materials

Article
Eco-Friendly Fired Brick Produced from Industrial Ash and
Natural Clay: A Study of Waste Reuse
Neslihan Doğan-Sağlamtimur 1, * , Ahmet Bilgil 2 , Magdalena Szechyńska-Hebda 3,4 , Sławomir Parzych 5
and Marek Hebda 5

1 Department of Environmental Engineering, Niğde Ömer Halisdemir University, 51240 Niğde, Turkey
2 Department of Civil Engineering, Niğde Ömer Halisdemir University, 51240 Niğde, Turkey;
[email protected]
3 The Franciszek Górski Institute of Plant Physiology Polish Academy of Sciences, Niezapominajek 21,
30-239 Cracow, Poland; [email protected]
4 The Plant Breeding and Acclimatization Institute—National Research Institute, Radzików,
05-870 Błonie, Poland
5 Institute of Materials Engineering, Faculty of Material Engineering and Physics,
Cracow University of Technology, Warszawska 24, 31-155 Cracow, Poland;
[email protected] (S.P.); [email protected] (M.H.)
* Correspondence: [email protected] or [email protected]

Abstract: Bottom ash (BA) is an industrial solid waste formed by the burning of coal. The environ-
mental problems and storage costs caused by this waste increase with every passing day. In this study,
the use of BA as an additive (clay substitute) in fired brick production was investigated. The study
consisted of two stages. In the first stage, cylinder blocks were produced from clay used in brick
production. The second stage was the examination of the experimental substitution of clay with 10,



20, 30 and 40% BA. Samples were fired at 900, 1000, 1100 and 1150 ◦ C to produce fired brick samples.


The unit weight, compressive strength (before and after freeze–thawing) and water absorption were
Citation: Doğan-Sağlamtimur, N.; analyzed for the samples. The unit weight values decreased in the samples containing BA. The
Bilgil, A.; Szechyńska-Hebda, M.; mechanical properties met the conditions prescribed in the relevant standards; i.e., all of the samples
Parzych, S.; Hebda, M. Eco-Friendly fired at 1100 and 1150 ◦ C had a sufficient compressive strength over 20 MPa. The high potential of
Fired Brick Produced from Industrial fired bricks for the construction industry was proved. BA can be used as a clay substitute, while the
Ash and Natural Clay: A Study of
developed protocol can be used to effectively produce fired bricks.
Waste Reuse. Materials 2021, 14, 877 .
https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14040877
Keywords: bottom ash; clay; environment; fired brick; reuse; waste

Academic Editor: Neven Ukrainczyk

Received: 30 December 2020
Accepted: 8 February 2021
Published: 12 February 2021
1. Introduction
Today, many countries are in the process of rapid industrial development. In spite of
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral the benefits of industrial development, some negative effects are a fact that certainly cannot
with regard to jurisdictional claims in be ignored. Millions of tons of residual waste, and that produced each year, contributes
published maps and institutional affil- substantially to environmental disasters. Among other factors, rapid growth in construc-
iations. tion activities increases construction waste problems around the world. To reduce these
negative impacts, a comprehensive understanding of construction waste generation and
management is needed. On the other hand, the construction industry can consume waste
in very high volumes. The evaluation of these wastes as construction materials, preventing
Copyright: © 2021 by the authors. an increase in waste stocks, is the subject of many scientific studies [1–5].
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. As in many countries, coal is preferred as a source of energy for the industrial devel-
This article is an open access article opment of Turkey. One of the negative consequences of coal usage for humanity and for
distributed under the terms and the environment is the waste ash problem. Generally, Turkey has low-calorie coal deposits
conditions of the Creative Commons and excessive bottom ash (BA) resulting from its use. Very little of this huge amount of
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// BA is used in the production of cement and concrete [6]. This waste cannot be managed
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ appropriately. Reusing this waste ash through beneficial recovery mechanisms can be of
4.0/).

Materials 2021, 14, 877 . https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14040877 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/materials

Materials 2021, 14, 877 2 of 15

importance in terms of both environmental protection and economic gains. As the coal ash
has an organic structure, it can be used in the production of clay bricks.
In many studies focused on fired clay bricks, it has been reported that there is a
strong relationship between density, porosity and thermal conductivity. Clay brick, when
substituted with an organic substance of very low heat conductivity, has a higher porosity
and reduced density. These properties vary widely depending on the production conditions,
including the drying and firing temperatures, firing time or type of oven used for firing.
The particle size also has a considerable effect on the thermal conductivity. During firing,
the added matter is consumed, leaving voids that increase the porosity [7].
Suitable physical and mechanical properties as well as good insulation behavior are
required for bricks. Fired clay bricks are mostly used to form enclosures; therefore, their
properties should ensure good insulation. Buildings’ thermal energy, required for the
heating and air conditioning of buildings, accounts for approximately 40% of the overall
energy consumed in the world. This represents 36% of the global CO2 emissions [8,9], and
previous studies estimate that 50% of this energy is lost through walls [9,10].
Çiçek and Tanrıverdi [11] investigated the possibilities of BA for its use in low- and
high-thermal-insulation bricks. The researchers tested brick samples produced using the
curing method for mixtures of fly ash (FA), sand and hydrated lime with steam at high
pressures, and obtained positive results. Kızgıt et al. [12] investigated the possible usage
of FA in the Çatalağzı Thermal Plant (Turkey) for fired brick production and showed
that bricks of appropriate quality can be produced by mixing 30 to 40% FA with brick
material. Similarly, Bai et al. [13] found that concretes with the natural sand replaced with
30% BA had compressive strengths ranging from 40 to 60 N/mm2 without the drying
shrinkage properties of the concrete being detrimentally affected. They also reported that
the processability, carbonation and water absorption percentage were increased, whereas
the chloride permeability was decreased. Yüksel et al. [14] investigated the possible usage
of BA as an aggregate in low-density briquette production. The positive results of the
tests enabled directly applying the briquettes in the construction industry. Bentli et al. [15]
added 2.5%, 5%, 10% and 15% FA to brick paste and found that this additive increased the
unit weight, and caused no significant changes in the drying, firing and total shrinkage,
while decreasing the water absorption and compressive strength of fired bricks. By contrast,
Linling et al. [16] found that FA added to brick paste as an alternative to clay increased the
compressive strength value, decreased the water absorption, eliminated the cracking, and
increased the freeze–thaw resistance for the bricks fired at 1050 ◦ C. Topçu and Işıkdağ [17]
added perlite to bricks produced from clay in different ratios. The bricks containing 24%
perlite showed the best unit weight and heat permeability, bricks containing 30% perlite
showed the best compressive strength, and bricks containing 31% perlite exhibited the best
shrinkage. Demir [18] added inflammable organic materials including sawmill powder,
tobacco pulp and grass to clay in 0%, 2.5%, 5% and 10% ratios by weight. It was found that
organic material has significant effects on the mechanical properties and porosity formation
in the clay structure.
Scientists have used different methods [19] to increase the porosity in modern brick
production. A wide variety of waste materials have also been tested as sources of additives,
including paper production residue [20]; cigarette butts [21]; rice husk ash [22,23]; kraft
pulp production residue [24]; waste tea [25]; sawdust [26]; vine shoots [27]; vegetable
matter [28]; pineapple leaf fibers [29]; organic matter [7]; sugarcane bagasse ash waste [30];
incorporated biomasses [31]; corn cobs [32]; organic and inorganic wastes [33]; ice husks,
sawdust, coir pith and fly ash [16,34–38]; granite sawing wastes [39]; municipal solid
waste incinerator slag [40]; kaolin fine quarry residue, granulated blast-furnace slag and
granite–basalt fine quarry residue [41]; Waelz slag and waste foundry sand [42]; industrial
nanocrystalline aluminum sludge [43]; waste glass [44]; construction and demolition
waste [45]; and crumb rubber, cement kiln dust, mine tailings, slags, wood sawdust, cotton
waste, limestone powder and petroleum effluent treatment plant sludge [19,46–48].
Materials 2021, 14, 877 3 of 15

The methods used to make bricks from clay include molding, dry pressing and
extrusion. Once the bricks take their form, they are dried and fired in a kiln. Properly fired
clay bricks have many desirable qualities, including high compressive strength, a porosity
that allows them to absorb and release moisture, fire resistance, insulative properties
regarding both heat and sound, and durability under a wide range of temperatures and
weather conditions. The desirable characteristics of bricks include uniformity in color, size
and shape, and they should be free from cracks and flaws. In addition, the compressive
strength of bricks should be suitable for their intended use [49].
Although many studies have been conducted, the commercial production of bricks
from waste materials is still very limited [50]. This study concerns eco-friendly fired brick
production by applying BA from the international Göknur Foodstuff Co. Niğde Factory
(Niğde, Turkey) (BAGFCNF ) and clay from the Kolsuz Region at Niğde Province (CNKR ).
BAGFCNF , unused or discarded, can cause environmental pollution; however, we proved
that it can be applied as an additive to produce lightweight bricks used in construction
technology. Using waste ash resolves the environmental problems, allows manufacturers
to replace raw material inputs from natural resources with reused materials, and reduces
resource depletion, thus contributing to circular economy, zero waste, green engineering
and sustainable development approaches.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Materials
The raw materials used for the study were BAGFCNF and CNKR . Approximately
50 tons/day (17,000–19,000 tons/year) of BAGFCNF is generated as a result of burning
coal for energy purposes and sent to the Landfill of Niğde Municipality (Turkey) from
the factory. The field area with clay is located in the northwest of NKR on the Niğde-
Adana highway running for 40 km across Niğde Province. For the study, BAGFCNF was
supplied by the factory, while CNKR was collected from different points of the field in
pellet form with various sizes of particles. The BAGFCNF and CNKR were brought to the
Waste Technologies Laboratory of Niğde Ömer Halisdemir University, and samples were
prepared. Then, chemical and physical analyses were carried out in the materials laboratory
of the ÇİMSA Cement Factory Inc. in Niğde, Turkey. The results of the chemical analysis
determined by Panalytical/Zetium XRF (Malvern Panalytical, Malvern, UK) performed
for the raw materials (in oxides wt%; experimental error, ±0.05 wt%) are given in Table 1.
The amounts of CaO, SO3 , Al2 O3 and Fe2 O3 were significantly higher (>400, 80, 9 and 5%,
respectively) in BAGFCNF than in CNKR , and the other components were much lower (<9%),
respectively. The other components, SiO2 , MgO, and K2 O, were significantly lower (<55,
20 and 20%, respectively).

Table 1. Chemical compositions of the raw materials used in this study.

Amount (%)
Compounds
BAGFCNF CNKR
SiO2 27.36 50.97
Al2 O3 12.68 11.58
Fe2 O3 8.23 7.77
CaO 39.31 9.40
MgO 0.74 3.90
Na2 O 1.88 1.83
K2 O 0.43 2.31
SO3 5.94 3.13
Others 3.43 9.11

The compact unit weight of the BAGFCNF was γ = 0.89 g cm−3 . The amount of
flammable material in this ash was 43% after heat treatment at 800 ◦ C for two hours. CNKR
pellets were sieved through a 500 µm square-mesh sieve to remove sand and pebbles from
Materials 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 15

Materials 2021, 14, 877 The compact unit weight of the BAGFCNF was γ = 0.89 g cm−3. The amount of flammable 4 of 15
material in this ash was 43% after heat treatment at 800 °C for two hours. CNKR pellets were
sieved through a 500 µ m square-mesh sieve to remove sand and pebbles from the ground
samples. The compact unit weight (UW) value of the CNKR was found to be γ = 1.67 g cm−3;
the
the ground
percentage samples. The compact
of flammable unitwas
material weight
0.5%.(UW) value of the CNKR was found to be
γ = 1.67 g cm −3 ; the percentage of flammable material was 0.5%.
The fired bricks produced in this study were 190 × 90 × 50 mm3 in size. The weight of
The fired bricks
an individual produced
brick having theinmaximum
this studyUWwere(FB
190 × 90 × 50 mm3 in size. The weight of
0–900) was 1.62 kg. Therefore, the weight
an individual
of all the samplesbrickinhaving the maximum
this study was underUW (FB0–900 ) was 1.62 kg. Therefore, the weight
3 kg.
of all A
the samples in this study was under 3 kg.
sieve analysis (UTEST UGT0411, Ankara, Turkey) was used to determine the par-
ticle Asize
sieve analysis (UTEST
distributions of theUGT0411,
BAGFCNF Ankara,
and CNKR Turkey)
(Figure was
1).used
Thetomedian
determine the particle
diameter (d50),
size distributions of the BA GFCNF and C NKR (Figure 1). The median diameter
which is the value of the particle diameter at 50% in the cumulative distribution, (d 50 ), which
was ap-is
the value of the particle diameter at 50% in the cumulative distribution, was approximately
proximately 225 and 155 μm for BAGFCNF and CNKR, respectively. The range of the apparent
225 and 155 µm for BAGFCNF and CNKR , respectively. The range of−3the apparent particle
particle density on an oven-dried basis of BAGFCNF was 1.9–2.1 g−cm , and that of CNKR was
density on an oven-dried basis of BAGFCNF was 1.9–2.1 g cm 3 , and that of CNKR was
1.8–2.5 g cm . −3
1.8–2.5 g cm−3 .

Figure 1.1.Particle
Figure Particlesize
sizedistributions
distributionsofofthe
theBAGFCNF
BA and C NKR..
GFCNF and CNKR

2.2. Methods
2.2. Methods
The study was conducted in two stages. In the first stage, CNKR (0% BAGFCNF )
The study
was used was conducted
to produce the fired in twocontrol
brick stages. In the firstThese
samples. stage, samples
CNKR (0% were
BAGFCNFused) wasforused
the
to produce the fired brick control samples. These samples were used
comparative analysis during the second stage of the study, which comprised the productionfor the comparative
analysis
of CNKR andduring the second
BAGFCNF stage
mixtures in of
thethe study,
ratios 1:10,which comprised
2:8, 3:7 and 4:6. the production of CNKR
and BA GFCNF mixtures in the ratios 1:10, 2:8, 3:7 and 4:6.
The protocol for fired brick production included the following steps: (1) BAGFCNF and
CNKRThe wereprotocol
oven dried,for fired
and abrick
visualproduction
examination included the following
was applied steps:the
to determine (1)consistencies
BAGFCNF and
C NKR were oven dried, and a visual examination was applied to determine the consisten-
of all the mixtures; (2) the UW values were determined for the mixtures; (3) the stirring of
ciesmixtures
the of all thefor
mixtures;
3 min at(2) lowthe UW values
revolutions waswere determined
carried out using fora the mixtures;
table type mixer (3) (UTEST
the stir-
ring of the mixtures for 3 min at low revolutions was carried out
UTG-0130, Ankara, Turkey); (4) tap water was added, and the mixtures were stirred using a table type mixer
to
(UTEST UTG-0130, Ankara, Turkey); (4) tap water was added, and
a moist consistency for the next 3 min; (5) the one-step filling of a cylindrically shapedthe mixtures were
stirred(ϕto=a7moist
mold cm and consistency
h = 12 cm)forwith
the next 3 min; (5)was
the mixtures the performed
one-step filling
withof a cylindrically
care in order to
shaped mold
prevent layer (φ
and = 7crack
cm and h = 12 cm)
formation; (6)with the mixtures
a pressure of aboutwas2 kg cm−2 was
performed with care inwith
applied ordera
to prevent layer
laboratory press and crackUTC-5700,
(UTEST formation;Ankara,
(6) a pressure of about
Turkey); (7) the2 samples
kg cm−2 waswere applied
dried in with
thea
laboratory
oven ± 5 ◦C
at 105press (UTEST UTC-5700,
for 24 h; Ankara,
(8) the samples Turkey);
were (7)900,
fired at the 1000,
samples
1100were 1150 ◦in
and dried the
C for
◦
2 h (with a 2.5 C/min heating/cooling rate) in a laboratory oven (Kaleo RS150, Kütahya,
Turkey). The temperature profiles used for the brick firing are shown in Figure 2.
 Materials 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 15

oven at 105 ± 5 °C for 24 h; (8) the samples were fired at 900, 1000, 1100 and 1150 °C for 2
Materials 2021, 14, 877 5 of 15
h (with a 2.5 °C/min heating/cooling rate) in a laboratory oven (Kaleo RS150, Kütahya,
Turkey). The temperature profiles used for the brick firing are shown in Figure 2.

Figure2.2.Temperature
Figure Temperatureprofiles
profilesused
usedfor
forbrick
brickfiring.
firing.

Forty-five
Forty-fivesamples
sampleswerewereproduced
producedfor foreach
eachtype
typeofoffiring
firing(a(atotal
totalof
of180
180samples).
samples).InIn
each group, 3 samples were used for freeze–thaw resistance tests, and 3 samples
each group, 3 samples were used for freeze–thaw resistance tests, and 3 samples were were used
for thefor
used determination of physical
the determination and mechanical
of physical properties.
and mechanical One set ofOne
properties. samples
set ofserved as
samples
aserved
control.
as a control.
The
Theproperties
propertiesof ofthe
thefired
firedbricks
brickswere
weretested
testedusing
usingTurkish
Turkishstandards
standardsand andEuropean
European
norms
norms(TS
(TSEN):
EN):thetheunit
unitweight
weight(UW)
(UW)withwithTS
TSENEN772-13;
772-13;water
waterabsorption
absorption(WA)(WA)withwithTS
TS
EN 772-11; compressive strength (CS) with TS EN 772-1 + A1; freeze–thaw
EN 772-11; compressive strength (CS) with TS EN 772-1 + A1; freeze–thaw resistance with resistance with
TS
TSENEN772-18
772-18[51–55].
[51–55].The
Theporosity
porosityororvoid
voidfraction
fractionwas
wasaameasure
measureof ofthe
the“empty”
“empty”spaces
spaces
in
in a material and is expressed as a fraction of the volume of voids over the total
a material and is expressed as a fraction of the volume of voids over the total volume.
volume.
The WA of the samples by volume were calculated, which also represent the apparent
The WA of the samples by volume were calculated, which also represent the apparent
porosity [56].
porosity [56].
For the calculation of the firing shrinkage (FS), the following equation was used:
For the calculation of the firing shrinkage (FS), the following equation was used:
Sf = SW
f =−
f
WW f − W/W
od
od/Wod×
od
× 100
100 (%)
(%) (1)
(1)
where Wf is the sample weight after firing, and Wd is the sample weight after oven drying.
whereForWfthe
is the sample weight
calculation after firing,
of the UW, and Wdequation
the following is the sample weight after oven drying.
was used:
For the calculation of the UW, the following mad equation was used:
𝛾= (g/cm3) (2)
Vgv
mad 3
where mad is the air-dried mass, and γ = Vg isVthe(gross )
g/cmvolume of the samples. (2)
g
Using the data obtained, the WA values of the samples by volume (Aw) were calcu-
lated:
where mad is the air-dried mass, and Vg is the gross volume of the samples.
Using the data obtained, the WA valuesmof the samples by volume (Aw ) were calculated:
−m
Aw = sa d 100 (%) (3)
msa −ms
msa − md
where msa is the saturated mass,Aw md = is the dried mass,100 (% ) ms is the sample mass (accord-
and (3)
msa − ms
ing to Archimedes’ principle, water scale).
where msa is the saturated mass, md is the dried mass, and ms is the sample mass (according
to Archimedes’ principle, water scale).
Materials 2021, 14, 877 6 of 15

For the calculation of the CS, the following equation was used:

F
σ = (MPa) (4)
A
where F is the load applied, and A is the area.
For the calculation of the compressive strength after freezing (CS-AF), the following
equation was used:
fs − faf
∆f = 100 (% MPa) (5)
fs
where fs is the CS of the samples, and faf is the samples’ CS-AF.

3. Results and Discussion

Major components of clay minerals are aluminum, silicon and oxygen. As their ratio
changes in different types of clays, the firing time and temperature should be optimized
each time. Similarly, high-alumina-containing ash is a good candidate from waste materials
for synthesizing mullite ceramics; thus, it can be used to fabricate insulation refractories
and ceramic tiles. Silicon carbide is an encouraging non-oxide ceramic, and silica-rich
wastes are favorably used in order to obtain glass or glass ceramic [57,58]. In our studies,
we compared brick samples prepared with different compositions of clay (50.97% SiO2 ;
11.58% Al2 O3 ) vs. BA (12.68% SiO2 ; 27.36% Al2 O3 ) and fired at various temperatures. The
feasibility of using a high amount of BA, even up to 60 wt%, as an alternative raw material
in clay-based ceramic compositions and their higher strength and density values with
increasing temperature were shown [59]. For our study, we chose contents of BA addition
in the range 0 to 40%, and the temperature ranged from 900 to 1150 ◦ C.
Under visual examination, deformation, cracks or color changes were not observed
in the samples fired at 900, 1000 and 1100 ◦ C. However, color changes developed in the
samples fired at 1150 ◦ C. Usually, brick achieves its color through the minerals in the
fired clay. This provides a durable color that never fades or diminishes. The color change
suggests that the firing temperature of 1150 ◦ C was too high. It caused phase changes
during the firing process, and thus, the temperature was not suitable for this type of raw
material. Probably, metallic oxides, which act as fluxes promoting the fusion of the particles
at lower temperatures (particularly those of iron, magnesium and calcium), can influence
the color of bricks fired at temperatures exceeding the optimum. One can consider the
cooling time as a factor that can influence changes in color development. After the firing
temperature had peaked and was maintained for a prescribed time, the cooling process
began, an important stage in brick manufacturing. The rate of cooling has a direct effect on
color. However, the cooling time and its kinetics were the same during our experiment,
supporting our statement and suggesting that the temperature optimum should be carefully
chosen to help control color during manufacturing a certain brick body.
The collective results of the tests applied on the fired bricks during the production
process in this study are given in Table 2 and subsequent Figures 3–6. Table 2 also presents
the statistics of the standard error and the significance determined by Student’s t-test. In
most cases, for the UW, CS and CS-AF but not for the FS, WA and p, low p values (denoted
by one, two or three asterisks) were obtained. This confirmed significant differences from
FB0 within each set of samples produced from CNKR and BAGFCNF mixtures at the different
ratios and fired at the same temperature as well as from FB900 within each set of samples
produced from a CNKR and BAGFCNF mixture at the same ratio and fired at different
temperatures. Therefore, different methods of fired brick production that include different
composition or temperature factors (particularly the highest ones) provide divergent
analytical results and final product properties.
Materials 2021, 14, 877 7 of 15

Table 2. Physical and mechanical properties of the fired brick samples produced from BAGFCNF
and CNKR mixture. Subscripts in the sample descriptions indicate BAGFCNF volume fraction (0–
40%) and firing temperature (900–1150 ◦ C), respectively. FS, firing shrinkage; UW, unit weight;
WA, water absorption; p, porosity; CS, compressive strength; CS-AF, compressive strength after
freezing. The results are the means of three measurements; data are presented as mean ± standard
error; blue asterisks represent significant differences from FB0 within each set of samples produced
from CNKR and BAGFCNF mixtures at the different ratios and fired at the same temperature; red
asterisks represent significant differences from FB900 within each set of samples produced from
CNKR and BAGFCNF mixture at the same ratio and fired at different temperatures; the significance
was determined by Student’s t test (*, p < 0.05; **, p < 0.01; ***, p < 0.005); ns, not significant).

FS UUW WWA/p CS CS-AF

Samples
(%) (γ, g/cm3 ) (%) (σ, MPa) (σF , MPa)
FB0–900 1.07 ± 0.04 1.89 ± 0.02 18.00 ± 0.65 15.30 ± 0.78 10.80 ± 0.70
1.43 ± 0.05 1.77 ± 0.01 18.70 ± 0.67 12.70 ± 1.17 9.00 ± 0.56
FB10–900
*** *** ns *** ns
1.53 ± 0.03 1.70 ± 0.01 19.00 ± 0.66 11.90 ± 0.72 8.20 ± 0.46
FB20–900
*** *** * *** **
1.66 ± 0.06 1.68 ± 0.02 19.10 ± 0.65 10.20 ± 0.39 7.10 ± 0.53
FB30–900
*** *** * *** *
1.65 ± 0.05 1.63 ± 0.02 19.50 ± 1.12 8.20 ± 0.32 6.20 ± 0.36
FB40–900
*** *** ns *** ***

1.52 ± 0.04 1.87 ± 0.02 18.20 ± 0.68 18.00 ± 1.08 14.83 ± 0.70
FB0–1000
*** ns ns * *
1.53 ± 0.06 1.76 ± 0.01 18.60 ± 0.85 14.20 ± 1.47 9.30 ± 0.46
FB10–1000
ns/ns ***/ns ns/ns */*** **/ns
1.59 ± 0.06 1.72 ± 0.02 18.90 ± 0.64 13.80 ± 0.57 10.10 ± 0.90
FB20–1000
ns/ns ***/*** */ns ***/* **/ns
1.62 ± 0.07 1.64 ± 0.03 19.00 ± 0.75 13.10 ± 0.41 9.90 ± 0.87
FB30–1000
*/ns ***/ns ns/ns ***/ns */*
1.65 ± 0.05 1.62 ± 0.02 19.10 ± 1.00 11.63 ± 0.51 7.80 ± 0.36
FB40–1000
*/ns ***/ns ns/ns ***/*** ***/*

1.53 ± 0.05 1.85 ± 0.02 17.83 ± 0.57 20.40 ± 1.12 13.90 ± 0.72
FB0–1100
*** ns ns *** ***
1.58 ± 0.04 1.75 ± 0.04 17.83 ± 0.67 21.90 ± 1.15 17.80 ± 0.61
FB10–1100
ns/* ***/ns ns/ns ns/*** */***
1.62 ± 0.06 1.68 ± 0.03 18.00 ± 0.68 22.80 ± 0.68 19.13 ± 0.60
FB20–1100
ns/* ***/ns ns/ns */*** ***/***
1.64 ± 0.05 1.62 ± 0.02 18.20 ± 0.83 26.20 ± 0.43 19.80 ± 0.78
FB30–1100
*/ns ***/* ns/ns ***/*** ***/***
1.68 ± 0.07 1.60 ± 0.02 18.40 ± 1.13 28.80 ± 0.41 24.43 ± 0.47
FB40–1100
*/ns ***/ns ns/ns ***/*** **/***

1.52 ± 0.07 1.82 ± 0.02 16.60 ± 0.68 23.40 ± 1.33 16.50 ± 0.70
FB0–1150
*** ** ns *** **
1.56 ± 0.05 1.66 ± 0.01 16.70 ± 0.78 26.60 ± 0.59 19.70 ± 0.62
FB10–1150
ns/* ***/*** ns/* **/*** ***/***
1.70 ± 0.07 1.62 ± 0.02 17.20 ± 1.16 28.20 ± 0.68 23.00 ± 0.44
FB20–1150
**/*** ***/*** ns/ns ***/*** ***/***
1.76 ± 0.06 1.54 ± 0.02 18.00 ± 1.16 31.50 ± 0.74 25.03 ± 1.30
FB30–1150
**/* ***/*** ns/* ***/*** ***/***
1.80 ± 0.07 1.51 ± 0.01 117.98 ± 1.12 34.40 ± 0.50 29.30 ± 0.98
FB40–1150
***/* ***/*** */* ***/*** **/***
 °C, liquid phase sintering also becomes a very important mechanism [60]. It was empha-
sized that liquid phase sintering was existent if there was a liquid phase that coexists with
particulate solids during the sintering process. The liquid phase can fill some internal
pores by a diffusion mechanism, particularly if organic combustion changes the internal
structure and forces. In the case of a solid state, the sintering process develops a new
Materials 2021, 14, 877 8 of 15
atomic bonding between particles, followed by grain growth, which creates a strong struc-
ture with significant shrinkage.

Materials 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 15

can also result in improved thermal isolation properties. Good bricks should have low
thermal conductivity so that houses keep cool in summer and warm in winter. Indeed, the
Thevalues
valuesofof
thermal conductivity of thecontent,
fired brick inranged
our study was low (0.19 W m −1 K−1). Therefore,
3. The
Figure 3. FSFS depending
depending on on
thethe BAGFCNF
BAGFCNF content, whichwhich
ranged from 0from 0 toand
to 40%, 40%, andtemperatures
firing firing temperatures
applied
applied in the
the produced fired bricks could create a zone of thermal comfort within buildings.
to .1150 ◦ C.
900 °C
in the range ofrange
900 toof1150

Figure 4 shows the UW values of the fired bricks as a function of the BAGFCNF content
in the range of 0–40% and firing temperatures in the range of 900 to 1150 °C. The UW of
the samples decreased significantly as the ratio of BAGFCNF to CNKR increased. It was found
that the firing temperatures ranging from 900 to 1100 °C affected the UW slightly (in most
cases, the differences were insignificant) in the sample groups having the same compo-
nent ratio. However, the UW values significantly decreased in the samples fired at 1150
°C for all the mixture types (Table 2). This difference in the sintering behavior was related
to the presence of a 43% residual carbon phase, as was shown after heat treatment at 800
°C for two hours. Further heat treatment led to the burning of this residual phase and was
directly associated with an increase in porosity. An increased volume of voids formed
during the combustion of carbon in the ash fraction and organic material in the clay frac-
tion at elevated temperatures was also reported earlier [59]. The increased volume of voids

of UW
Figure 4. The values of UW depending
depending on
on the
the BA
BAGFCNF
GFCNF content,
content, which
which ranged
ranged from
from 00 to
to 40%, and firing temperatures
applied in the range of 900 to 1150 ◦°C
C..

Indeed, the WA provides more information for improved open porosity. It is be-
lieved that low values imply good resistance to the natural environment and the accepta-
ble permeability of bricks [59]. The relationships between the WA, BAGFCNF content and
firing temperatures are given in Figure 5. Although changes in the BAGFCNF content and
elevated temperatures affected the WA slightly, the WA decreased as the firing tempera-
Materials 2021, 14, 877 9 of 15
Materials 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 15

Materials 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 15

temperature rose and smaller pores coalesced. On the other hand, as the BAGFCNF content
and firing temperatures increased, the samples tended to form silicon carbide and a ce-
ramic structure, which caused a higher resistance to the freezing temperatures. Consider-
ing the CS values, it was proved that the fired bricks comply with the standards, and they
can be used as wall elements. In fact, according to ASTM C67 (1992) [63], the minimum
required CS for a paving brick subjected to light traffic is 17.2–20.7 MPa. ASTM C62 (2005)
[64] for building and facing bricks, respectively, correlate the CS with the weathering re-
sistance, specifying a minimum value of 20.7 MPa, for the bricks to not be susceptible to
degradation. In these terms, all the samples, regardless of the compositions, fired at 1100
and 1150 °C should be durable against severe weathering. Moreover, the FB40–1100, FB20–1150,
5. The
Figure 5. The values
values of WAFB
of WA 30–1150 and FB40–1150, samples also met these requirements after the freezing measure-
depending
depending onthe
on theBA
BAGFCNF
GFCNF content,
content, which
which ranged
ranged from
from 0 to 40%, and firing
firing temperatures
temperatures
in the
applied in the range
range of
of 900
900 toments.
1150 ◦°C
to 1150 C..

Depending on the country, there are different standards specifying brick grades ac-
cording to the CS values. For instance, withdrawn European standards specified a mini-
mum strength of 5 MPa for burnt clay bricks (BS 3921, 1985; TS 705, 1985). Figure 6 shows
that the CS values of the brick samples prepared with different contents of BAGFCNF addi-
tive ranged from 10 up to 40%. It has been observed that along with an increase in BAGFCNF
content in the samples, the CS values decreased for the samples fired at 900 and 1000 °C.
On the other hand, the samples with increased BA fractions in the mixtures (BAGFCNF-30
and BAGFCNF-40) showed a linear increase in CS values in comparison to the control sample,
provided that the firing temperature was 1100 or 1150 °C. The differences were statisti-
cally significant, in both cases, for the BAGFCNF content and firing temperature (Table 2).
This effect was associated with the formation of a ceramic structure, the reactions between
BAGFCNF and CNKR, and the formation of silicon carbide at temperatures above 1000 °C.
Figure 6 also presents the results of the freeze–thaw test, which was applied to deter-
mine the resistance of the samples to external factors. It was shown that the freeze–thaw
test did not correlate the strength of the bricks with their frost resistance or the forms of
damage [62]. By contrast, we found that similar to CS, the average CS-FA values were
reduced after the freeze–thaw tests to 27, 26, 25 and 22% for the samples with 10, 20, 30
and 40% BAGFCNF, respectively. Moreover, the samples fired at higher temperatures were
less affected by the freeze–thaw test. This effect could be related to reduced porosity. In-
deed, it has been shown that bricks become damaged after freeze–thaw tests in a specific
way depending on their structure of porosity and the spatial arrangement of the texture
components [62]. The freeze–thawing induces the effects of ice crystallization inside the
porous system. Three forms of frost damage influence the final brick properties, namely,
Figure6.6.The
Figure Thevalues
valuesofofCS powdering,
CS(N)
(N)and
andCS-AF
CS-AFflaking and
(F)ofofbricks
(F) brickscracking. Bricks
afterdifferent
after different with relatively
temperature
temperature high(900–1150
treatments
treatments shares of
(900–1150 pores
◦ C).
°C). ForN
For with
Nanddiame-
andF,F,
numbersindicate
numbers indicateBA
BA ters of
GFCNF content. 1–10 µ m in the total population of pores undergo these types of frost damage; i.e.,
GFCNF content.
they are characterized by a lack of frost resistance [62]. A continuous reduction in porosity
and a The
significant
optimized increase in the
protocol forpore fractionfired
producing withbricks
a radius
with >1the
mm occurred
addition of as
BAthe
andfiring
their
improved properties enable using them in construction technology. In Turkey, bricks are
covered (plastered) and do not come into direct contact with water; thus, no efflorescence
test was performed. Therefore, the TS EN 772-5 standard (Methods of test for masonry
units—Part 5: Determination of the active soluble salts content of clay masonry units) was
Materials 2021, 14, 877 10 of 15

The quality of the brick could be measured by examining the shrinkage of the samples.
The shrinkage in the ceramic process is a significant parameter, since structural change and
solidification, implying densification, may create tensions and failures in fired bricks [59].
All the FS values obtained for the fired bricks (Table 2 and Figure 3) were lower than 2%. The
progressive addition of BAGFCNF to the CNKR causes an increase in the recorded shrinkage
value, and the highest BAGFCNF volume fraction (30–40%) had the most significant influence
on the parameter changes. This effect was similar at each of the applied firing temperatures;
however, the higher the temperature, the higher the FS that was observed. The effect was
mainly dependent on the combustion of carbon in the ash fraction and organic material in
the clay fraction at elevated temperatures. Starting from 1100 ◦ C, liquid phase sintering also
becomes a very important mechanism [60]. It was emphasized that liquid phase sintering
was existent if there was a liquid phase that coexists with particulate solids during the
sintering process. The liquid phase can fill some internal pores by a diffusion mechanism,
particularly if organic combustion changes the internal structure and forces. In the case
of a solid state, the sintering process develops a new atomic bonding between particles,
followed by grain growth, which creates a strong structure with significant shrinkage.
Figure 4 shows the UW values of the fired bricks as a function of the BAGFCNF content
in the range of 0–40% and firing temperatures in the range of 900 to 1150 ◦ C. The UW of the
samples decreased significantly as the ratio of BAGFCNF to CNKR increased. It was found
that the firing temperatures ranging from 900 to 1100 ◦ C affected the UW slightly (in most
cases, the differences were insignificant) in the sample groups having the same component
ratio. However, the UW values significantly decreased in the samples fired at 1150 ◦ C for
all the mixture types (Table 2). This difference in the sintering behavior was related to
the presence of a 43% residual carbon phase, as was shown after heat treatment at 800 ◦ C
for two hours. Further heat treatment led to the burning of this residual phase and was
directly associated with an increase in porosity. An increased volume of voids formed
during the combustion of carbon in the ash fraction and organic material in the clay fraction
at elevated temperatures was also reported earlier [59]. The increased volume of voids
can also result in improved thermal isolation properties. Good bricks should have low
thermal conductivity so that houses keep cool in summer and warm in winter. Indeed, the
thermal conductivity of the fired brick in our study was low (0.19 W m−1 K−1 ). Therefore,
the produced fired bricks could create a zone of thermal comfort within buildings.
Indeed, the WA provides more information for improved open porosity. It is believed
that low values imply good resistance to the natural environment and the acceptable
permeability of bricks [59]. The relationships between the WA, BAGFCNF content and
firing temperatures are given in Figure 5. Although changes in the BAGFCNF content
and elevated temperatures affected the WA slightly, the WA decreased as the firing tem-
peratures increased for each type of BAGFCNF and CNKR mixture. The most remarkable
changes (statistically significant) were found at temperatures above 1100 ◦ C. Considering
the increase in shrinkage along with a temperature increase, the WA decrease confirmed
that the liquid phase filled pores, but only in part, and the relatively light weight and
structure of the bricks were maintained. It was related to the phase changes in the mate-
rial. Generally, a clay-based material mixed with water (to make it soft and flexible) and
other materials, squashed into shape and then fired at high temperature in a kiln (above
900 ◦ C) turns into a compound called mullite. SiO2 released according to the equation
3(Al2 O3 .2SiO2 )→3Al2 O3 .2SiO2 + SiO2 forms a glass phase with closed internal pores. This
structure, related to ceramic [61], is waterproof. The voids surrounded with a ceramic
structure prevented water penetration into the internal structure, and thus, water adsorp-
tion/desorption was inhibited in our samples. Indeed, the open porosity values were
complementary to the WA results (Table 2). Similarly, the fired bricks with a high-volume
ratio of FA presented a high CS and a low WA capacity, and with an increase in the firing
temperature, the CS increased, and the WA decreased [34]. Therefore, the increase in the
porosity can be controlled by the addition of BAGFCNF and temperature of firing.
Materials 2021, 14, 877 11 of 15

Depending on the country, there are different standards specifying brick grades
according to the CS values. For instance, withdrawn European standards specified a
minimum strength of 5 MPa for burnt clay bricks (BS 3921, 1985; TS 705, 1985). Figure 6
shows that the CS values of the brick samples prepared with different contents of BAGFCNF
additive ranged from 10 up to 40%. It has been observed that along with an increase in
BAGFCNF content in the samples, the CS values decreased for the samples fired at 900
and 1000 ◦ C. On the other hand, the samples with increased BA fractions in the mixtures
(BAGFCNF-30 and BAGFCNF-40 ) showed a linear increase in CS values in comparison to the
control sample, provided that the firing temperature was 1100 or 1150 ◦ C. The differences
were statistically significant, in both cases, for the BAGFCNF content and firing temperature
(Table 2). This effect was associated with the formation of a ceramic structure, the reactions
between BAGFCNF and CNKR , and the formation of silicon carbide at temperatures above
1000 ◦ C.
Figure 6 also presents the results of the freeze–thaw test, which was applied to deter-
mine the resistance of the samples to external factors. It was shown that the freeze–thaw
test did not correlate the strength of the bricks with their frost resistance or the forms of
damage [62]. By contrast, we found that similar to CS, the average CS-FA values were
reduced after the freeze–thaw tests to 27, 26, 25 and 22% for the samples with 10, 20,
30 and 40% BAGFCNF , respectively. Moreover, the samples fired at higher temperatures
were less affected by the freeze–thaw test. This effect could be related to reduced porosity.
Indeed, it has been shown that bricks become damaged after freeze–thaw tests in a specific
way depending on their structure of porosity and the spatial arrangement of the texture
components [62]. The freeze–thawing induces the effects of ice crystallization inside the
porous system. Three forms of frost damage influence the final brick properties, namely,
powdering, flaking and cracking. Bricks with relatively high shares of pores with diameters
of 1–10 µm in the total population of pores undergo these types of frost damage; i.e., they
are characterized by a lack of frost resistance [62]. A continuous reduction in porosity
and a significant increase in the pore fraction with a radius >1 mm occurred as the firing
temperature rose and smaller pores coalesced. On the other hand, as the BAGFCNF content
and firing temperatures increased, the samples tended to form silicon carbide and a ceramic
structure, which caused a higher resistance to the freezing temperatures. Considering the
CS values, it was proved that the fired bricks comply with the standards, and they can be
used as wall elements. In fact, according to ASTM C67 (1992) [63], the minimum required
CS for a paving brick subjected to light traffic is 17.2–20.7 MPa. ASTM C62 (2005) [64] for
building and facing bricks, respectively, correlate the CS with the weathering resistance,
specifying a minimum value of 20.7 MPa, for the bricks to not be susceptible to degradation.
In these terms, all the samples, regardless of the compositions, fired at 1100 and 1150 ◦ C
should be durable against severe weathering. Moreover, the FB40–1100 , FB20–1150 , FB30–1150
and FB40–1150 , samples also met these requirements after the freezing measurements.
The optimized protocol for producing fired bricks with the addition of BA and their
improved properties enable using them in construction technology. In Turkey, bricks are
covered (plastered) and do not come into direct contact with water; thus, no efflorescence
test was performed. Therefore, the TS EN 772-5 standard (Methods of test for masonry
units—Part 5: Determination of the active soluble salts content of clay masonry units)
was withdrawn as a standard. However, the improved properties of the fired bricks
produced during our studies include lower wettability (water impermeability), indicating
possibilities of the extended or alternative application of lightweight structural elements.
Additionally, for the further reduction of the WA of the fired bricks, applying resin or
polymer material on their surfaces can be considered. It is worth mentioning that fired
brick production was also tried at 800 ◦ C; however, in the freeze–thaw test, the samples
crumbled. Therefore, production without firing from our waste BA and clay is not suitable.
Higher temperatures did not improve the properties of the fired brick. Therefore, the
applied temperature range was selected correctly. Further experiments can be considered
to allow optimizing the protocol steps in detail.
Materials 2021, 14, 877 12 of 15

4. Conclusions
Turkey has low-calorie coal deposits and excessive BA resulting from its use. We
address the reusing of this waste through beneficial recovery mechanisms. The manuscript
reports successful fired brick production from CNKR substituted with BAGFCNF (0, 10, 20,
30 and 40%) by using thermal processes (900, 1000, 1100 and 1150 ◦ C). The protocol for
fired brick production should include the following steps: the oven drying of BAGFCNF and
CNKR ; the stirring of the mixtures with tap water; the one-step filling of a mold; pressing;
oven drying for 24 h; firing for 2 h. The UW of the fired brick samples decreased (1.89 g
to 1.51 g cm−3 ), while the porosity and WA (16.6 to 19.5%) increased, along with a linear
increase in the BAGFCNF volume fraction. This was a result of the complete burning of
coal in the BAGFCNF at higher temperatures, as well as reaching the sintering point and
developing a glassy structure in the clay fraction. Firing at temperatures of 1000 ◦ C or above
has a positive influence on the microstructure of the brick, promoting a dense structure
with low permeability. At these temperatures, the chemical reactions for BAGFCNF led to
carbon and silica transformation into silicon carbide. The findings indicate that the physical
and mechanical properties of bricks can be controlled to a significant extent by varying the
firing temperature and composition of the raw materials. As a result, the present study
revealed the potential of producing fired brick from BAGFCNF and CNKR for structural
applications. An innovation is the use of a combination of a high content of BAGFCNF and
high firing temperature. In the case of BAGFCNF , a content of 40% can be recommended and
used as a filler and additive material for the clay in fired brick production, and this mixture
has a good potential for reusing the waste. For these types of mixture, a temperature of
1150 ◦ C is recommended as the optimal firing procedure. However, some limitations in the
use of the procedure may result from the costs, which are an important factor for large-scale
production. Due to economic reasons, the firing temperature can be reduced to between
1000 and 1100 ◦ C. The fired bricks can still achieve significantly higher (acceptable) strength.
Other benefits of industrial waste ash addition in bricks and other materials that are most
often mentioned in the literature [65,66] are (i) the conservation of natural resources, e.g.,
by replacing natural clay with waste, and (ii) solving disposal problems and protecting
the environment. Therefore, fired brick production with BAGFCNF incorporation could be
a substantial step towards a decrease in pollution and environmental impact and a good
example for industrial symbiosis. This approach will also contribute to green engineering,
zero waste, sustainable development and circular economy principles.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, N.D.-S.; formal analysis, N.D.-S. and A.B.; funding
acquisition, M.S.-H., S.P. and M.H.; investigation, N.D.-S. and A.B.; methodology, N.D.-S. and A.B.;
project administration, N.D.-S.; writing—original draft, N.D.-S.; writing—review & editing, N.D.-S.,
M.S.-H., S.P. and M.H. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: No new data were created or analyzed in this study. Data sharing is
not applicable to this article.
Acknowledgments: We would like to thank the Waste Technologies Laboratory of Niğde Ömer
Halisdemir University (Niğde, Turkey), which offered suitable conditions for the experiments of this
study. ÇİMSA, one of the leading companies of the Turkish cement industry, supported this study.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Materials 2021, 14, 877 13 of 15

References
1. Yazıcı, H. Termik Santral Atığı Yapay Alçı-Uçucu Kül-Taban Külü Esaslı Yapı Malzemesi Geliştirilmesi. Ph.D. Thesis, Graduate
School of Natural and Applied Sciences, Dokuz Eylül University, İzmir, Turkey, 2004. (in Turkish).
2. Hamada, H.M.; Jokhio, G.A.; Al-Attar, A.A.; Yahaya, F.M.; Muthusamy, K.; Humada, A.M.; Gul, Y. The use of palm oil clinker as a
sustainable construction material: A review. Cem. Concr. Compos. 2020, 106, 103447. [CrossRef]
3. Chore, H.S.; Joshi, M.P. Strength characterization of concrete using industrial waste as cement replacing materials for rigid
pavement. Innov. Infrastruct. Solut. 2020, 5, 78. [CrossRef]
4. Palankar, N.; Shankar, A.U.R.; Mithun, B.M. Studies on eco-friendly concrete incorporating industrial waste as aggregates. Int. J.
Sustain. Built Environ. 2015, 4, 378–390. [CrossRef]
5. Raut, S.P.; Ralegaonkar, R.V.; Mandavgane, S.A. Development of sustainable construction material using industrial and agricul-
tural solid waste: A review of waste-create bricks. Constr. Build. Mater. 2011, 25, 4037–4042. [CrossRef]
6. Devlet Planlama Teşkilatı (DPT) Sekizinci Beş Yıllık Kalkınma Planı Madencilik Özel Ihtisas Komisyonu Raporu. In Endüstriyel
Hammaddeler alt Komisyonu Toprak Sanayi Hammaddeleri (Çimento Hammaddeleri) Çalışma Grubu Raporu; State Planning Organisation
(DPT): Ankara, Turkey, 2001. (in Turkish)
7. Aouba, L.; Coutand, M.; Perrin, B. Predicting thermal performance of fired clay bricks lightened by adding organic matter:
Improvement of brick geometry. J. Build. Phys. 2015, 38, 531–547. [CrossRef]
8. Metz, B. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Climate Change 2001: Mitigation; Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK,
2001.
9. Munoz, P.; Morales, M.P.; Mendivil, M.A.; Juarez, M.C.; Munoz, L. Using of waste pumice from winery industry to improve
thermal insulation of fired clay bricks. Eco-friendly way of building construction. Constr. Build. Mater. 2014, 71, 181–187.
[CrossRef]
10. Wouter, P. Energy Performance of Building: Assessment of Innovative Technologies; Final Report; ENPER-TEBUC: Watford, UK, 2004.
11. Çiçek, T.; Tanrıverdi, M. Kömüre Dayalı Termik Santral Uçucu Küllerinden Otoklav Yöntemi ile Hafif Tuğla Üretimi. In
Proceedings of the 5th Industrial Raw Materials Symposium, İzmir, Turkey, 13–14 May 2004; pp. 76–82. (in Turkish).
12. Kızgut, S.; Çuhadaroğlu, D.; Çolak, K. Çatalağzı Termik Santralı Uçucu Küllerinden Tuğla Üretim Olanaklarının Araştırılması. In
Proceedings of the Türkiye 17th Mining Congress and Exhibition/TUMAKS, Ankara, Turkey, 19–22 June 2001; pp. 395–416. (in
Turkish).
13. Bai, Y.; Darcy, F.; Basheer, P.A.M. Strength and drying shrinkage properties of concrete containing furnace bottom ash as fine
aggregate. Constr. Build. Mater. 2005, 19, 691–697. [CrossRef]
14. Yüksel, İ.; Özkan, Ö.; Bilir, T. Kazan altı külü ile briket üretimi. Gazi Ünv. Müh. Mim. Fak. Dergisi 2006, 21, 527–532. (in Turkish).
15. Bentli, İ.; Uyanık, A.O.; Demir, U.; Şahbaz, O. Seyitömer Termik Santrali Uçucu Küllerinin Tuğla Katkı Hammaddesi Olarak
Kullanımı. In Proceedings of the Türkiye 19th Mining Congress and Exhibition/IMCET, İzmir, Turkey, 9–12 June 2005; pp.
385–389. (in Turkish).
16. Lingling, X.; Wei, G.; Tao, W.; Nanru, Y. Study on firebricks with replacing clay by fly ash in high volume ratio. Constr. Build.
Mater. 2005, 19, 243–247. [CrossRef]
17. Topçu, İ.B.; Işıkdağ, B. Manufacture of high heat conductivity resistant clay bricks containing perlite. Build. Environ. 2007, 42,
3540–3546. [CrossRef]
18. Demir, İ. Effect of organic residues addition on the technological properties of clay bricks. Waste Manag. 2008, 28, 622–627.
[CrossRef]
19. Zhang, L. Production of bricks from waste materials-A review. Constr. Build. Mater. 2013, 47, 643–655. [CrossRef]
20. Sutcu, M.; Akkurt, S. The use of recycled paper processing residue in making porous brick with reduced thermal conductivity.
Ceram. Int. 2009, 35, 2625–2631. [CrossRef]
21. Kadir, A.A.; Mohajerani, A.; Roddick, F.; Buckeridge, J. Density, strength, thermal conductivity and leachate characteristics of
light-weight fired clay bricks incorporating cigarette butts. World Acad. Sci. Eng. Technol. 2009, 53, 1035–1040.
22. Rahman, M.A. Properties of clay-sand-rice husk ash mixed bricks. Int. J. Cem. Compos. Lightweight Concr. 1987, 9, 105–118.
[CrossRef]
23. Gürhan, G.; Simsek, O. Porous clay bricks manufactured with rice husks. Constr. Build. Mater. 2013, 40, 390–396. [CrossRef]
24. Demir, İ.; Baspinar, M.S.; Orhan, M. Utilization of Kraft pulp production residues in clay brick production. Build. Environ. 2005,
40, 1533–1547. [CrossRef]
25. Demir, İ. An investigation on the production of construction brick with processed waste tea. Build. Environ. 2006, 41, 1274–1288.
[CrossRef]
26. Bachir, C.; Halima, C. Effect of adding sawdust on mechanical-physical properties of ceramic bricks to obtain lightweight building
material. World Acad. Sci. Eng. Technol. 2012, 71, 1608–1612.
27. Velasco, P.M.; Ortiz, M.P.M.; Giró, M.A.M.; Melia, D.M.; Rehbein, J.H. Development of sustainable fired clay bricks by adding
kindling from vine shoot: Study of thermal and mechanical properties. Appl. Clay Sci. 2015, 107, 156–164. [CrossRef]
28. Saiah, R.; Perrin, B.; Rigal, L. Improvement of thermal properties of fired clays by introduction of vegetable matter. J. Build. Phys.
2010, 34, 124–142. [CrossRef]
29. Chan, C.M. Effects of natural fibres inclusion in clay bricks: Physicomechanical properties. Int. J. Civ. Environ. Eng. 2011, 3, 51–57.
Materials 2021, 14, 877 14 of 15

30. Faria, K.C.P.; Gurgel, R.F.; Holanda, J.N.F. Recycling of sugarcane bagasse ash waste in the production of clay bricks. J. Environ.
Manag. 2012, 101, 7–12. [CrossRef]
31. Aouba, L.; Bories, C.; Coutand, M.; Perrin, B.; Lemercier, H. Properties of fired clay bricks with incorporated biomasses: Cases of
olive stone flour and wheat straw residues. Constr. Build. Mater. 2016, 102, 7–13. [CrossRef]
32. Nkayem, D.E.N.; Mbey, J.A.; Kenne Diffo, B.B.; Njopwouo, D. Preliminary study on the use of corn cob as pore forming agent in
lightweight clay bricks: Physical and mechanical features. J. Build. Eng. 2016, 5, 254–259. [CrossRef]
33. Mohammed, M.S.; Ahmed, S.I.; Osman, R.M.; Khattab, I. Combinations of organic and inorganic wastes for brick production.
Polym. Compos. 2014, 35, 174–179. [CrossRef]
34. Leiva, C.; Arenas, C.; Alonso-Fariñas, B.; Vilches, L.F.; Peceño, B.; Rodriguez-Galán, M.; Baena, F. Characteristics of fired bricks
with co-combustion fly ashes. J. Build. Eng. 2016, 5, 114–118. [CrossRef]
35. Basha, S.H.; Kaushik, H.B. Suitability of fly ash brick masonry as infill in reinforced concrete frames. Mater. Struct. 2016, 49,
3831–3845. [CrossRef]
36. Arumugam, C.; Shaik, S. Transforming waste disposals into building materials to investigate energy savings and carbon emission
mitigation potential. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 2020. [CrossRef]
37. Łach, M.; Mierzwiński, D.; Korniejenko, K.; Mikuła, J.; Hebda, M. Geopolymers as a material suitable for immobilization of fly
ash from municipal waste incineration plants. J. Air. Waste Manag. Assoc. 2018, 68, 1190–1197. [CrossRef]
38. Lin, W.-T.; Lin, K.-L.; Chen, K.; Korniejenko, K.; Hebda, M.; Lach, M. Circulation fluidized bed combustion fly ash as partial
replacement of fine aggregates in roller compacted concrete. Materials 2019, 12, 4204. [CrossRef]
39. Menezes, R.R.; Ferreira, H.S.; Neves, G.A.; Lira, H.L.; Ferreira, H.C. Use of granite sawing wastes in the production of ceramic
bricks and tiles. J. Eur. Ceram. Soc. 2005, 27, 1149–1158. [CrossRef]
40. Lin, K.L. Feasibility study of using brick made from municipal solid waste incinerator fly ash slag. J. Hazard. Mater. 2006, 137,
1810–1816. [CrossRef]
41. El-Mahllawy, M.S. Characteristics of acid resisting bricks made from quarry residues and waste steel slag. Constr. Build. Mater.
2008, 22, 1887–1896. [CrossRef]
42. Quijorna, N.; Coz, A.; Andres, A.; Cheeseman, C. Recycling of Waelz slag and waste foundry sand in red clay bricks. Resour.
Conserv. Recycl. 2012, 65, 1–10. [CrossRef]
43. Santos, P.; Martins, C.; Júlio, E. Enhancement of the thermal performance of perforated clay brick walls through the addition of
industrial nano-crystalline aluminium sludge. Constr. Build. Mater. 2015, 101, 227–238. [CrossRef]
44. Phonphuak, N.; Kanyakam, S.; Chindaprasirt, P. Utilization of waste glass to enhance physical and mechanical properties of fired
clay brick. J. Clean. Product. 2016, 112, 3057–3062. [CrossRef]
45. Gado, R.A.; Hebda, M.; Lach, M.; Mikula, J. Alkali activation of waste clay bricks: Influence of the silica modulus, SiO2 /Na2 O,
H2 O/Na2 O molar ratio, and liquid/solid ratio. Materials 2020, 13, 383. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
46. Łach, M.; Hebdowska-Krupa, M.; Stefańska, A.; Stefanek, J.; Stanek, A.; Mikuła, J.; Hebda, M. Characterisation of post-production
raw material from the Raciszyn II deposit as a material suitable for the production of alkaline-activated materials. J. Therm. Anal.
Calorim. 2019, 138, 4551–4559. [CrossRef]
47. Szechyńska-Hebda, M.; Marczyk, J.; Ziejewska, C.; Hordyńska, N.; Mikuła, J.; Hebda, M. Neutral geopolymer foams reinforced
with cellulose studied with the FT-Raman spectroscopy. IOP Conf. Series Mater. Sci. Eng. 2019, 706, 012017. [CrossRef]
48. Szechyńska-Hebda, M.; Marczyk, J.; Ziejewska, C.; Hordyńska, N.; Mikuła, J.; Hebda, M. Optimal design of pH-neutral
geopolymer foams for their use in ecological plant cultivation systems. Materials 2019, 12, 2999. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
49. Beal, B.; Selby, A.; Atwater, C.; James, C.; Viens, C.; Almquist, C. A Comparison of thermal and mechanical properties of clay
bricks prepared with three different pore-forming additives: Vermiculite, wood ash and sawdust. Environ. Prog. Sustain. Energy
2019, 38, 1–10. [CrossRef]
50. Cobirzan, N.; Thalmaier, G.; Balog, A.A.; Constantinescu, H.; Timiş, I.; Streza, M. Thermophysical properties of fired clay bricks
with waste ceramics and paper pulp as pore-forming agent. J. Therm. Anal. Calorim. 2018, 134, 843–851. [CrossRef]
51. TS EN 771-1+A1 Specification for Masonry Units-Part 1: Clay Masonry Units; Türk Standardları Enstitüsü (Turkish Standards
Institution): Ankara, Turkey, 2020.
52. TS EN 772-13 Methods of Test for Masonry Units-Part 13: Determination of Net and Gross Dry Density of Masonry Units (Except for
Natural Stone); Türk Standardları Enstitüsü (Turkish Standards Institution): Ankara, Turkey, 2020.
53. TS EN 772-11 Methods of Test for Masonry Units-Part 11: Determination of Water Absorption of Aggregate Concrete, Autoclaved Aerated
Concrete, Manufactured Stone and Natural Stone Masonry Units Due to Capillary Action and the Initial Rate of Water Absorption of Clay
Masonry Units; Türk Standardları Enstitüsü (Turkish Standards Institution): Ankara, Turkey, 2020.
54. TS EN 772-1+A1 Methods of Test for Masonry Units-Part 1: Determination of Compressive Strength; Türk Standardları Enstitüsü
(Turkish Standards Institution): Ankara, Turkey, 2020.
55. TS EN 772-18 Methods of Test for Masonry Units-Part 18: Determination of Freeze-Thaw Resistance of Calcium Silicate Masonry Units;
Türk Standardları Enstitüsü (Turkish Standards Institution): Ankara, Turkey, 2020.
56. TS EN 772-3 Methods of Test for Masonry Units-Part 3: Determination of Net Volume and Percentage of Voids of Clay Masonry Units by
Hydrostatic Weighing; Türk Standardları Enstitüsü (Turkish Standards Institution): Ankara, Turkey, 2020.
57. Rawlings, R.D.; Wu, J.P.; Boccaccini, A.R. Glass-ceramics: Their production from wastes—A Review. J. Mater. Sci. 2006, 41,
733–761. [CrossRef]
Materials 2021, 14, 877 15 of 15

58. Hossain, S.S.; Roy, P.K. Sustainable ceramics derived from solid wastes: A review. J. Asian Ceram. Soc. 2020, 8, 984–1009.
[CrossRef]
59. Taurino, R.; Karamanova, E.; Barbieri, L.; Atanasova-Vladimirova, S.; Andreola, F.; Karamanov, A. New fired bricks based on
municipal solid waste incinerator bottom ash. Waste Manag. Res. 2017, 35, 1055–1063. [CrossRef]
60. Johari, I.; Said, S.; Hisham, B.; Bakar, A.; Ahmad, Z.A. Effect of the Change of Firing Temperature on Microstruture and Physical
Properties of Clay Bricks from Beruas (Malaysia). Sci. Sinter. 2010, 42, 245–254. [CrossRef]
61. Şimşek, O. Yapı malzemesi-II (Building material-II); Seçkin Yayıncılık: Ankara, Turkey, 2013; 269p. (in Turkish)
62. Stryszewska, T.; Kanka, S. Forms of Damage of Bricks Subjected to Cyclic Freezing and Thawing in Actual Condtions. Materials
2019, 12, 1165. [CrossRef]
63. ASTM C67. Standard Test Methods for Sampling and Testing Brick and Structural Clay Tile; ASTM International: West Conshohocken,
PA, USA, 2007.
64. ASTM C62. Standard Specification for Building Brick (Solid Masonry Units Made from Clay or Shale); ASTM International: West
Conshohocken, PA, USA, 2017.
65. Belmonte, L.J.; Ottosen, L.M.; Kirkelund, G.M.; Jensen, P.E.; Vestbø, A.P. Screening of heavy metal containing waste types for use
as raw material in Arctic clay-based bricks. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 2018, 25, 32831–32843. [CrossRef]
66. Łach, M.; Gado, R.; Marczyk, J.; Ziejewska, C.; Doğan-Sağlamtimur, N.; Szechyńska-Hebda, M.; Hebda, M. Process design for a
production of sustainable materials from post-production clay. Materials 2021, 14, 953.