but with her anchor held at short stay so that it drags
along the bottom. Her speed over the ground is therefore retarded
and is not so great as the rate of stream. She therefore has headway
through the water. Her rudder may be used to steer her. A strong tidal
stream is necessary for her helm to be sensitive.

If a vessel, when dredging, puts her rudder to port, the vessel will
remain parallel with the stream direction but will gradually move
diagonally across it towards her port hand. She will dredge similarly
to stbd. In each case, the most efficient movement is achieved by
using the anchor on the side opposite to that in which she wishes to
dredge, i.e. it is preferable to use stbd anchor if dredging to port
under port helm.

b)Local Knowledge:
It goes without saying, that the type of sea bed is of paramount
importance to dredging, soft mud being the most obvious choice.
The bottom must also be free of obstructions such as power lines,
pipes and rock, therefore good local knowledge is essential. As the
anchors normally dredge just inside the lines of the ship, there
must also be adequate under keel clearance to avoid damaging
the hull. It is nevertheless interesting to note, that in one district,
ships of up to 120,000 dwt frequently dredge 2 anchors, some
times on flat rock, to assist control when berthing without tugs.
The risk of serious damage to ship or quay far outweighs
damaging an anchor or windlass.

c)The Windlass:
Research has shown that whilst the anchors and the cable are
relatively reliable, the windlass is not. This is partly due to the
disproportionate size of a windlass on the much larger ship of today.
A 1000% increase in tonnage has only been matched with a
250% increase in the size of anchor gear. There has been some
evidence to suggest that this weakness is likely to exist in ships over
50,000 dwt. In addition it should be remembered that the Kinetic
Energy created by a ship of > 50,000 dwt moving over the ground in
any direction, at more than say 0.3 knot, is enormous.

By comparison, windlasses may only be capable of lifting a

minimum design weight, which is specified by the Classification
Societies. This is the weight of the anchor and four shackles of
cable, hanging dead in the water and therefore nothing in
comparison to the full weight of the ship. If all of this energy is
imparted into the anchor it has to go somewhere and it is usually to
the windlass. The dissipation of such energy results in as brake
or gear failure!

d)Safety Parameters:
Based upon extensive research by the Classification Societies, it has
been established to follow some safety parameters within which to
operate when dredging anchors.
i) The amount of cable in the water should not exceed 11/2 x depth of
water. (Some sources quote 2 x depth). If this figure is exceeded the
anchor is likely to dig in and commence holding.
ii) The design speed of a windlass gypsy in gear is about 30
feet/minute which is approximately 3 minutes a shackle. This is equal
to a ship speed of 0.3 knots over the ground.
iii) The windlass is only designed to lift the dead weight of the anchor
and four shackles.

If therefore, the amount of cable in the water does not exceed 1 1/2 x
depth, we have a safety factor which guards against speeds in
excess of 0.3 knot, because the anchors will not dig in and hold, but
drag. (Some companies use 0.5 knot).
When the amount of cable exceeds 1 1/2 x depth, the speed must be
below 0.3 knot, especially if the windlass is in gear or the brake is
screwed up. The anchor will most certainly dig in and attempt to hold
the full weight of the ship.

e)Letting Go:
On smaller ships, when pilots are putting out anchors for dredging
purposes, it is customary to 'let the anchor go' on the brake. On large
ships, however, with unknown equipment and crews of mixed
nationality and capability, it may be appropriate to walk out the
anchors in gear rather than let them go on the brake. This affords the
pilot much more control over the operation, guarding against the crew
'screwing up' the brake with the wrong amount of cable out, or worse
still, letting the cable run away, leaving the pilot with 12 shackles out
on both anchors!

f)Important Points:

There is a very fine line between the success or failure of a

dredging operation. The following points are crucial in order to
achieve the desired results:-

i) Maintain the normal slow speed of approach prior to letting go,

or walking out, the anchors. If the ship is stopped the anchors will
dig in and it is then difficult to get underway again. The ship may also
drift badly out of position.
ii) Walk the anchors out as early as possible. This gives sufficient
time to get the feel of the ship before the berth is reached.
iii) Do not let the ship stop too early. This lets the anchor flukes
drop and dig in and it then takes substantial power to get the ship
underway again.
iv) Do not let the speed build up. This pushes the pivot point back
to its normal position. Consequently the anchors cease to be effective
and are of no use.
v) Do not exceed 1 1/2 x depth. It is possible however, especially on
small ships, to 'feel' the anchors and adjust the amount of cable
accordingly.
vi) Keep the weight on the anchors. Going astern the ship will take
the weight off the cables and they become ineffective.
vii) Avoid rushing the operation, particularly swinging, on large
ships. There should only be a gentle and steady strain on the
cable(s); the manoeuvre being slow but very effective.
viii) Once in position on the berth, slack back the cables as the
tension in them is sufficient to pull the ship off the berth.

[Link] Down:

A vessel is said to drop down when she drifts with the tidal stream. A
vessel at anchor wishing to do this will heave her anchor just clear of
the seabed. Her speed through the water will be nil, but her speed
over the ground will be equal to that of stream. Her rudder will have
no effect, because there is no water flowing past it. She cannot be
controlled except by means of the engines or the anchors.