INTRODUCTION TO MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

MODULE-4
Engineering materials and joining processes
All metals may be classified as ferrous or nonferrous. A ferrous metal has iron as its main
element. A metal is still considered ferrous even if it contains less than 50 percent iron, as long
as it contains more iron than any other one metal. A metal is nonferrous if it contains less iron
than any other metal.
Ferrous metals
Ferrous metals contain iron. Examples are cast iron, mild steel, medium carbon steel, high
carbon steel, stainless steel, and high speed steel.

Composition, properties and uses of some common ferrous metals

Non-ferrous metals:
Non-ferrous metals do not contain iron. Some common non-ferrous metals are aluminum,
copper, zinc, tin, brass (copper + zinc), and bronze (copper + tin).

Composition, properties and uses of some common non-ferrous metals:

Silica (Silicon dioxide)
Silicon dioxide, also known as silica, is an oxide of silicon with the chemical formula SiO2, most
commonly found in nature as quartz. In many parts of the world, silica is the major constituent
of sand. Silica is one of the most complex and most abundant families of materials, existing as a
compound of several minerals and as a synthetic product. Notable examples include fused
quartz, fumed silica, silica gel, opal and aerogels. It is used in structural materials, microelectronics
(as an electrical insulator), and as components in the food and pharmaceutical industries.

Uses
Structural use
Precursor to glass and silicon
Food, cosmetic, and pharmaceutical applications
Semiconductors
Insecticide
Ceramic
A ceramic is any of the various hard, brittle, heat-resistant, and corrosion-resistant materials made
by shaping and then firing an inorganic, nonmetallic material, such as clay, at a high
temperature. Common examples are earthenware, porcelain, and brick.
Ceramics now include domestic, industrial, and building products, as well as a wide range of
materials developed for use in advanced ceramic engineering, such as semiconductors.
Materials
Ceramic material is an inorganic, non-metallic oxide, nitride, or carbide material. Some elements,
such as carbon or silicon, may be considered ceramics. Ceramic materials are brittle, hard, strong in
compression, and weak in shearing and tension. They withstand the chemical erosion that occurs in
other materials subjected to acidic or caustic environments. Ceramics generally can withstand very
high temperatures, ranging from 1,000 °C to 1,600 °C (1,800 °F to 3,000 °F).

Properties of ceramics
 High hardness
 High melting point
 Good Thermal insulator
  Highly electricity resistance

 Low mass density

 Generally, chemically inert

 Brittle in nature

 Zero ductility

 Low tensile strength

Applications
Knife blades

Carbon-ceramic brake disks for vehicles

Ceramic ball bearings
Advanced composite ceramic and metal matrices
They are used in space industry because of their low weight
They are used as cutting tools
They are used as refractory materials
They are used as thermal insulator
They are used as electrical insulator

Glass
Glass is a solid-like and transparent material that is used in numerous applications in our daily lives.
Glass is made from natural and abundant raw materials (sand, soda ash and limestone) that are
melted at very high temperature to form a new material: glass. At high temperature glass is
structurally similar to liquids, however at ambient temperature it behaves like solids. As a result,
glass can be poured, blown, press and moulded into plenty of shapes.
The exact composition of glass may vary to meet specific applications requirements but the most
commonly use type of glass, soda-lime glass, is made of silica sand, soda ash, limestone, dolomite
and glass cullets (recycled glass). Additional materials such as iron oxide or cobalt can be added to
the mix to give a green or blue colour to the glass.
Glass is used in the following non-exhaustive list of products:
 Packaging (jars for food, bottles for drinks, flacon for cosmetics and pharmaceuticals)
 Tableware (drinking glasses, plate, cups, bowls)
 Housing and buildings (windows, facades, conservatory, insulation, reinforcement
structures)
  Interior design and furnitures (mirrors, partitions, balustrades, tables, shelves, lighting)
 Appliances and Electronics (oven doors, cook top, TV, computer screens, smart-phones)
 Automotive and transport (windscreens, backlights, light weight but reinforced structural
components of cars, aircrafts, ships, etc.)
 Medical technology, biotechnology, life science engineering, optical glass
 Radiation protection from X-Rays (radiology) and gamma-rays (nuclear)
 Fibre optic cables (phones, TV, computer: to carry information)
 Renewable energy (solar-energy glass, wind turbines)

Graphite
Graphite is a crystalline form of the element carbon. It consists of stacked layers of graphene.
Graphite occurs naturally and is the most stable form of carbon under standard conditions. Synthetic
and natural graphite are consumed on large scale for uses in pencils, lubricants, and electrodes.
Under high pressures and temperatures it converts to diamond. It is a good (but not excellent)
conductor of both heat and electricity.

The most important graphite properties:

 High thermal resistance;
 Low friction and self-lubrication;
 High electrical conductivity;
 High thermal conductivity;
 Low wettability by liquid metals;
 High resistance to neutron radiation.
Applications of graphite:
 Carbon brushes
 Refractories
 Electrodes for electric arc furnaces
 Lubricants
 Friction materials
 Pencils
Diamond
Diamond is an allotrope of carbon in which the carbon atoms are arranged in a diamond cubic
crystal lattice. Of all naturally occurring materials, diamond boasts the highest thermal conductivity
and hardness. These properties of diamond make it a very useful component of industrial cutting and
polishing tools.
This allotrope of carbon is made in the upper mantle of the Earth. It is entirely made up of carbon
(just like graphite and coal). This arrangement of carbon atoms arises due to immense heat and high
pressure.
Applications of Diamond:
 Diamonds in Jewellery
 Diamonds in Industry
 Automotive Industry
 Stone Polishing and Cutting
 Highway Construction and Repair

Shape-memory alloys
Shape-memory alloys are metals that, even if they become deformed at below a given temperature,
they will return to their original shape before deformation simply by being heated. Alloys with this
unusual characteristic are used as functional materials in temperature sensors, actuators, and
clamping fixtures.

Properties
The copper-based and NiTi-based shape-memory alloys are considered to be engineering materials.
These compositions can be manufactured to almost any shape and size.
The yield strength of shape-memory alloys is lower than that of conventional steel, but some
compositions have a higher yield strength than plastic or aluminum.
Applications
Industrial
Aircraft and spacecraft
Automotive
Robotics
Valves
Civil structures
Piping
Medicine
Optometry
Orthopedic surgery
Dentistry

Polymers
 Definition

Polymers which are obtained from animal and plants are

known as natural polymers.

Macromolecules
⚫ Individual molecule of very high
molecular weight. e.g.,
Hemoglobin, Chlorophyll etc.
Monomer
ConceptLadder
⚫ Monomer is the molecule that
The number of monomers which are joined together in a polyme
forms the basic unit for Polymer.
e.g., Propane, Styrene, Vinyl
chloride etc.
Polymer
⚫ Natural, semi synthetic and
synthetic compounds consisting of
number of molecules (monomers)
called Polymer. e.g., Poly
propane, Polystyrene, PVC,
Nylon-6 etc.
I. Classification Based up on source
(1) Natural polymers
Polymers which are found in nature.
eg. Starch, cellulose and natural rubber, Silk, Proteins, Nucleic acid....etc.
(2) Semi synthetic polymers

It is obtained from naturally occurring polymers by chemical treatment. Most of the

semi synthetic polymers are prepared from cellulose. eg. Cellulose acetate, cellulose
nitrate, cellulose and rayon.
(3) Synthetic polymers
Man maid polymers are known as synthetic polymer. eg. PVC, polyethylene,
polystyrene, nylon-6, nylon-6,6; nylon-6,10;terylene, synthetic rubbers etc.

Classification Based up on structure

1. Linear polymers
Monomers are joined together to form long straight chains. The various linear
polymeric chains are stacked over one another to give a well packed structure
close packed in nature, having high densities, high melting point and high
tensile (pulling) strength.
Note: All fibers are linear polymers. eg. cellulose, silk, nylon, terylene etc.
2. Branched chain polymers
Polymers in which the monomer units constitute a branched chain.
Branched chain polymers have lower melting point low densities and tensile
strength as compared to linear polymers. Examples are amyl pectin,
glycogen, low density polyethylene and all vulcanized rubbers.
3. Cross linked or Three-
Dimensional network polymers
 When linear polymeric chains are joined together to form a three
dimensional network structure. These polymers are hard, rigid and brittle.
Cross linked polymers are always condensation polymers. Resins are cross
linked polymers.

Classification Based up on molecular force

1. Elastomers
Polymers in which the intermolecular forces of attraction between the polymer
chains are the weakest (weak Vander Waals forces of attraction) these polymers
consist of randomly coiled molecular chains of irregular shape having a few cross
links.
Examples are natural rubber, Buna-S, Buna N etc.
2. Fibers
Those polymers in which the intermolecular forces of attraction are the strongest are
called fibers. These polymers held together by H-bonding or dipole-dipole
interaction. Fibers have high tensile strength, least elasticity having high melting
point and low solubility.
3. Thermoplastics
In thermoplastics inter molecular forces of attraction are in between those of
elastomers and fibers. Thermoplastics become soft and viscous on heating and rigid
on cooling.
Examplesarepolythene, nylon-6,nylon-6,6 etc.
4. Thermosetting polymers
These polymers have low molecular masses and are semi-fluid substances. These
polymers are hard and infusible. Examples are melamine-formaldehyde, bakelite
(phenol-formaldehyde)etc.
 SOLDERING, BRAZING & WELDING

INTRODUCTION

Some products cannot be manufactured as a single piece. The desired shape and size of
such products can be obtained by joining two parts of same or different materials. These parts are
manufactured individually and are joined together to obtain the desired product.

For example,

 Air craft and ship bodies,

 Welded machine frames,
 Furniture,
 Computers,
 Bridges
 Transmission or electric towers etc.,
Based on the type of joint produced joining processes can be classified as

1. Temporary Joint.
2. Permanent Joint.

If a product is in use for a long time and there is wear and tear, the parts need to be
dismantled for maintenance, repair or replacement. A temporary joint can be easily dismantled
separating the original parts without any damage to them.

In case it is a permanent joint, an attempt to separate the parts already joined will result in
the damage of the parts. In a permanent joint, the joint is made such that it has properties similar
to the base metal of the two parts. The joined parts become one piece. These parts cannot be
separated into their original shape, size and surface finish.

Based on the process used for making the joint, the joining processes can be further
classified as
 1. Soldering.
2. Brazing.
3. Welding.
4. Mechanical Fasteners like bolts, nuts, rivets, screws etc.
5. Adhesive bonding.

SOLDERING

Soldering is a method of joining thin similar or dissimilar metals by the application of

heat and using a filler metal or alloy called solder below 4500C.

Solder: generally it is an alloy of lead and tin. It melts at low temperature. For strong joints a
mixture of copper and zinc is used which has high melting point.
Method of Soldering

1. Cleaning of joining surfaces:

Firstly, the joining surfaces are cleaned mechanically to make the surface free
from dust, oil, scales, etc, and to ensure that the molten filler metal wets the surfaces

2. Application of flux:
The joining surfaces are coated with flux (rosin or borax).This cleans the surfaces
chemically and helps the solder in making bond
 3. Tinning of the surfaces to be soldered:
Tinning is a process in which the copper bit is heated and rubbed with a file to
clean it properly. This is done to remove a thin film of oxide that forms on the copper bit
which in turn does not allow the job to be heated and thus it becomes difficult to solder.

4. Heating :
The soldering iron is then heated and the flowing molten metal fills the joint
interface. Allow the soldered area to cool and then solidify thus making the joint.

5. Final clean up
After completing the soldering (joints are formed), clean the joint with steel wool
or solvent to remove left over flux.

Advantages of soldering

1) Solder joints are easy to repair

2) Solder joints are corrosion resistance.

3) Low cost and easy to use.

4) Low energy is required

5) Skilled operator is required.

Dis Advantages of soldering

1. Higher thickness material cannot be joined.

2. Low strength joints.

3. Not suitable for higher temperature applications

BRAZING:

Brazing is a method of joining two similar or dissimilar metals by the application heat
(suitable temperatures above 450o C) and using a special fusible alloy as filler metal having
melting point (up to 900oC) below that of the base metal.

Method of Brazing

1. Firstly, the joining surfaces are cleaned mechanically to make the surface free from dust,
oil, scales, etc, and to ensure that the molten filler metal wets the surfaces
2. The joining surfaces are coated with flux (borax or mixture of borax and boric acid).This
cleans the surfaces chemically and helps the brazing in making bond
3. The joining surfaces and the filler material are heated by the oxy-acetylene welding torch
to the temperatures above the melting temperature of the filler material. Thus formed
filler molten metal flows by capillary action into the joint space and after cooling
produces a strong joint.

Advantages of Brazing:

1. Joint strength is strong enough than soldering

2. Virtually it is possible to join any dissimilar metals
3. The bond line is very neat aesthetically
WELDING
Welding is a process of metallurgical joining two pieces of metals by the application of
heat with or without the application of pressure and addition of filler metal.

Welding may be classified

1. Pressure Welding: the parts of metal to be joined are heated to a plastic state and then
forced together by external pressure.
 Forge welding
 Resistance welding
2. Fusion welding process: the parts at the joint is heated to a molten state and allowed to
solidify.
 Arc welding
 Gas welding

ELECTRIC ARC WELDING

 Electric arc welding is a method of joining metals with heat produced by an electrical arc.
In this process the heat necessary to melt the edges of the metal to be joined is obtained from an
electric are struck between the electrode (filler rod) and the work, producing a temperature of
40000C, in the welding zone. The heat of the arc melts the base metal or edges of the parts fusing
them together. Filler metal, usually added melts and mixes with molten base metal to form the
weld metal. The weld metal cools and solidifies to form the weld. In most cases, the composition
of the filler material, known as welding rod, needed to provide extra metal to the weld, is same
as that of the material being welded.

A typical arc welding setup is shown in Figure 2.

1. An arc welding circuit consists of a power supply to furnish electric power.

2. An electrode to conduct the electricity to the arc.
3. Cables which connect the power supply to the electrode and workpiece to complete the
welding circuit.
4. The arc itself provides the heat for welding.
5. The workpiece to welded is kept on a metallic table.

Figure 2: Arc Welding Setup

 The arc must be shielded because; as it hardens the molten metal combines with oxygen
and nitrogen to form impurities that weaken the weld. Shielding can be obtained by adding a
paste, powder or fibrous flux to the arc. The electrodes are usually coated with a flux. This
coating forms a gaseous cloud that shields the molten metal from the atmosphere. The coating
also forms a protective slag. The slag floats on the molten pool and hardens as the weld cools.
This keeps impurities out of the weld.

Advantages:

1. Portable

2. Low cost joining method

3. Excellent joint strength and weld quality

4. Can work on AC or DC

5. Higher corrosion resistance

Disadvantages:

1. Not suitable for welding thin metals.

2. Requires Continuous power supply.

3. Frequent stops /starts to change electrode

Applications

Arc welding is the most widely used for fabrication, repair work and maintenance.
GAS WELDING

Gas welding is a fusion welding process, in which a flame produced by the combustion of
gases is employed to melt the metal. The molten metal is allowed to flow together thus forming a
solid continuous joint upon cooling. By burning pure oxygen in combination with other gases, in
special torches, a flame upto 33000C can be attained. The gas is purchased in cylinder and
connected through resulting valves and pressure gauges into flexible hoses attached to the
nozzle. A typical arrangement is shown in Figure 4.

Figure 4: Gas Welding Equipment

The oxy-acetylene flame is used to pre heat the parts to be welded around the joint and
also to melt the filler metal. A jet of oxy acetylene flame issuing from the nozzle of a burner is
played on the junction of the two pieces to be welded. At the same time a filler rod is held in the
zone of jet and its melt is deposited on the fused junction. A weld is obtained after the molten
metal solidifies. The coating on the filler rod acts as a flux to keep the joint clean.
 The filler metal or filler rod used must combine with the parts being joined. The melting
point of the filler metal must be the same or lower than the melting point of the metal being
joined.

The correct adjustment of the flame is very important for reliable works. When oxygen
and acetylene are supplied to the torch in nearly equal volumes, a neutral flame is produced
having a maximum temperature of 32000C. This neutral flame is desired for most welding
operations. Neutral flame has little effect on the base metal and sound welds are produced when
compared to other flames. Figure 5 shows neutral flame.

Figure 5: Neutral Flame

In a carbonizing flame or reducing flame excess of acetylene is present. The temperature

of this flame is low. The excess unburnt carbon is absorbed in ferrous metals, making the weld
hard and brittle. In between the outer blue flame and inner white cone, an intermediate flame
feather exists, which is reddish in colour. The length of the flame feather is an indication of the
excess acetylene present. Figure 6 shows a carbonizing flame. Carbonizing flame is used for
welding high carbon steels and cast iron, alloy steel and for hard facing.
 Figure 6: Carbonizing Flame

In an oxidizing flame excess of oxygen is present. The flame is similar to the neutral
flame with the exception that the inner white cone is some what small, giving rise to higher tip
temperatures. Excess of oxygen in the oxidizing flame causes the metal to burn or oxidize
quickly. Oxidizing flame is useful for welding some nonferrous alloys such as copper and zinc
base alloys. The Figure 7 shows the oxidizing flame.

Figure 7: Oxidizing Flame

Advantages:

1. The equipment is in expensive in complicated and it is easily portable.

2. Useful for welding light metals such as automobile bodies and repair works.
 3. A large variety of material can be welded.
4. Welds can be produced at reasonable cost.
5. Compared to electric arc welding this provides greater flexibility with respect to heat
impact and cooling rates.

Disadvantages:

1. Gas welding equipment must always be handled carefully as in certain circumstances

acetylene is explosive (when a flame is applied under pressure) as oxygen when used in
an oily atmosphere (such as an olds dirty garage floor pit).
2. A high temperature flame from a hand held torch is dangerous when handled carelessly.
3. It is much slower than electric arc welding and does not concentrate the heat close to the
weld. Thus, the heat treated area is larger, which causes more distortion.
4. Highly skilled operators are required to produce a good weld.
5. If electric arc welding is available gas welding is seldom used for work over 3.2mm
thick.
6. The process is not satisfactory for heavy section.

Comparison of soldering and Brazing

Soldering Brazing

1 The metals are joined with the help of filler The metals are joined with the help of filler
materials with a low melting point, below 450 materials with a low melting point,
degree Celsius, and below the melting point between 450 and 1000 degree Celsius,
of the metals to be joined and below the melting point of the metals
to be joined

2 Weaker joint as compared to brazing Stronger joint as compared to soldering

3 The typical solder filler metals are alloys of The typical solder filler metals are
tin Aluminium, Silver, Copper, Nickel and
 Gold

4 The flux is used is usually Rosin The flux is used is usually Borax

5 Economical Process Not economical as Soldering

6 Usually suitable process to join metals with Usually suitable process to join metals with
small thickness larger thickness

Comparison of Brazing and Welding

Brazing Welding

1 The metals to be joined are not melted and the The surfaces to be joined are melted
joint is produced through the solidification
and adherence of a thin layer of molten metal

2 There is no penetration into the base metal There is a penetration into the base metal

3 The typical solder filler metals are alloys of The typical solder filler metals are
tin Aluminium, Silver, Copper, Nickel and
Gold

4 The molten brazing filler alloy spreads along The molten filler alloy does not spread
the joint along the joint and solidifies where it melts

5 Relatively weaker joints are produced Relatively stronger joints are produced

6 Not economical as welding economical as compared to welding