Shanghai Cooperation Organisation

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Shanghai Cooperation Organisation

Chinese: 上海合作组织
Russian: Шанхайская Организация Сотрудничества

Members Observers Dialogue partners

Abbreviation SCO
Predecessor Shanghai Five
Formation 15 June 2001
Type Mutual security, political, and economic
cooperation
Legal status Regional cooperation forum[1]
Headquarters Beijing, China (Secretariat)
Tashkent, Uzbekistan (RATS Executive
Committee)
 Membership 10 member states
2 observer states
14 dialogue partners
4 guest attendees
Official language Chinese
Russian[2]
Secretary-General Nurlan Yermekbayev
Deputy Secretaries-General Batir Tursunov
Oleg Kopylov
Shri Janesh Kain
Shukhrat Sobirzoda
Sohail Khan
RATS Ularbek Zarlykovich Sharsheev
Executive Committee Director
Website sectsco.org

The Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO) is a Eurasian political, economic, international

security and defence organization established by China and Russia in 2001. It is the world's largest
regional organization in terms of geographic scope and population, covering approximately 24% of
the area of world (65% of Eurasia)[3] and 42% of the world population. As of 2024, its combined
nominal GDP accounts for around 23%, while its GDP based on PPP comprises approximately 36%
of the world's total.

The SCO is the successor to the Shanghai Five, formed in 1996 between the People's Republic of
China, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Russia, and Tajikistan.[4] In June 2001, the leaders of these nations
and Uzbekistan met in Shanghai to announce a new organization with deeper political and
economic cooperation. In June 2017, it expanded to eight states, with India and Pakistan. Iran
joined the group in July 2023, and Belarus in July 2024. Several countries are engaged as observers
or dialogue partners.

The SCO is governed by the Heads of State Council (HSC), its supreme decision-making body,
which meets once a year. The organization also contains the Regional Anti-Terrorist Structure
(RATS).

Origins

The Shanghai Five

The Shanghai Five group was created on 26 April 1996 when the heads of states of China,
Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Russia and Tajikistan signed the Treaty on Deepening Military Trust in
Border Regions in Shanghai.[5]

On 24 April 1997 the same countries signed the Treaty on Reduction of Military Forces in Border
Regions in a meeting in Moscow, Russia.[6] On 20 May 1997 Russian President Boris Yeltsin and
Chinese President Jiang Zemin signed a declaration on a "multipolar world".[7]

Subsequent annual summits of the Shanghai Five group occurred in Almaty, Kazakhstan in 1998, in
Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan in 1999, and in Dushanbe, Tajikistan in 2000. At the Dushanbe summit,
members agreed to "oppose intervention in other countries' internal affairs on the reason of
'humanitarianism' and 'protecting human rights;' and support the efforts of one another in
safeguarding the five countries' national independence, sovereignty, territorial integrity, and social
stability."[4] The Shanghai Five structure helped speed up the members' resolution of border
disputes, agree on military deployments in border areas, and address security threats.[8]: 95

Developing institutional forms

In 2001, the annual summit returned to Shanghai and the group was institutionalized.[8]: 95 The five
member nations first admitted Uzbekistan in the Shanghai Five mechanism.[8]: 95 On 15 June 2001,
all six heads of state signed the Declaration of Shanghai Cooperation Organisation, praising the
role played thus far by the Shanghai Five mechanism and aiming to transform it to a higher level of
cooperation.[2] From 2001 to 2008, the SCO developed rapidly, establishing a number of permanent
bodies and ad hoc initiatives dealing with economic and security matters.[8]: 95

In June 2002, the heads of the SCO member states met in Saint Petersburg, Russia and signed the
SCO Charter which expounded on the organisation's purposes, principles, structures and forms of
operation. It entered into force on 19 September 2003.[9]

In July 2005, at the summit in Astana, Kazakhstan, with representatives of India, Iran, Mongolia
and Pakistan attending an SCO summit for the first time, Nursultan Nazarbayev, the president of
the Kazakhstan, greeted the guests in words that had never been used before in any context: "The
leaders of the states sitting at this negotiation table are representatives of half of humanity".[10]

By 2007, the SCO had initiated over twenty large-scale projects related to transportation, energy
and telecommunications and held regular meetings of security, military, defence, foreign affairs,
economic, cultural, banking, and other officials from its member states.[11]

In July 2015, in Ufa, Russia, the SCO decided to admit India and Pakistan as full members. In June
2016 in Tashkent, both signed the memorandum of obligations, thereby starting the process of
joining the SCO.[12] In June 2017, at a summit in Kazakhstan, India and Pakistan officially joined
SCO as full members.[13][14]

In 2004, the SCO established relations with the United Nations (where it is an observer in the
General Assembly), the Commonwealth of Independent States in 2005, the Association of
Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) in 2005, the Collective Security Treaty Organization in 2007,
the Economic Cooperation Organization in 2007, the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime in
2011, the Conference on Interaction and Confidence-Building Measures in Asia (CICA) in 2014,
and the United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (ESCAP) in
2015.[15] in 2018, SCO Regional Anti-Terrorist Structure (RATS) has established relations with the
African Union's African Centre for the Study and Research on Terrorism (ACSRT).[16]

Organisational structure
As of 2020, the Council of Heads of State was the top decision-making body in the SCO, meeting
at the annual SCO summits in one of the member states' capital cities. Because of their government
structure, the prime ministers of the parliamentary democracies of India and Pakistan attend the
SCO Council of Heads of State summits, as their responsibilities are similar to the presidents of
other SCO nations.[17]

As of the 4 July 2024 meeting, the Council of Heads of State consists of:

Aleksandr Lukashenko (Belarus)

Xi Jinping (China)
Narendra Modi (India)
Masoud Pezeshkian (Iran)
Kassym-Jomart Tokayev (Kazakhstan)
Sadyr Japarov (Kyrgyzstan)
Shehbaz Sharif (Pakistan)
Vladimir Putin (Russia)
Emomali Rahmon (Tajikistan)
Shavkat Mirziyoyev (Uzbekistan)

The Council of Heads of Government is the second-highest council in the organisation. This
council also holds annual summits, at which time members discuss issues of multilateral
cooperation and approves the organisation's budget.[18] As of the 1 November 2022 meeting,
Council of Heads of Government consists of:[19]

Li Qiang (China)
Narendra Modi (India) (usually sends a deputy, such as EAM Subrahmanyam Jaishankar
at the 2021 summit)[20]
Alihan Smaiylov (Kazakhstan)
Akylbek Japarov (Kyrgyzstan)
Shehbaz Sharif (Pakistan) (usually sends a deputy, such as Parliamentary Secretary for
Foreign Affairs Andleeb Abbas at the 2020 summit)[17]
Mikhail Mishustin (Russia)
Qohir Rasulzoda (Tajikistan)
Abdulla Aripov (Uzbekistan)

As of 2007, the Council of Foreign Ministers also held regular meetings, where they discussed the
current international situation and interaction with other international organisations.[21] As of 2021,
the Council of National Coordinators coordinated the multilateral cooperation of member states
within the framework of the SCO's charter.[22]

Directors of SCO RATS Executive Committee

Years in office Name

15 June 2004 – 2006 Vyacheslav Kasymov

2007–2009 Myrzakan Subanov

2010–2012 Dzhenisbek Dzhumanbekov

2013–2015 Zhang Xinfeng

2016–2018 Yevgeniy Sysoev

2019–2021 Jumakhon Giyosov

2022–present Ruslan Mirzaev

Heads of SCO Secretariat

Years in office Name

Executive Secretary

15 January 2004 – 2006 Zhang Deguang

Secretaries-General

2007–2009 Bolat Nurgaliyev

2010–2012 Muratbek Imanaliyev

2013–2015 Dmitry Mezentsev

2016–2018 Rashid Alimov

2019–2021 Vladimir Norov

2022–present Zhang Ming

The Secretariat of the SCO, headquartered in Beijing, China, is the primary executive body of the
organisation. It serves to implement organisational decisions and decrees, drafts proposed
documents (such as declarations and agendas), function as a document depository for the
organisation, arranges specific activities within the SCO framework, and promotes and
disseminates information about the SCO. The SCO Secretary-General is elected to a three-year
term.[23] Zhang Ming of China became the current Secretary-General on 1 January 2022.[23]
The Regional Anti-Terrorist Structure (RATS) Executive Committee, headquartered in Tashkent,
Uzbekistan, is a permanent organ of the SCO which serves to promote cooperation of member
states against the three evils of terrorism, separatism and extremism. The Director of SCO RATS
Executive Committee is elected to a three-year term. Ruslan Mirzaev of Uzbekistan became the
current Director on 1 January 2022. Each member state also sends a permanent representative to
RATS.[24]

The official languages of the SCO are Chinese and Russian.[2]

Membership
Main article: Member states of the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation
↓Establishment of S5
↓Establishment of SCO
China
Kazakhstan
Kyrgyzstan
Russia
Tajikistan
Uzbekistan
India
Pakistan
Iran
Belarus
Mongolia
Sri Lanka
Turkey
Cambodia
Azerbaijan
Nepal
Armenia
Egypt
Qatar
Saudi Arabia
Kuwait
Maldives
Myanmar
UAE
Bahrain
Afghanistan (Islamic Republic)

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1996
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1997
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1998
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1999
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2000
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2001
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2002
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2003
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2004
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2005
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2006
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2007
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2008
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2009
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2010
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2011
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2012
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2013
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2014
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2015
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2016
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2017
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2018
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2019
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2020
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2021
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2022
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2023
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2024
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2025
Member Observer Dialogue partner

Member states
A clickable Euler diagram showing the relationships between various Asian regional organisations v • d • e

Country Accession started Member since

China — 15 June 2001[b]

Kazakhstan

Kyrgyzstan

Russia

Tajikistan

Uzbekistan

India 10 June 2015 9 June 2017

Pakistan

Iran 17 September 2021 4 July 2023[27]

Belarus 16 September 2022 4 July 2024[28]

Observer states

Country Status granted

Mongolia 2004[29]
 Afghanistan[c] 7 June 2012[31] (Inactive since September 2021)

Former observers

India 5 July 2005[29]

Pakistan

Iran

Belarus 2015[29]

Dialogue partners

The status of dialogue partner was created in 2008.[32]

Country Status approved Status granted[d]

Sri Lanka 15 or 16 June 2009[33][34] 6 May 2010[35]

Turkey 7 June 2012[31] 26 April 2013[36]

Cambodia 10 July 2015[37] 24 September 2015[38]

Azerbaijan 14 March 2016[39]

Nepal 22 March 2016[40]

Armenia 16 April 2016[41]

Egypt 16 September 2021 14 September 2022[42][43]

Qatar

Saudi Arabia

Kuwait 16 September 2022[43] 5 May 2023[44]

Maldives

Myanmar

United Arab Emirates

Bahrain 15 July 2023[45][46]

 Former dialogue partners

Belarus 15 or 16 June 2009 28 April 2010

Guest attendances
Multiple international organisations and one country are guest attendances to SCO summits.

Association of Southeast Asian Nations

Commonwealth of Independent States
Turkmenistan
United Nations

Turkmenistan has previously declared itself a permanently neutral country, which was recognized
by a resolution adopted by the United Nations General Assembly in 1995,[47] thus ostensibly
precluding its membership in the SCO.[48] At the same time, Turkmenistan is a member of the
Economic Cooperation Organization since 1992 and an observer of the Organization of Turkic
States since 2021. Turkmenistan's head of state has been attending SCO summits since 2007 as a
guest attendee.

Future membership possibilities

Country Status applied for Date

Bangladesh Observer 2012[49][50]

Syria Dialogue partner[e] 2015[51][52]

Israel Dialogue partner 2016[51]

Iraq Dialogue partner 2019[53]

Algeria Observer July 2023[54][55]

Laos Dialogue partner 2024[56]

In 2010, the SCO approved a procedure for admitting new members.[57] In 2011, Turkey applied
for dialogue partner status,[58] which it obtained in 2013. At the same time, Turkey is a NATO
member and the European Union candidate country. Turkish Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdoğan
has stated that he has discussed the possibility of abandoning Turkey's candidacy of accession to the
European Union in return for full membership in the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation.[59] This
was reinforced again on 21 November 2016, after the European Parliament voted unanimously to
suspend accession negotiations with Turkey.[60] Two days later, on 23 November 2016, Turkey was
granted the chairmanship of SCO energy club for the 2017 period. That made Turkey the first
country to chair a club in the organisation without full membership status. In 2022, at the 22nd
summit of the SCO, the Turkish president said that Turkey would seek full SCO membership status.
[61]On 11 July 2024, Turkish President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan stated in a statement to the U.S.
Newsweek magazine that they did not consider Turkey's membership in NATO as an alternative to
the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation and BRICS.[62]

In 2011, Vietnam expressed interest in obtaining observer status (but has not applied for it).[58]

In 2012, Ukraine expressed interest in obtaining observer status. However, since the deposition of
President Viktor Yanukovych and increased tensions with Russia, no application has been submitted
and there are no current plans to incorporate Ukraine into the organization.[63][64]

Azerbaijan expects to receive observer status according to Azerbaijani Foreign Ministry

spokesperson Aykhan Hajizada. Azerbaijan will probably become a full member of the SCO in a
little while, President of the Republic of Kazakhstan Kassym-Jomart Tokayev said during his
meeting with President of the Republic of Azerbaijan Ilham Aliyev on 3 July 2024 in Astana.[65][66]

Activities

Cooperation on security
As of 2023, the SCO is primarily centered on security-related concerns, describing the main threats
it confronts as being terrorism, separatism and extremism. It has addressed regional human
trafficking and weapons trafficking and created terrorist blacklists.[8]: 96

At SCO summit, held in Tashkent, Uzbekistan, on 16–17 June 2004, the Regional Anti-Terrorist
Structure (RATS) was established. On 21 April 2006, the SCO announced plans to fight cross-
border drug crimes under the counter-terrorism rubric.[67]

In October 2007, the SCO signed an agreement with the Collective Security Treaty Organization
(CSTO), in the Tajik capital of Dushanbe, to broaden cooperation on issues such as security, crime,
and drug trafficking.[68]

As of 2010, the organisation was opposing cyberwarfare, saying that the dissemination of
information "harmful to the spiritual, moral and cultural spheres of other states" should be
considered a "security threat". An accord adopted in 2009 defined "information war", in part, as an
effort by a state to undermine another's "political, economic, and social systems".[69] The Diplomat
reported in 2017 that SCO has foiled 600 terror plots and extradited 500 terrorists through RATS.
[70] The 36th meeting of the Council of the RATS decided to hold a joint anti-terror exercise, Pabbi-

Antiterror-2021, in Pakistan in 2021.[71]

At the summit in Astana, Kazakhstan, in July 2024, the SCO called for the creation of a fair,
multipolar world order based on the key role of the United Nations, international law and the
aspiration of sovereign states towards a mutually beneficial partnership.[72]

Military activities
SCO leaders at Peace Mission 2007. Hu Jintao, Vladimir Putin, Nursultan Nazarbayev and Islam Karimov

As of 2009, the organisation's activities expanded to include increased military cooperation,

intelligence sharing, and counterterrorism.[73] At the same time, leaders of SCO states repeatedly
stated that the SCO was not a military alliance.[74]

As of 2023, the SCO had not provided military support in any actual conflicts.[8]: 100 However, as
of 2017, military exercises have regularly been conducted among members to promote cooperation
and coordination against terrorism and other external threats, and to maintain regional peace and
stability.[2] There have been a number of SCO joint military exercises. The first of these was held in
2003, with the first phase taking place in Kazakhstan and the second in China. Since then China
and Russia have teamed up for large-scale war games in Peace Mission 2005, Peace Mission 2007
and Peace Mission 2009, under the auspices of the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation. More than
4,000 soldiers participated at the joint military exercises in Peace Mission 2007, which took place
in Chelyabinsk, Russia near the Ural Mountains, as was agreed upon in April 2006 at a meeting of
SCO Defence Ministers.[75][76] In 2010, Russian Defence Minister Sergei Ivanov said that the
exercises would be transparent and open to media and the public. Following the war games'
successful completion, Russian officials began speaking of India joining such exercises in the
future and the SCO taking on a military role. Peace Mission 2010, conducted 9–25 September at
Kazakhstan's Matybulak training area, saw over 5,000 personnel from China, Russia, Kazakhstan,
Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan conduct joint planning and operational maneuvers.[77]

The SCO has served as a platform for larger military announcements by members. During the 2007
war games in Russia, with leaders of SCO member states in attendance including Chinese President
Hu Jintao, Russia's President Vladimir Putin used the occasion to take advantage of a captive
audience. Russian strategic bombers, he said, would resume regular long-range patrols for the first
time since the Cold War. "Starting today, such tours of duty will be conducted regularly and on the
strategic scale", Putin said. "Our pilots have been grounded for too long. They are happy to start a
new life".[78][79]

In June 2014, in the Tajik capital Dushanbe, the idea was brought up to merge the SCO with the
Collective Security Treaty Organization. However, as of late 2022, in the wake of Russian invasion
of Ukraine in 2022, many SCO and even CSTO members had distanced themselves from military
cooperation with Russia.[80]

Economic cooperation
In September 2003, a Framework Agreement to enhance economic cooperation was signed by the
SCO member states. At the same meeting the Premier of China, Wen Jiabao, proposed a long-term
objective to establish a free trade area in the SCO, while other more immediate measures would be
taken to improve the flow of goods in the region.[81][82] A follow-up plan with 100 specific actions
was signed one year later, on 23 September 2004.[83]

In October 2005, during the Moscow Summit of the SCO, the Secretary General of the
Organisation said that the SCO would prioritise joint energy projects; including in the oil and gas
sector, the exploration of new hydrocarbon reserves, and joint use of water resources. The creation
of the SCO Interbank Consortium was also agreed upon in order to fund future joint projects. In
February 2006, the first meeting of the SCO Interbank Association was held in Beijing.[84][85] In
November 2006, at The SCO: Results and Perspectives, an international conference held in Almaty,
the representative of the Russian Foreign Ministry announced that Russia was developing plans for
an SCO "Energy Club".[86] in November 2007, Moscow reiterated the need for this "energy club"
at an SCO summit. Other SCO members, however, did not commit themselves to the idea.[87]
During the 2008 summit it was stated that "Against the backdrop of a slowdown in the growth of
world economy pursuing a responsible currency and financial policy, control over the capital
flowing, ensuring food and energy security have been gaining special significance".[88]

At the 2007 SCO summit, Iranian Vice President Parviz Davoodi addressed an initiative that had
been garnering greater interest when he said, "The Shanghai Cooperation Organisation is a good
venue for designing a new banking system which is independent from international banking
systems".[89]

President Putin included these comments:

We now clearly see the defectiveness of the monopoly in world finance and the policy of
economic selfishness. To solve the current problem Russia will take part in changing the
global financial structure so that it will be able to guarantee stability and prosperity in the
world and to ensure progress.
The world is seeing the emergence of a qualitatively different geo-political situation, with the
emergence of new centers of economic growth and political influence.
We will witness and take part in the transformation of the global and regional security and
development architectures adapted to new realities of the 21st century, when stability and
prosperity are becoming inseparable notions.[90]

Leaders present at the SCO summit in Yekaterinburg, Russia in 2009

In June 2009, at the Yekaterinburg Summit, China announced plans to provide a US$10 billion loan
to other SCO member states to shore up the struggling economies of its members amid the global
financial crisis.[91] The summit was held together with the first BRIC summit, and the China–
Russia joint statement said that they want a bigger quota in the International Monetary Fund.[92]

In 2014, the Eurasian Economic Union was founded in which Russia, Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan
are members.

During the 2019 Bishkek summit, Pakistani Prime Minister Imran Khan suggested taking steps to
trade in local currencies instead of U.S. dollars and setting up financial institutions including an
SCO bank.[93]

In June 2022, Iran's Deputy Foreign Minister for Economic Diplomacy Mehdi Safari suggested
creating a single SCO currency to facilitate trade and financial transactions among SCO members.
[94]

During 19–22 October 2022, Iran hosted SCOCOEX, an international conference and exhibition on
economic cooperation opportunities available to the SCO member states and partners.[95]
As part of the SCO's economic agenda, it has established a relatively successful student exchange
program called the SCO University.[8]: 95

Cultural cooperation
Culture ministers of the SCO met for the first time in Beijing on 12 April 2002, signing a joint
statement for continued cooperation. The third meeting of the Culture Ministers took place in
Tashkent, Uzbekistan, on 27–28 April 2006.[96][97]

An SCO Arts Festival and Exhibition was held for the first time during the Astana Summit in 2005.
Kazakhstan suggested an SCO folk dance festival to take place in 2008, in Astana.[98]

SCO+
The SCO+ forum format was initiated by the United Russia party in October 2020. This format
includes inter-party interaction not only of the countries of the Shanghai Cooperation Organization
(members, observers, candidates) but also of the CIS and BRICS countries.

It was first used during the SCO+ international inter-party forum "Economy for People" on 22–23
October 2020.[99] The forum was attended by speakers from 25 countries, including the chairman
of the United Russia party, Dmitry Medvedev, ministers of the SCO countries, Serbian President
Aleksandar Vučić, and ambassadors and diplomats of the CIS and BRICS countries. Russian
President Vladimir Putin sent greetings to the forum participants.[100]

Summits
According to the Charter of the SCO, summits of the Council of Heads of State shall be held
annually at alternating venues. The locations of these summits follow the alphabetical order of the
member state's name in Russian.[101] The charter also dictates that the Council of Heads of
Government (that is, the Prime Ministers) shall meet annually in a place decided upon by the
council members. The Council of Foreign Ministers is supposed to hold a summit one month before
the annual summit of Heads of State. Extraordinary meetings of the Council of Foreign Ministers
can be called by any two member states.[101]

Summit of Bishkek
(Kyrgyzstan) in 2007

Heads of state of member

states at the 2018 summit in
Qingdao, Shandong, China
 Heads of states and
governments of the member
states at the 2019 summit

Heads of states and

governments of the member
states at the 2022 summit in
Samarkand, Uzbekistan

List of summits

Summits of heads of state

Date Country Location

14–15 June 2001 China Shanghai

7 June 2002 Russia Saint Petersburg

29 May 2003 Russia Moscow

17 June 2004 Uzbekistan Tashkent

5 July 2005 Kazakhstan Astana

15 June 2006 China Shanghai

16 August 2007 Kyrgyzstan Bishkek

28 August 2008 Tajikistan Dushanbe

15–16 June 2009 Russia Yekaterinburg

10–11 June 2010 Uzbekistan Tashkent[102]

14–15 June 2011 Kazakhstan Astana[103]

6–7 June 2012 China Beijing

13 September 2013 Kyrgyzstan Bishkek

11–12 September 2014 Tajikistan Dushanbe

9–10 July 2015 Russia Ufa

23–24 June 2016 Uzbekistan Tashkent[104]

8–9 June 2017 Kazakhstan Astana

9–10 June 2018 China Qingdao

14–15 June 2019 Kyrgyzstan Bishkek[105]

10 November 2020 Russia videoconference[106]

16–17 September 2021 Tajikistan Dushanbe[107]

15–16 September 2022 Uzbekistan Samarkand

4 July 2023 India videoconference[108][109]

3–4 July 2024 Kazakhstan Astana

2025 China Tianjin

Summits of heads of government

Date Country Location

14 September 2001 Kazakhstan Almaty

— — —

23 September 2003 China Beijing

23 September 2004 Kyrgyzstan Bishkek

26 October 2005 Russia Moscow

15 September 2006 Tajikistan Dushanbe

2 November 2007 Uzbekistan Tashkent

30 October 2008 Kazakhstan Astana

14 October 2009 China Beijing[110]

25 November 2010 Tajikistan Dushanbe[111]

7 November 2011 Russia Saint Petersburg

5 December 2012 Kyrgyzstan Bishkek[112]

 29 November 2013 Uzbekistan Tashkent

14–15 December 2014 Kazakhstan Astana

14–15 December 2015 China Zhengzhou

2–3 November 2016 Kyrgyzstan Bishkek

30 November 2017 Russia Sochi

11–12 October 2018 Tajikistan Dushanbe

1–2 November 2019 Uzbekistan Tashkent

30 November 2020 India videoconference

25 November 2021 Kazakhstan videoconference

1 November 2022 China videoconference

26 Oсtober 2023 Kyrgyzstan Bishkek

15–16 October 2024 Pakistan Islamabad[113][114]

2025 Russia TBA

Analysis

Relations with the West

The United States applied for observer status in the SCO, but was rejected in 2005.[115]

At the Astana summit in July 2005, with the wars in Afghanistan and Iraq foreshadowing an
indefinite presence of U.S. forces in Uzbekistan and Kyrgyzstan, the SCO requested the U.S. to set
a clear timetable for withdrawing its troops from SCO member states. Shortly afterwards,
Uzbekistan requested the U.S. leave the K2 air base.[116]

A report in 2007 noted that the SCO has made no direct comments against the U.S. or its military
presence in the region; however, some indirect statements at the past summits have been viewed by
Western media outlets as "thinly veiled swipes at Washington".[117]

From 2001 to 2008, the Western reaction to the SCO was generally skepticism of the organization's
goals.[8]: 95 By the 2010s, however, the West increasingly began to view the SCO as a potential
contributor to stability in the region, particularly with regards to Afghanistan.[8]: 96

In September 2023, the United Nations approved United Nations resolution A/77/L.107, titled
"Cooperation between the United Nations and the Shanghai Cooperation Organization." The result
of the vote was 80 in favour to 2 against with 47 abstentions.[118][119] The United States and Israel
were the only countries to vote against the resolution.
Although the European Council on Foreign Relations dubbed the SCO an "anti NATO alliance" in
2022,[120] apparent inconsistencies among its member states have prevented it from becoming an
effective geopolitical alliance.[121] As of July 2023, India and Central Asian countries maintained
friendly cooperation with both the West and Russia, India has had fierce conflicts with Pakistan and
its ally China at the same time, which has been limiting the possibility of China and Russia forming
the group into an anti-Western bloc.[122] Academics Simon Curtis and Ian Klaus write that although
SCO has sometimes been compared to NATO, unlike NATO, SCO does not create a collective
security alliance.[123]

Geopolitical aspects

SCO summit in Ufa, Russia in 2015

SCO and NATO Member States

At a 2005 summit in Kazakhstan the SCO issued a Declaration of Heads of Member States of the
SCO which said: "The heads of the member states point out that, against the backdrop of a
contradictory process of globalisation, multilateral cooperation, which is based on the principles of
equal right and mutual respect, non-intervention in internal affairs of sovereign states, non-
confrontational way of thinking and consecutive movement towards democratisation of
international relations, contributes to overall peace and security, and call upon the international
community, irrespective of its differences in ideology and social structure, to form a new concept of
security based on mutual trust, mutual benefit, equality and interaction."[124]

In November 2005 Russian Foreign Minister Sergey Lavrov reiterated that the "Shanghai
Cooperation Organisation (SCO) is working to establish a rational and just world order" and that
"The Shanghai Cooperation Organisation provides us with a unique opportunity to take part in the
process of forming a fundamentally new model of geopolitical integration".[125]

In 2007, Matthew Brummer tracked the implications of SCO expansion into the Persian Gulf.[126]
In 2008, one aim of SCO was to ensure that liberal democracy could not gain ground in these
countries, according to political scientist Thomas Ambrosio.[127] In 2016, political scientist Thomas
Fingar wrote that China took the lead in establishing the Shanghai Five primarily to limit Russia's
ability to reassert its influence in Central Asia.[128]

During the 2008 Russo-Georgian war, China opposed Russia's infringement on Georgia's
sovereignty.[129]: 347 Citing principles of sovereignty, territorial integrity, and global order, China
used its influence in the SCO to prevent the organization from supporting Russia.[129]: 347
In 2008, Iranian writer Hamid Golpira had this to say on the topic: "According to Zbigniew
Brzezinski's theory, control of the Eurasian landmass is the key to global domination and control of
Central Asia is the key to control of the Eurasian landmass....Russia and China have been paying
attention to Brzezinski's theory, since they formed the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation in 2001,
ostensibly to curb extremism in the region and enhance border security, but most probably with the
real objective of counterbalancing the activities of the United States and the rest of the NATO
alliance in Central Asia".[130]

In 2008, the People's Daily wrote: "The Declaration points out that the SCO member countries
have the ability and responsibility to safeguard the security of the Central Asian region, and calls on
Western countries to leave Central Asia. That is the most noticeable signal given by the Summit to
the world".[131]

In January 2023, India as SCO chair, invited Pakistan's Foreign Affairs Minister and Chief justice to
attend a meeting in Goa in May 2023.[132] As of May 2023, India and Pakistan continued to spar
over terrorism,[133] while Central Asian members Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan have erupted in armed
conflict over border disputes.[134] The SCO was not a platform for resolving bilateral issues, and its
members were also reluctant to mediate disputes multilaterally.[135][136] Due to the widely
divergent agendas among member states, Indian commentators even called it the "Shanghai
Contradiction Organisation".[137]

Members of the SCO remained neutral in the Russo-Ukrainian war, they also strengthened
cooperation with the Russian Federation.[138] Analysis in 2024 points out that the SCO has
generally facilitated amicable China-Russia relations.[139]: 82

Other analysis
A 2015 European Parliamentary Research Service paper concludes, "The SCO's main achievement
thus far is to have offered its members a cooperative forum to balance their conflicting interests and
to ease bilateral tensions. It has built up joint capabilities and has agreed on common approaches in
the fight against terrorism, separatism and extremism. However, major shortcomings, such as
institutional weaknesses, a lack of common financial funds for the implementation of joint projects
and conflicting national interests have prevented the SCO from achieving a higher level of regional
cooperation in other areas."[140]

In perspective with issues with internal conflict and lack of cohesion only exacerbate how
ineffective the SCO would be for China globally.[141]

Gallery of Heads of State (Members)

Republic of Belarus
Alexander Lukashenko
President of Belarus

People's Republic of China

Xi Jinping
CCP General Secretary and
President of China[f]

Republic of India
Droupadi Murmu
President of India

Islamic Republic of Iran

Masoud Pezeshkian
President of Iran
Republic of Kazakhstan
Kassym-Jomart Tokayev
President of Kazakhstan

Kyrgyz Republic
Sadyr Japarov
President of Kyrgyzstan

Islamic Republic of Pakistan

Asif Ali Zardari
President of Pakistan

Russian Federation
Vladimir Putin
President of Russia
 Republic of Tajikistan
Emomali Rahmon
President of Tajikistan

Republic of Uzbekistan
Shavkat Mirziyoyev
President of Uzbekistan

Gallery of Heads of Government (Members)

Republic of Belarus
Aleksandr Turchin
Prime Minister of Belarus
People's Republic of China
Li Qiang
Premier

Republic of India
Narendra Modi
Prime Minister of India

Islamic Republic of Iran

Mohammad Reza Aref
First Vice President of Iran

Republic of Kazakhstan
Oljas Bektenov
Prime Minister of Kazakhstan
Kyrgyz Republic
Adylbek Kasymaliev
Chairman of the Cabinet of
Ministers of Kyrgyzstan

Islamic Republic of Pakistan

Shehbaz Sharif
Prime Minister of Pakistan

Russian Federation
Mikhail Mishustin
Prime Minister of Russia

Republic of Tajikistan
Kokhir Rasulzoda
Prime Minister of Tajikistan
 Republic of Uzbekistan
Abdulla Aripov Prime Minister
of Uzbekistan

See also
Asia Cooperation Dialogue
Asia–Europe Meeting
Association of Southeast Asian Nations
Belt and Road Initiative
Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi-Sectoral Technical and Economic Cooperation
BRICS
China–Russia relations
Collective Security Treaty Organization
Conference on Interaction and Confidence-Building Measures in Asia
Continental union
Eurasian Economic Union
Eurasianism
Global East
South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation

Notes
1. ^ Inactive since September 2021 following the aftermath of Taliban takeover of
Afghanistan.
2. ^ China, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Russia and Tajikistan were members of the Shanghai
Five mechanism since 26 April 1996. Uzbekistan was included in the Shanghai Five
mechanism on 14 June 2001.[25] The six states then signed a declaration establishing the
Shanghai Cooperation Organisation on 15 June 2001.[26]
3. ^ Since the overthrow of the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan and the reinstatement of
the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan on 15 August 2021, Taliban representatives have not
been participating in SCO meetings.[30]
4. ^ A country officially becomes a SCO dialogue partner after its minister of foreign
affairs and SCO Secretary-General sign a memorandum granting the status.
5. ^ Syria has initially applied for observer status, but "it was explained that first it is
necessary to become a dialogue partner of the organization".[51]
6. ^ The de jure head of government of China is the Premier. The President of China is
legally a ceremonial office and has no real power in China's political system. However,
the General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party (de facto leader) has always held
this office since 1993 except for the months of transition, and the paramount leader is Xi
Jinping.
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Further reading
Adıbelli, Barış (2006). "Greater Eurasia Project". Istanbul: IQ Publishing House.
Adıbelli, Barış (2007). Turkey–China Relations since the Ottoman Period. Istanbul: IQ
Publishing House.
Adıbelli, Barış (2007). The Shanghai Cooperation Organisation Dream of Turkey.
Istanbul: Cumhuriyet Strateji.
Adıbelli, Barış (2007). The Eurasia Strategy of China. Istanbul: IQ Publishing House.
Adıbelli, Barış (2008). The Great Game in Eurasian Geopolitics. Istanbul: IQ
Publishing House.
Chabal, Pierre (2019), La coopération de Shanghai : conceptualiser la nouvelle Asie,
Presses de l'Université de Liège, 308 p; 2019 – La coopération de Shanghai
Chabal, Pierre (2016), L'Organisation de Coopération de Shanghai et la construction de
"la nouvelle Asie", Brussels: Peter Lang, 492 p.
Chabal, Pierre (2015), Concurrences Interrégionales Europe-Asie au 21ème siècle,
Brussels: Peter Lang, 388 p.
Cohen, Dr. Ariel. (18 July 2001). "The Russia-China Friendship and Cooperation Treaty:
A Strategic Shift in Eurasia?"[unfit]. The Heritage Foundation.
Cohen, Dr. Ariel. (24 October 2005). "Competition over Eurasia: Are the U.S. and
Russia on a Collision Course?"[unfit]. The Heritage Foundation.
Colson, Charles. (5 August 2003). "Central Asia: Shanghai Cooperation Organisation
Makes Military Debut". Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty.
Daly, John. (19 July 2001). "'Shanghai Five' expands to combat Islamic radicals". Jane's
Terrorism & Security Monitor.
Douglas, John Keefer; Matthew B. Nelson, and Kevin Schwartz; ""Fueling the Dragon's
Flame: How China's Energy Demands Affect its Relationships in the Middle East""
(PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 December 2012. (162 KiB), United
States–China Economic and Security Review Commission, October 2006.
Fels, Enrico (2009), Assessing Eurasia's Powerhouse. An Inquiry into the Nature of the
Shanghai Cooperation Organisation, Winkler Verlag: Bochum. ISBN 978-3-89911-107-
1
Gill, Bates and Oresman, Matthew. "China's New Journey to the West: Report on
China's Emergence in Central Asia and Implications for U.S. Interests", CSIS Press,
 August 2003
Kalra, Prajakti and Saxena, Siddharth "Shanghai Cooperation Organisation and
Prospects of Development in Eurasia Region" Turkish Policy Quarterly, Vol 6. No. 2,
2007
Plater-Zyberk, Henry; Monaghan, Andrew (2014). Strategic Implications of the
Evolving Shanghai Cooperation Organization. Strategic Studies Institute and U.S. Army
War College Press.
Oresman, Matthew, "Beyond the Battle of Talas: China's Re-emergence in Central Asia"
(PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 26 March 2010. (4.74 MiB), National
Defence University Press, August 2004
Sznajder, Ariel Pablo, "China's Shanghai Cooperation Organisation Strategy",
University of California Press, May 2006
Yom, Sean L. (2002). "Power Politics in Central Asia: The Future of the Shanghai
Cooperation Organisation". Harvard Asia Quarterly 6 (4) 48–54.

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