Taxonomic Classification

The classification of insects has varied over the years, at the same
time when phylogenetic ideas were made and as the information
about insects was on the rise. Currently, this classification is still
far from being firmly established, that is to say, there are variations that arise from
the different valuation given to the same observable facts that depend
of the phylogenetic ideas of different authors.
In any case, let's take a closer look at this classification here.
scientific, without going into so much detail and referring to what is practically
universal accepted.
As is known, all groups of the Animal Kingdom are grouped into several
Phylum. Well, insects are within the Phylum Arthropoda.
just like arachnids and crustaceans, for example. The latter would be
framed within other Classes. That is, insects, as a group have
taxonomic category of Class, which is called (according to the different
classifications that can be found in the bibliography) Class Hexapoda or
Insecta. That is to say, we would be at this point.
Animal Kingdom
Phylum Arthropoda
Class Insecta
Within the Class Insecta, it seems to be quite established to divide the group into
two subclasses:

1. Subclass Apterygota (wingless insects)

2. Subclass Pterygota (winged insects)

Practically everything we are going to explain in these pages is related to

the winged insects, to the Subclass Pterygota.
The biggest discrepancies regarding the different classifications of the
Insects come from here, but to keep it simple, let's take a look at the
Orders (which is the next major taxonomic category) are better known in the
next table:

Class Insecta: Subclass Pterygota

Order Common name

Orthoptera Grasshoppers, crickets
Phasmida Stick insects, leaf insects
Dictyoptera Cockroaches, Praying mantises
Hemiptera Bugs, cicadas, aphids
Lepidoptera Butterflies, moths
Hymenoptera Bees, wasps, ants
Beetles Beetles
Diptera Flies, mosquitoes

WITHOUT WINGS orWingless

They are the most primitive insects.

Proturos Without wings or antennas.
Without wings.
Springtails
A ventral organ allows them to make great leaps.
Three terminal appendices
Tisanuros Silverfish or little silver fish
Dipluros Two terminal appendices.
WITH WINGS
Rudimentary mouthpieces.
Two pairs of wings.
Mayflies
Aquatic larvae with gills.
Ephemeral
Incomplete metamorphosis
Stoneflies
Aploembia
Chewing mouth.
Two pairs of large membranous wings.
Odonata
Aquatic larvae.
Dragonflies
Mantoids or Incomplete metamorphosis
maintained Praying Mantis
Masticatory oral apparatus
Blactareos
Cockroach
Masticatory oral apparatus
Fasmideos
Stick insect
Chewing mouth.
Dermaptera Pincer at the edge of the abdomen
Scissors.
Chewing mouth.
Two pairs of wings, of which the first protects the
Orthopterans
second.
Cricket, Lobster
Chewing mouth.
Isoptera Social organization similar to that of ants.
Termites
Hemiptera Superorder that includes heteropterans and homopterans.
Grinding-suction oral pieces.
Two pairs of wings, the first leathery on its part
Hemiptera
previous
Bedbug.
Homopterans Suction-piercing oral apparatus.
Two pairs of equal wings, that sometimes are missing.
 Cicadas, aphids.
Chewing or sucking mouthparts.
Hymenoptera Four membranous wings.
Bee, Wasp, Ant
Masticatory mouthpieces.
Without wings.
Malofagos
Bird and mammal parasites.
Chicken louse.
Suction and chopping mouth.
Without wings.
Anopluros
Parasites of mammals.
Head lice.
Chewing mouth.
Neuropterans Four membranous wings with numerous veins.
Antlion.
Masticatory mouthpieces.
Two pairs of wings, the first very leathery forms a
Beetles
protective case.
Beetles, Fireflies.
Mouth parts transformed into a sucking device that
spiral enroll
Lepidoptera Two pairs of membranous wings covered with
scales.
Butterflies and moths.
Grinding and sucking mouthpieces.
Diptera Just a pair of wings.
Mosca, Mosquito, Tipula, Tabano

Anatomy

Before delving into this point, it is convenient to remember that insects

they are arthropods, that is to say, they are classified within a category
higher taxonomy, where spiders, scorpions or the
prawns, for example. The characteristics of this entire group, in terms of what
what concerns us now is, on one hand, that your body is divided into
segments. It could be said that the segment is the anatomical unit
fundamental of all arthropods. On the other hand, each of these
segments covered by a specially tough skin (that possibly
be the cause of their evolutionary success), like armor. It is said, as what is
can read further on, that each part is more or less sclerotized, in
relation to this hardness of the epidermis.

External Anatomy

The class Hexapoda or Insecta has a body organized into three parts.
('tagmas', as they are technically called): Head, thorax, and abdomen. This
What all insects have in common and is the main reason for their classification
taxonomic with Class category.
The head always carries 4 pairs of appendages. The thorax has three segments and
three pairs of locomotor appendages (legs) associated with them, in addition to two
pairs of wings. Finally, the abdomen can have 6, 11, or 12 segments
(according to the groups).
The two previous paragraphs express the most important aspects regarding the
identification of an insect in zoological form. Note that, for
for example, spiders (4 pairs of legs) do not belong to the taxonomic group of
the insects.

Head

The head of insects is characterized by continuous and strong sclerotization,

in such a way that the existence of a cephalic capsule is discussed in these
animals. The sclerotization of the cephalic capsule is not complete
homogeneous, but instead presents sutures, grooves, and pits that allow for the
identification of a set of plates or sclerites.
The presence of a pair of compound eyes on both sides of the head is
characteristic, or multiple simple eyes located laterally in the same position. They can
both exist and it is quite general; in this case, the ocelli (simple eyes) that
The compound eyes are generally accompanied by 3.
As for the appendages that the heads of insects carry, only the
antennas are preoral, the other 3 correspond to mouthparts
external. That is to say, the 4 pairs of appendages that carry the heads of the
insects are:

• Antennas
• Jaws
• Maxillas
• The two pieces that form the lip

Among the entire group, the morphological diversity of these appendages is enormous.
The shapes of the antennas are diverse: thread-like, comb-like, club-shaped,
setiformes, etc. and are articulated at their base by a more or less circular reinforcement
from the cephalic capsule.

There is also a lot of diversity regarding the appendices that make up

the mouthparts. Typically, the mouthparts of insects are those that
it is called a chewer, with powerful jaws, in some cases serrated
and also prominent jaws.

But there are other types of mouthparts, like the lick of flies,
the mosquito and aphid picker, the sucker of butterflies. In all
it is considered that the mouthparts of these insects have suffered,
evolutionarily, the relevant modifications from the jaws and
jaws of a typical chewing apparatus.
Thorax

As we have seen before, the thorax of the Class Hexapoda is composed of 3

segments. Well, the important thing in this case is that in each segment there
find insert a pair of legs.
Sometimes this doesn't seem like this, especially if we look at insects from above.
(dorsal view), as in the diagram below, in which only the first pair of
legs seem to be inserted in the thorax. It even seems that the last pair of legs is coming out
from a very rear area of the insect's body, but it is not like that.

Another peculiarity of the thorax of insects is that it is the part of the body that
fly the wings. The number of wings of insects (of winged insects)
There are always four, two pairs. The first pair comes from the first segment of the thorax.
(prothorax) and the second of the mesothorax (central segment of the thorax).

This is very well demonstrated in bees and butterflies, for example, but
not in flies, beetles, ants... Well, the latter also
they have two pairs of wings; in flies, you can see that the second pair of
the wings are very small and act as a rudder in flight. The beetles have
the first pair of hardened wings houses the second pair which is the normal one. The
ants do not have wings, but only in the case of the workers and the
soldiers who are of different castes; the queens do possess them.

But the important thing at this point is the fact that the chest of all the
Insects always have three pairs of legs and two pairs of wings.

Abdomen

The abdomen is the last tagma of the bodies of insects, besides the telson.
that in most cases is indistinguishable from the last segment
abdominal, and it is the least sclerotic part, softer. As we saw the
the abdomen consists of 6, 11, or 12 segments although the number that is most
It is common to find 11 in this group of animals. But it needs to be explained.
that in the vast majority of cases not all are visible.
The morphological importance of this area is that it contains the sexual organs.
(in some very prominent cases) and the excretion orifices.
Generally, 8 pairs of respiratory stigmata can be observed (1 pair per
segment). It could be said, therefore, that it is the area most dedicated to tasks
physiological.

Internal Anatomy

It would be very complicated to explain in detail the internal anatomy of

the insects. Not because they are unknown, of course, but because it is already a
work that would again be aimed at training specialists, and that is not the case.
Anyway, let's look at the main aspects.
The respiratory system is typically tracheal. It is composed of a
tube systems that receive oxygen directly from the outside and
Thanks to later ramifications, it spreads throughout the body. These
tracheae are open to the outside through openings called
stigmas. The tracheae are invaginations of the skin, more or less
branched and more complicated in the case of aquatic insects that take
the oxygen of water.
The nervous system of insects consists of a ventral nerve chain in
shape of a rope ladder and a brain formation. The brain is
divided into three parts called protocerebrum, deutocerebrum, and tritocerebrum.
The protocerebrum always carries the optical centers and the deutocerebrum and tritocerebrum.
reside most of the olfactory and gustatory association centers. Besides
from these two areas there are different sensory terminals, for example,
multitude of hairs and microsetae, the antennas are responsible for smell...
The endocrine system is very important in insects (they regulate molting and
the metamorphoses) and it can be said that it has the following components:
groups of neurosecretory cells, axons that carry that secretion to the
dispersion sites and endocrine glands, of epidermal origin, that
they secrete and release hormones directly.
The digestive system could be considered as a tube with different areas.
according to the functions that occur in each one (also by their origin
embryonic, but that is another story) and are separated by valves. The part
front, west metropolis of re-triturating the food that has entered through the
mouth and for this they can present specialized structures. The mesoderm
it would be equivalent to our stomach and enzymes are secreted for the
digestion, furthermore, here the digestive absorption takes place and they present some
blind tubes for the effect. Finally, the proctodeum is more than a bag
rectal where there is intense reabsorption of water and ions; to this
part also drain the so-called Malpighian tubes, which vary in
number and that could be the equivalent, in terms of their function to the kidneys
of vertebrates.
Insects have a circulatory system as a general rule, with a heart,
which may not be more than a tube at the level of the thorax, extended forward
through an aorta, which sends the hemolymph into the fluid (hemocoel) of the cavity
general body fluid at the cephalic level. This fluid will act as circulation of
return, inside the cavity.
Finally, the genital organs of both sexes are also differentiated.
The male consists of testicular follicles (of variable number), which
they produce sperm, and connect in a common deferent duct. The
female gonads have more or less the same arrangement,
ovaries that contain ovaries in variable numbers.
To conclude, it should be noted that in the larvae (caterpillars of butterflies, by
example), the anatomy generally follows the scheme cited here, both
exterior as well as inwardly, except concerning the wings and the organs
players

Additionally, as is known, there are larvae that have many legs on their abdomen.
like butterfly caterpillars, but these legs are not articulated, they are not
true feet are called pseudopodia, and they have some
anatomical connotations that we will not refer to here.

Biology

The biological cycle of insects is very variable. In general, it can be

explain how it will look later, although we will see certain nuances that
they will also be generals. Let's try to keep track of this group
of animals from the transfer of sperm until the hypothetical
descendants of this transfer are able to reproduce, it is
We will discuss the generalities of its biological cycle.

Sperm transfer: the primitive indirect transfer

The normal process of reproduction in insects involves fertilization of the

ovum by a spermatozoon, although there are other ways to do it, being
parthenogenesis is very widespread in various modalities that we will not touch upon
in depth.
Considering the group set, the sperm transfer is in
indirect principle, through a spermatophore or even, in the least cases
evolved in this aspect, implies a reproductive behavior
primitive in the group of terrestrial arthropods; behavior is changing
making it necessary for the couple to meet, coupling, etc., and
in the more evolved orders, direct sperm transfer is achieved
with the complexity that this entails.
In the most primitive orders (though not all of them), the males lay a
simple and delicate spermatophore, typically pedunculated and with a body
spherical and ovoid. The localization of the spermatophore by the female is done at
or attractive male pheromones intervene that coat it, without
guide threads or similar structures. This method of sperm transfer
it occurs only in some wingless insects (apterygotes)

Mating

In the most evolved cases, mating occurs, which is absolutely

necessary in all current species of pterygota (insects with wings).
To produce mating, it is necessary that the couple has been found.
and that recognition has taken place between the two members as
possible couplings. The meeting occurs as a result of a
a certain action that one of the sexes exerts on behavior of
an individual from the opposite who is attracted. It therefore implies a stimulus and a
reception. The stimuli are usually generated by the females and
They can be of three types: olfactory, phonetic, and visual.

A. Chemical stimuli are the most frequent and could be considered

the most primitive. The attracting substances are pheromones,
segregated by various glands, depending on the cases. This type of
substances are found mainly in female butterflies
(Lepidoptera) but they have also been recognized in Isoptera, Dictyoptera
Blattaria, Coleoptera, and Hymenoptera. The fact is that the females
 these substances are released randomly, and the males, upon detecting them,
they will follow the trail of that substance to meet their partner and
consume the copulation.
B. Audible stimuli are less widespread and are of two types:

I. Those "noises" produced by the male for that purpose, like the
stridulation of Orthoptera (the sounds produced by crickets
to attract females are a good example).
II. Those others produced by the male or female lead to the
congener. Specifically, this point refers to the sound of the
Alas, which is characteristic of each species. This is very common.
in the mosquitoes.

C. Visual stimuli are also widespread and diverse.

types, but those that predominate are mainly light and color. Light is
a known stimulus in fireflies, but it is not very clear what it is.
a purely sexual stimulus and is produced by very few insects. The
Color (and the 'design') is a stimulus for the pairing of many
lepidopterans, as well as the color presented by certain flowers, which
it is attractive to males and females of a species.

The couple's meeting is followed by recognition, which is the first step and
even, at times, the only meaning of the wedding stop. The recognition
sometimes - and depending on the different groups - it is carried out only by the female, only by the male.
male or both. This recognition can be carried out by stimuli from
same type and even the same ones that facilitated the approach, but also
for others different.
Recognition sometimes allows for distinguishing species and sex, but at other times
only the species, which makes attempts relatively frequent
males to mate with others of their species. Sometimes it is so perfect
which allows to know if the female is fertilized or not. Ultimately, the goal
of these nuptial stops is the coupling, and the behaviors in them
they can become very different to culminate everything with copulation.

Insemination

As we have seen before, indirect insemination is a behavior.

typical of the less evolved insects and is characteristic of all the
apterygotes. For this, the sperm is transmitted through a structure
specialized, more or less complex, that encloses it within, called
spermatophore.
Well, in winged insects, they can also be found
spermatophores as vehicles for insemination, although there are
coupling. In this way, 4 ways have been described in which the
the spermatophore will be received by the female during mating,
which range from a so-called "not true" copulation in which a spermatophore
very complicated it is inserted in the rim of the female genital opening (not in the
own orifice), up to a true copulation with real ejaculation, in the
that the spermatophore is just a remnant, like a kind of plug
that is secreted after the expulsion of sperm. As can be deduced,
These forms of insemination are related to the degree of evolution that
it poses the species, and therefore it will occur more in some Orders than in others; but
as within each Order different degrees of evolution can be seen,
it is easy to find more than one of these related forms of insemination
with the complexity of the spermatophores.
The number of spermatophores that a male can produce is more or less
determined by each species and is very variable. The output of sperm
involves, in the most primitive cases, a rupture of the spermatophore. This is
it can be achieved traumatically through the action of the male during copulation or by
sclerotic structures, hardened, that females possess in the
vagina. But most often it is obtained chemically, as
consequence of proteolytic secretions from the glands of the system
female reproductive system.
But in addition, direct inseminations occur among insects, without
spermatophores and that imply the existence of male organs
penetrating, which were not necessary in the previous cases.

Set

Oviparity is a primary norm among insects (there are exceptions, in

those that are viviparous.
The number of clutches is a characteristic of the biology of the
females, a characteristic that can be particular or extensive to a group
broader taxonomic. In this sense, there are insects that only lay eggs.
once in a lifetime (Ephemeroptera) and others whose females are throughout life
laying eggs non-stop, like the queens of termites.
Eggs can be placed isolated, in groups, protected or not... and very
diverse morphology.
The number of eggs in each clutch is also variable and
characteristic within logical limits set by the state of
nutrition of the females, especially, and also according to certain requirements
environmental. The record in this regard is held by the females of a species of
termites (Anoplotermes silvestri) that can lay 7570 eggs per day for
several decades of years.

Eggs
We cannot enter here into the consideration of their diversity, of the forms,
sizes and peculiarities of insect eggs. The intimate structure
of insect eggs does show a notable homogeneity, as
it was to be expected.
The zygote is externally covered by the chorion, consisting of a layer
superficial more or less rigid and another internal of waxy nature. Internally
the chorion is where the vitelline membrane is located, which is associated with the serosa that
the embryo develops rapidly, consisting of a chitinous endocuticle and
an epicuticle with another layer of wax, of a fibrous type.
The chorion is a type of protective covering, but it cannot isolate.
totally to the embryo (if done, it would not develop). To the effect, it is necessary to
to highlight that there are various anatomical and physiological devices that exist
to allow the passage of oxygen, carbon dioxide, and water.

Postembryonic development and metamorphosis

We are at one of the points where insects are unique in the

nature, even as a group: the metamorphosis.
But let's situate ourselves a bit; upon leaving the egg, any insect possesses a
common characteristic: cannot reproduce (it will do so in the imago phase or
adult) and its only vital function is feeding. Well, the set of
changes in form and habits that the insect undergoes until it reaches the
The characteristics of the adult are called METAMORPHOSIS.
We can say that there are two main types of metamorphosis, which can be
generalize up to taxonomic levels of Order:

A. Complete metamorphosis. The insect that emerges from the egg is a larva, a
little worm that does not resemble the adult insect at all. To the
insects that undergo this type of metamorphosis in their life cycle are called
they are called holometabolous, and they are the most evolved in this sense. The
The transition from larva to imago has an intermediate phase, called pupa.
(where changes prepare the insect for reproduction, after
a good diet). That is to say, the insects included here suffer two
metamorphosis: from larva to pupa and from pupa to adult. It could be summarized
this path to maturity thus: larva - pupa - adult (and the dashes
they would be the metamorphoses). As an example, let's say that this type of
development occurs in butterflies, beetles, flies, etc.

Incomplete metamorphosis. The insect that hatches from the egg is similar to the
adult, but where it does not have developed genital attributes nor wings. A
these juvenile states are called nymphs, and in these cases the metamorphosis
it is progressive. That is, in this case nymph - adult. To the insects that
they are called heterometabolous. This type of development occurs due to
example in grasshoppers, or cockroaches, or bedbugs,
That is, from the egg of a beetle a worm will hatch, which after a certain
time will turn into a pupa that, after some time, will give rise
to another adult beetle that will mainly be concerned with reproducing.

On the other hand, from the egg of a grasshopper, a small grasshopper will be born,
without wings, as it will develop them until it becomes an adult with capacity
reproducer.

There are many classifications of types of larvae, pupae, and nymphs, according to their
morphology, which we will not see now.

Quiescence and diapause

We cannot complete the study of the life cycle of insects without referring to
briefly to such important facts as quiescence and diapause.
Both processes are arrests of growth or of vital activity of
animal.
Lacquiescence is a halt in growth due to conditions.
unfavorable environmental conditions. For example, some flies with adults.
Wintering birds in protected areas leave them on sunny and mild days.
Ladiapausa is a stoppage caused exclusively by internal factors.
(perfectly established in the species). It occurs that way even though in its origin
remote intervened pretentious environmental conditions and although the factor
triggering the process is environmental, but only after having gone through
a predetermined period.

Ecological considerations

The quote that can be read below seeks to justify the inclusion of this
chapter in a "subject" of these characteristics, which generally only
it includes the theoretical explanations of the most technical zoological aspects, without
giving the importance it deserves to the role that insects play in the whole
natural framework.

Zoology is, to date, a minor subject in the

universities, and even those who choose their studies often
they make their decision without appreciating its profound philosophical meaning.

Richard Dawkins

The Selfish Gene, 1976.

I do not intend to delve into a philosophical realm, far from it, but I do want to
some way to claim that we should go deeper into the
ecological aspects of insects in entomology texts, and not only
to pass over, as is happening currently.
At first glance, it is not an exaggeration to say that the current appearance of nature is
is largely due to insects. Let's see, in the plant world, they prevail
the flowering plants, well, this was not the case before, and it has happened thanks to
the insects, which were the ones pollinating them.

But it's also not bad to remember what we said in the introduction. Insects
they group together nearly one million species and possibly, many more still exist
unknown; they are by far the most numerous taxonomic group of all,
including vegetables. They inhabit all terrestrial environments except
from the great elevations and the polar caps, including the waters
sweets and hot springs, caves, etc. That is to say, they are even more widespread than
the humans.

Two out of every five living organisms are insects. This has to be related.
with ecological terms such as biomass biodiversity, which are very
important, for example, in terms of conservation programs. The
biodiversity has already been discussed above, but in fact it has even been
demonstrated that the biomass that insects contribute to an ecosystem can
to be unthinkable. Thus, it has been estimated that the biomass of ants in the
The tropics are much superior to that of the group of mammals.

But the functions of insects in any ecosystem are many.

and varied: nutrient and organic matter recyclers, pollinators,
predators, parasitoids. Many agricultural pests are so because of the
absence of these parasitoids and predators in the ecosystem.

This would be a point (rather a chapter) where it is necessary to develop and

manage many concepts that stray from the objective of these pages, but
that, I insist, should appear in the texts of entomological zoology.

On the links page, one can read an article published by Fermín.

Martín Piera in the Bulletin of the Aragonese Entomological Society, titled
Notes on Biodiversity and Insect Conservation: Dilemmas, Fictions and
Solutions?" and which is included in the ARACNET electronic newsletter.
This is all. I hope one can get an idea of the most aspects.
important aspects of applied zoology to insects. But this is only the
principle.
CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS

Santiago Carmona Cadavid

Cod. 20021230

Morphology

Martha

Lasallista University Corporation

Caldas-Antioquia

2004