PHY 104 LECTURE NOTE
1. Q values and Power Response curves
2. Normal modes
3. Waves (Types and Properties of waves applied to sound)
4. Transverse and Longitudinal waves (superposition, interference, diffraction, dispersion,
polarization)
5. Waves at interfaces (Energy and Power of waves) Waves, Oscillations, and Resonance
Phenomena
1. Q Values and Power Response Curves
Q Factor (Quality Factor)
The Q factor (or Quality factor) is a dimensionless measure of the damping of an oscillatory
system. It represents the ratio of the energy stored in the system to the energy dissipated per
cycle. The higher the Q factor, the less energy is lost per cycle, which means the system
oscillates with less damping and remains in resonance longer.
Mathematically, the Q factor is defined as:
Q = f0/Δf
Where:
f0 is the resonant frequency of the system.
Δf is the bandwidth—the range of frequencies around the resonant frequency over which
the system can effectively oscillate.
Interpretation:
A high Q value means the system has low damping, and it oscillates more sharply
around the resonant frequency (sharp resonance).
A low Q value implies high damping, leading to broader resonance peaks and faster
energy dissipation.
Power Response Curves
The Power Response Curve depicts how the amplitude or power of an oscillating system
changes with frequency. The system resonates at its natural frequency, and the amplitude of
oscillation becomes maximal at this frequency.
The response curve generally looks like a bell-shaped curve, where:
At resonance (f0), the amplitude is highest.
Away from resonance, the amplitude drops significantly.
A narrower peak in the curve indicates low damping (high Q), whereas a wider peak suggests
high damping (low Q).
Example:
In a tuning fork:
Resonance occurs at a frequency f0 = 512 Hz, and the peak in the power response is sharp
if Q is high, indicating long-lasting vibrations.
If the damping increases (e.g., the fork is covered with a dampening material), the Q
factor decreases, and the peak broadens.
The plot shows Power Response Curves for different Q values:
Low Q (Q = 10): Broad, flat curve—indicating high damping and a wide frequency
range around resonance.
Medium Q (Q = 50): Sharper peak—moderate damping.
High Q (Q = 100): Very sharp and narrow peak—low damping and highly selective
resonance.
This demonstrates how Q affects energy retention and selectivity in resonant systems.
Exercise:
A tuning fork has a resonant frequency of 512 Hz and a bandwidth of 5 Hz. Calculate the Q
factor of the system.
2. Normal Modes
What are Normal Modes?
Normal modes are specific patterns of motion that occur when a system oscillates in such a way
that each point of the system moves with a characteristic frequency. All points in the system
vibrate with the same frequency, but the amplitude of the vibration varies depending on the
mode. Normal modes can be thought of as the "modes" or "patterns" of oscillation that a system
can exhibit.
Characteristics of Normal Modes:
The system vibrates as a whole, but different parts of the system may have different
amplitudes and phases.
Each normal mode corresponds to a specific frequency called the natural frequency.
Example: String Fixed at Both Ends:
A string fixed at both ends can vibrate in various normal modes. The fundamental mode
has all points of the string moving in unison, with a node at each end. The second
harmonic has one node in the middle, and so on.
The frequencies for normal modes on a string are given by:
Fn = n⋅v/2L
Where:
n is the mode number (1 for the fundamental, 2 for the second harmonic, etc.),
v is the wave speed on the string,
L is the length of the string.
Exercise:
A string is 1.2m long, and the wave speed on the string is 50 m/s. Calculate the first three natural
frequencies of vibration.
3. Waves (Types and Properties of Waves Applied to Sound)
Types of Waves
Waves can be classified as:
Mechanical Waves: These require a medium to travel (e.g., sound waves, water waves).
They are further classified as:
o Transverse Waves: Particles of the medium move perpendicular to the direction
of wave propagation (e.g., waves on a string).
o Longitudinal Waves: Particles of the medium move parallel to the direction of
wave propagation (e.g., sound waves).
Electromagnetic Waves: These do not require a medium and can propagate through a
vacuum (e.g., light, radio waves).
Properties of Sound Waves
Sound is a longitudinal mechanical wave that propagates through a medium (such as air, water,
or solids). Sound waves cause compression and rarefaction of particles in the medium, leading to
oscillations.
Key properties of sound waves:
Wavelength (λ): The distance between consecutive compressions or rarefactions.
Frequency (f): The number of cycles (compressions or rarefactions) per unit time.
Amplitude (A): The maximum displacement of the particles from their equilibrium
position. The loudness of sound is related to its amplitude.
Speed (v): The speed at which the sound wave propagates through the medium.
The relationship between speed, frequency, and wavelength is given by:
V = fλ
Where:
v is the speed of sound,
f is the frequency,
λ is the wavelength.
Example:
If the frequency of a sound wave is 1000 Hz, and the speed of sound is 343 m/s, the wavelength
can be calculated as:
λ = vf = 3431000 = 0.343 m
If a sound wave has a frequency of 2000 Hz and a wavelength of 0.5 m, calculate the speed of
sound in the medium.
4. Transverse and Longitudinal Waves
Transverse Waves
In transverse waves, the displacement of particles is perpendicular to the direction of wave
propagation. Examples include:
Water waves: The particles move up and down while the wave moves horizontally.
Light waves: In the electromagnetic spectrum, light is a transverse wave.
Longitudinal Waves
In longitudinal waves, the displacement of particles is parallel to the direction of wave
propagation. Examples include:
Sound waves: The particles of the medium oscillate in the direction of wave propagation
(compression and rarefaction).
Key Wave Phenomena:
1. Superposition: When two waves overlap, the resultant displacement is the sum of the
displacements of the individual waves. This is called the superposition principle.
2. Interference: When two waves meet, they can interfere with each other:
o Constructive Interference: When two waves meet in phase, they add up to form
a larger amplitude.
o Destructive Interference: When two waves meet out of phase, they cancel each
other out.
3. Diffraction: The bending of waves around obstacles or through openings. Diffraction is
most noticeable when the obstacle or opening is on the order of the wavelength.
4. Dispersion: The phenomenon where different frequencies of a wave travel at different
speeds, leading to the spreading out of the wave. For example, light dispersion leads to
the formation of a spectrum.
5. Polarization: Only applicable to transverse waves. Polarization refers to the alignment
of oscillations in the plane perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation.
Exercise:
A wave traveling along a string exhibits interference. Calculate the resultant amplitude when
two waves with the same frequency and amplitude interfere constructively.
5. Waves at Interfaces (Energy and Power of Waves)
Reflection and Transmission at Boundaries
When a wave encounters a boundary between two different media, part of the wave is reflected,
and part of it is transmitted. The reflection and transmission coefficients depend on the
impedance of the media.
Impedance is a measure of the resistance of a medium to wave propagation. The wave is
reflected if the impedance is mismatched between the media.
The reflection coefficient RRR and transmission coefficient T are given by:
R = Z2−Z1/Z2+Z1
Where:
Z1 and Z2 are the impedances of the first and second media, respectively.
Energy and Power in Waves
The energy carried by a wave is proportional to the square of its amplitude.
E∝A2
The power of a wave is the energy transferred per unit time.
P = E/t
In mechanical waves (e.g., sound):
P = 1/2ρω2A2v
Where:
ρ is the density of the medium,
ω is the angular frequency,
A is the amplitude,
v is the wave speed.
Example:
A wave with amplitude 0.01 m, frequency 100 Hz, and speed 300 m/s travels through a medium
with density 1.2 kg/m3. Calculate the power.
Exercise:
A wave of power 50 W strikes an interface. If 30% is reflected and 70% is transmitted, calculate
the reflected and transmitted powers.
1. Q Factor and Power Response Curve
Example Solution:
A tuning fork has a resonant frequency of f 0 = 512 Hz and a bandwidth Δf = 5 Hz.
Calculate the Q factor.
Q = f0/Δf = 512/5 = 102.4
Answer: Q = 102.4
2. Normal Modes
Exercise Solution:
A string is L=1.2 m long, and wave speed v = 50 m/s. Find the first three natural frequencies.
We use the formula:
fn = n⋅v/2L
First harmonic (n = 1): f1 = 50/2x1.2 = 50/2.4 = 20.83 Hz
Second harmonic (n = 2): f2 = 2x20.83=41.67 Hz
Third harmonic (n = 3): f3 = 3x20.83=62.5 Hz
Answers:
f1 = 20.83 Hz, f2 = 41.67 Hz, f3 = 62.5 Hz
3. Properties of Sound Waves
Example Solution:
A sound wave has frequency f = 1000 and speed v = 343 m/s. Find the wavelength.
λ = v/f =343/1000 = 0.343 m
Answer: λ=0.343 m
Exercise Solution:
A sound wave has f = 2000 Hz, λ = 0.5 m. Find the speed.
V = f x λ = 2000 x 0.5 = 1000 m/s Answer: v=1000 m/s
4. Superposition and Interference
Exercise Solution:
Two waves of amplitude A=3 cm interfere constructively. Find the resultant amplitude.
Constructive interference:
Aresultant = A+A = 2A = 6 cm
Answer: A=6 cm
[Link] at Interfaces
Example Solution:
A wave has:
Amplitude A=0.01 m
Frequency f=100 Hz
Speed v=300 m/s
Medium density ρ=1.2 kg/m3
Calculate power using:
P = 1/2ρω2A2v
Angular frequency:
ω = 2πf = 2π x 100 = 628.32 rad/s
Now substitute:
P= ½ x 1.2 x (628.32)2 x (0.01)2 x 300
P = 0.6 x 394784 x 10−4 x 300 = 0.6 x 39.4784 x 300 = 7.2 x 300 = 2160 W
Answer: P=2160 W
Exercise Solution:
A wave with power P=50 W hits an interface.
30% is reflected,
70% is transmitted.
Calculate both powers.
Reflected power: Preflected = 0.30 x 50 = 15 W
Transmitted power: Ptransmitted = 0.70 x 50 = 35 W
Answers:
Reflected = 15 W, Transmitted = 35 W
