Prof.

Sandesh K S
Assistant Professor
Dept. of Mechanical Engineering
Course Learning Objectives
• To develop basic Knowledge on Mechanical Engineering,
Fundamentals and Energy Sources.
• Understand the concept of different types of Machine
tool operations and Modern Manufacturing Processes
like CNC, 3D printing.
• To know the concept of IC engines and Future Mobility
vehicles.
• To give exposure in the field of Engineering Materials and
Manufacturing Processes Technology and its applications
• To acquire a basic understanding role of Mechanical
Engineering in the Robotics and Automation in industry.
 Module-1 (8 hours)
• Introduction: Role of Mechanical Engineering in
Industries and Society- Emerging Trends and
Technologies in different sectors such as Energy,
Manufacturing, Automotive, Aerospace, and Marine
sectors.
• Energy: Introduction and applications of Energy
sources like Fossil fuels, Nuclear fuels, Hydel, Solar,
wind, and bio-fuels, Environmental issues like Global
warming and Ozone depletion
Introduction:
Role of Mechanical Engineering in Industries and
Society
 Top 10 Energy Industry Trends in 2021
1. Renewables
• Using renewable energy helps preserve the environment
as it produces minimal to zero harmful emissions.
• The basic principle of using renewables is to extract it
from a constant source in the environment, like the sun,
the wind, or through geothermal sources.
• The next important factor is to convert the source into
productive electricity or fuels.
• The range of technologies that cater to the different
aspects of generating power or heat from renewables
forms one of the biggest energy industry trends.
• This includes reducing costs for the manufacturing of
renewables infrastructure and generating power with
higher rates of efficiency.
 Top 10 Energy Industry Trends in 2021

2. Green Hydrogen:
• Hydrogen as a Fuel: Green hydrogen, produced
using renewable energy, is emerging as a key
element for decarbonizing industries like steel,
cement, and long-haul transportation. It can also
play a role in energy storage and grid balancing.
• Hydrogen Infrastructure: Governments and
industries are investing in hydrogen production,
distribution, and usage infrastructure, pushing for
a global hydrogen economy.
 Top 10 Energy Industry Trends in 2021
3. Energy Storage
• Today’s technologies provide a sufficient level of
generation, however, they lack cost-effective energy
storage solutions.
• Energy storage enables stable pricing by proactively
managing demand from consumers.
• By having the opportunity to purchase energy for
future use, consumers potentially stock it up during
ideal conditions.
• This accumulated energy later helps in reducing the
grid loads during peak times, while consumers earn
more as buying energy becomes expensive.
 Top 10 Energy Industry Trends in 2021
4. Block-chain
• Blockchain technology intends to unite all energy
stakeholders under a single decentralized network.
• Electricity producers, distribution network operators,
metering operators, providers of financial services, and
traders potentially benefit from utilizing smart
contracts.
• These contracts ensure that all energy-related
transactions pass through a secure and immutable
network, thus eliminating potential losses.
• Blockchain also holds the potential for achieving some
degree of equality between energy producers and
consumers by making electricity affordable for more
people.
 Top 10 Energy Industry Trends in 2021
5. Carbon Capture, Utilization, and Storage
(CCUS):
• Carbon Sequestration: Technologies that
capture CO₂ emissions from industrial
processes and power plants are gaining
importance for achieving net-zero emissions
targets.
• Carbon Utilization: Captured CO₂ is being
used to create new products, such as synthetic
fuels, building materials, and plastics, creating
new economic pathways.
 Top 10 Energy Industry Trends in 2021
6. Distributed Energy Resources
• Distributed energy resources (DERs) enable the
generation of electricity or heat at the place of its
consumption.
• The absence of a network eliminates the loss and cost
of energy transmission.
• This implies the presence of many consumers who
produce energy for their own needs, directing their
surplus to the common network.
• Within the framework of this concept, small and
medium power generation units act as distributed
energy generators.
• Further, it reduces energy production costs and makes
optimum use of existing energy generation capacity.
 Top 10 Energy Industry Trends in 2021
7. Demand Side Management (DSM)
• DSM refers to the rationalization of demand to ensure
compliance with the current or predicted capabilities of a
power system.
• Rationalization consists of two main components –
demand management and energy efficiency.
• The management of demand for electricity usually refers
to the shifting of consumption from peak to off-peak
periods.
• Simultaneously, energy efficiency implies a continuous
reduction in electricity consumption by introducing
efficient consumption equipment or processes.
 Top 10 Energy Industry Trends in 2021
8. Quantum Computing in the energy sector (QC)
• Quantum computing in the energy sector focuses on
developing new energy solutions, improving energy
efficiency, and reducing the use of greenhouse gases.
• The scale and complexity of challenges facing the
energy sector go beyond modern technology and are
well suited for testing on quantum ones.
• Recent scientific studies reveal the advantage of using
quantum computing platforms to solve seemingly
mundane problems.
• For example, allocating space for developing energy
infrastructure or in committing quantity or units of
electricity generation.
 Top 10 Energy Industry Trends in 2021
9. Vehicles-to-Grid (V2G)
• V2G is a system in which EVs sell energy in response
to demand either by returning electricity to the grid
or by cutting their charge rate.
• If EV batteries later return energy to the grid through
charging stations, it is possible to use it as an energy
storage asset.
• Charging EVs for lower costs during weak demand
supports the network during peak loads.
• These flexible and accessible buffers potentially
reduce the hours of a power outage.
 Top 10 Energy Industry Trends in 2021

10. Power-to-X (PtX)

• Reducing greenhouse gas emissions by improving
energy efficiency and using renewable energy
sources are playing an increasingly important role
worldwide.
• Power-to-X technologies for electricity
conversion, energy storage, and reconversion
pathways see increasing interest from the
industry.
• Startups and emerging PtX technologies convert
energy and carbon dioxide (CO2) into new
products and materials that are used for several
 Top 10 Manufacturing Technology Trends in
2021
•Manufacturing is one of the emerging sectors across
the world. With advancements in terms of technology,
such as AI, Big Data, Cloud Computing, IoT, etc., the
manufacturing industry is undergoing an unprecedented
transformation.
•This rapid transformation has mandated manufacturing
companies to stay up-to-date with current trends in the
industry to stay relevant.
•Unlike other industries, manufacturing has been largely
resilient to the impact of the Covid-19 pandemic.
•Overcoming the challenges posed by the pandemic, the
manufacturing industry has entered into the year 2021.
•In this context, let us have a look at some of the top
manufacturing trends that industries ought to pay heed
 Top 5 Manufacturing Technology Trends in 2021

1. Industry 4.0 and Smart Manufacturing:

• Internet of Things (IoT): IoT sensors and connected
devices enable real-time data collection, leading to
smarter, automated processes and predictive
maintenance.
• Cyber-Physical Systems: Integration of physical
machinery with digital systems creates a smart factory
environment, where machines communicate and
operate autonomously.
 Top 10 Manufacturing Technology Trends in
2021

2. Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Machine Learning:

• AI-Powered Automation: AI algorithms are being used
to optimize manufacturing processes, improve quality
control, and enhance productivity by predicting
equipment failures and reducing downtime.
• Predictive Analytics: Machine learning models analyze
historical data to forecast production issues,
maintenance needs, and demand, allowing
manufacturers to make proactive decisions.
 Top 10 Manufacturing Technology Trends in
2021
3. Additive Manufacturing (3D Printing):
• Custom Manufacturing: 3D printing is revolutionizing
production by allowing for customized, on-demand
manufacturing, reducing waste and time-to-market.
• Advanced Materials: With the development of new
materials, such as metal powders and biocompatible
materials, additive manufacturing is expanding beyond
prototyping into full-scale production across industries
like aerospace, automotive, and healthcare.
 Top 10 Manufacturing Technology Trends in
2021
• 4. Sustainability and Green Manufacturing:
• Circular Economy: Manufacturers are adopting circular
economy principles by designing products for
recyclability, reusing materials, and reducing waste in
production processes.
• Energy Efficiency: Green energy initiatives, such as the
use of renewable energy sources, efficient lighting, and
waste heat recovery, are gaining traction to reduce the
carbon footprint of manufacturing facilities.
 Top 5 Manufacturing Technology Trends in 2021
• 5. Twins:
• Virtual Simulations: Digital twins are virtual replicas of
physical assets, allowing manufacturers to simulate
production processes, test scenarios, and optimize
designs before actual manufacturing, reducing errors
and improving efficiency.
• Lifecycle Management: Digital twins help in monitoring
the performance and health of equipment throughout
its lifecycle, enabling predictive maintenance and
reducing downtime.
6. Robotics and Automation:
• Collaborative Robots (Cobots): Cobots are
designed to work alongside human operators,
improving efficiency and flexibility in tasks that
require precision and adaptability. They are
becoming more affordable and accessible for
small and medium-sized manufacturers.
• Autonomous Mobile Robots (AMRs): Used for
material handling and logistics within factories,
AMRs can navigate autonomously, improving
supply chain efficiency and warehouse
management.
7. Supply Chain Resilience and Localization:
– Reshoring and Nearshoring: Due to disruptions like
the COVID-19 pandemic and geopolitical tensions,
companies are increasingly focusing on reshoring
(bringing production back home) and nearshoring
(moving production closer to end markets) to reduce
supply chain risks.
– Supply Chain Visibility: Advanced tracking
technologies, such as blockchain and IoT, provide
better visibility and traceability across the supply
chain, allowing manufacturers to respond more
effectively to disruptions.
8. Advanced Materials and Nanotechnology:
– Smart Materials: The use of advanced materials
like carbon fiber, graphene, and smart polymers is
opening new possibilities in product design,
offering improved strength, flexibility, and
functionality.
– Nanotechnology: Nanomaterials are being
incorporated into manufacturing processes to
enhance product properties, such as strength,
conductivity, and wear resistance, especially in
industries like electronics and medicine.
9. Human-Machine Collaboration:
– Augmented Reality (AR) and Virtual Reality (VR):
AR and VR are being used for training, maintenance,
and quality control, allowing workers to interact
with digital models and receive real-time
instructions while performing tasks on the factory
floor.
– Wearables and Exoskeletons: Smart wearables and
robotic exoskeletons are being adopted to enhance
worker safety, productivity, and ergonomics,
especially in physically demanding roles.
• 10. Customization and Personalization:
• Flexible Manufacturing Systems: With
consumers demanding personalized products,
manufacturers are adopting flexible production
lines that can easily switch between different
product types and variants.
• On-Demand Production: Technologies like
additive manufacturing and AI-driven design
are enabling manufacturers to produce
customized products on demand, reducing
inventory and lead times.
 Top 10 Automotive Technology Trends in 2021
1. Autonomous Vehicles (AV)
• Autonomous vehicles or self-driving vehicles aim to
minimize the need for human drivers and look poised to
transform everyday transportation. Fleets of AVs expand
the scope of last-mile deliveries, reduce downtime, and
aim to make public transportation relatively safer. For
example, by reducing accidents caused due to driver
fatigue or negligence. AVs are equipped with advanced
recognition technologies, such as AI-enhanced
computer vision to identify obstacles along the route.
 Top 10 Automotive Technology Trends in 2021
2. Vehicle-to-Everything (V2X) Communication:
• V2V (Vehicle-to-Vehicle): Cars equipped with V2V
technology can communicate with each other to share
information about road conditions, traffic, and hazards,
enhancing safety.
• V2I (Vehicle-to-Infrastructure): V2I systems allow cars
to communicate with road infrastructure (traffic lights,
signs, etc.), optimizing traffic flow and reducing
congestion.
 Top 10 Automotive Technology Trends in 2021
3. Electric Vehicles (EVs):
• Battery Advancements: Improvements in lithium-
ion and solid-state batteries are increasing driving
range, reducing charging times, and lowering costs,
making EVs more accessible.
• Charging Infrastructure Expansion: Global
investments in public and home charging stations
are growing, with faster and more efficient charging
technologies being developed to support the rise of
EVs.
 Top 10 Automotive Technology Trends in 2021
4. Shared Mobility
• With connected vehicles, new business models have
come up that focus on shared mobility as an alternative
to traditional vehicle ownership. This enables mobility-
as-a-service (MaaS) and discourages unused vehicles.
Such solutions meet the requirements of a city or a
business without adding new vehicles, thus reducing
waiting time for fleets and pollution caused by petrol or
diesel vehicles.
 Top 10 Automotive Technology Trends in 2021
5. Artificial Intelligence (AI)
• Artificial intelligence technologies such as machine
learning, deep learning, and computer vision find
applications in robotic automation within the
automotive industry. These guide self-driving cars,
manage fleets, assist drivers to improve safety and
improve services such as vehicle inspection or
insurance. AI also finds applications in automotive
manufacturing, where it accelerates the rate of
production and helps reduce costs.
 Top 10 Automotive Technology Trends in 2021
6. Big Data & Data Analytics
• In the age of big data, advanced data analytics informs
various decisions throughout the lifecycle of a vehicle.
• Data gathered from vehicles enables predictive
maintenance, informs managers about their fleets, and
alerts concerned authorities in case of accidents.
• Moreover, customer automotive data finds applications
in driving sales, optimizing supply chains, and enhancing
product design for newer vehicles.
 Top 10 Automotive Technology Trends in 2021
7. Augmented Reality (AR) Dashboards:
• Heads-Up Displays (HUDs): AR technology is being used
in car dashboards to provide drivers with real-time
information, such as speed, navigation, and hazard
alerts, projected onto the windshield.
• AR for Navigation: AR-based navigation systems overlay
directions directly onto the driver’s view, improving
safety and ease of use by minimizing distractions.
 Top 10 Automotive Technology Trends in 2021
8. Blockchain in Automotive:
• Supply Chain Transparency: Blockchain is being
used to improve the transparency and
traceability of automotive supply chains,
ensuring the authenticity of parts and ethical
sourcing of materials.
• Data Security: Blockchain technology can secure
vehicle data and transactions, especially in areas
like vehicle-to-vehicle communication and
autonomous car operations, reducing risks of
hacking.
 Top 10 Automotive Technology Trends in 2021
9. Additive Manufacturing
• 3D printing helps the automotive industry in three
primary ways.
• Firstly, it enables rapid prototyping with 3D printed
models that accelerate the design and testing phases of
production.
• Secondly, it allows manufacturers to print spare parts to
match their requirements.
• Lastly, additive manufacturing of composite materials
leads to automotive parts that are lighter, stronger, and
more durable.
 Top 10 Automotive Technology Trends in 2021
10. Internet of Things (IoT)
• In the automotive industry, IoT enables secure
communication between vehicles as well as vehicles and
infrastructure components.
• The technology improves road safety, solves traffic
congestion, and reduces pollution and energy
expenditure with better fleet management.
• Startups and emerging companies develop advanced
sensing technologies to gather more data about the
vehicle as well as allow the vehicle to understand its
surroundings.
• The technology also automates payments for fuel and
tolls.
 Top 10 Aerospace Technology Trends in 2021
1. Zero-Fuel Aircraft
• Airbus recently revealed three concepts for the world’s
first zero-emission hydrogen commercial aircraft, which
could enter service by 2035.
• These concepts each represent a different approach to
achieving zero-emission flight by exploring various
technology pathways and aerodynamic configurations in
order to support their ambition of pioneering the
decarbonization of the entire aviation industry.
• All of the concepts presented by Airbus rely on
hydrogen as a primary power source – an option which
they believe holds exceptional promise as a clean
aviation fuel and is likely to be a solution for aerospace -
 Top 10 Aerospace Technology Trends in 2021
2. Structural Health Monitoring (SHM)
• Structural health monitoring involves the observation
and analysis of a system over time using periodically
sampled response measurements to monitor changes to
the material and geometric properties of engineering
structures such as bridges, airplanes, and buildings.
• Aircraft accidents involving catastrophic fatigue failure
have the potential for significant loss of life, which
makes innovation in this branch of the aerospace
industry so important.
• The foundation of structural health monitoring is the
ability to monitor structures using embedded or
attached non destructive evaluation (NDE) sensors and
 Top 10 Aerospace Technology Trends in 2021
2. Structural Health Monitoring (SHM)
• Over the last ten years, researchers have made
significant advances in developing NDE sensors for SHM,
and they have developed the hardware and software
needed for analysis and communication of the SHM
results.
• The NDE SHM sensors that have reached some modest
degree of maturing and are able to monitor significantly
large areas of structures include fiber optics, active
ultrasonic, and passive acoustic emission.
• Furthermore, low-cost emerging computational
hardware, such as graphics processing units (GPUs), is
enabling the growing use of advanced physics-based
 Top 10 Aerospace Technology Trends in 2021
3. Advanced Materials
• Innovative materials can be used in a wide variety of
areas - from lighter, more agile aircraft and emerging
hypersonic systems, to personal protection equipment
and anywhere risks or damage can be reduced.
• Progress in developing advanced materials is expected
to address the integration of functions such as energy
harvesting, camouflage, structural and personal health
monitoring.
• For example, graphene is a carbon-based material,
which is merely one atom thick and can be used to
make batteries that are lightweight, durable, and
applicable in high capacity energy storage - plus, they
 Top 10 Aerospace Technology Trends in 2021
4. Smart Automation and Blockchain
• The blockchain, which is typically associated with
cryptocurrency systems, uses data transparency to
enhance security.
• Public-key encryption for record-level data security and
greater network resiliency are possible due to no single
point of failure.
• In addition, access rights and entitlement management
can be automated, which frees up resources to address
other security measures or concerns.
 Top 10 Aerospace Technology Trends in 2021
4. Smart Automation and Blockchain
• The blockchain, which is typically associated with
cryptocurrency systems, uses data transparency to
enhance security.
• Public-key encryption for record-level data security and
greater network resiliency are possible due to no single
point of failure.
• In addition, access rights and entitlement management
can be automated, which frees up resources to address
other security measures or concerns.
• 3D printing, also known as additive manufacturing, has
been proven to be an excellent manufacturing solution
for producing components and parts that utilize
 Top 10 Aerospace Technology Trends in 2021
6. Supersonic Flights
• Supersonic flight is when an aircraft travels faster than
the speed of sound. US airline United has announced
plans to buy 15 new supersonic airliners and "return
supersonic speeds to aviation" in the year 2029.
• Supersonic flights sound familiar? Such passenger flights
ended in 2003 when Air France and British Airways
retired Concorde.
• The new Overture aircraft will be produced by a Denver-
based company called Boom, which has yet to flight-test
a supersonic jet.
• United's deal is conditional on the new aircraft meeting
safety standards and noise pollution concerns.
 Top 10 Aerospace Technology Trends in 2021
7. More Resilient and Dynamic A&D Supply Chains
• Lower aircraft demand and restrictions on the movement of
people and goods due to the pandemic led to a breakdown of
many essential aerospace and defense (A&D) supply chains.
• This has resulted in an impact on smaller suppliers, especially
those with heavy exposure to commercial aerospace and the
aftermarket business.
• In 2021, the industry’s focus is likely to shift toward transforming
supply chains into more resilient and dynamic networks, which
could be done using strategies such as on-shoring, vertical
integration, and increased cyber defenses.
• To further strengthen supply chains, OEMs and suppliers should
leverage digital tools, including automating internal processes and
streamlining workflows, implementing smart management
systems, and using data analytics.
 Top 10 Aerospace Technology Trends in 2021
8. Utilizing Internet of Things (IoT) to Anticipate
Maintenance Issues
• Aircraft maintenance and repair companies are widely
using Internet of Things technology for predictive
maintenance of aircraft parts and equipment. An IoT-
based predictive maintenance solution can help to
predict potential damage for example by collecting data
from ultrasonic and vibration sensors attached to the
spindle of a CNC machine. Analyzing the collected data
helps to identify fragile spindles and tools before they
break. IoT technology is used to send critical data from
engines, wing flaps, bleed values, and landing gear to
technicians for preventive maintenance. This data aids
technicians to create maintenance schedules, procure
 Top 10 Aerospace Technology Trends in 2021
9. Artificial intelligence (AI)
• The aerospace technology industry is also benefiting
from artificial intelligence and the use of machine or active
learning in research and education. Machine learning offers the
ability to gain new insights into materials by employing artificial
intelligence to discover new patterns and relations in the data. AI
can handle far more complex problems than humans, and can run
the gambit of thousands of outcomes within moments compared
to how long the human brain takes to process information.
• For instance, in order to create the next generation of technology,
researchers at the United States Air Force Research
Laboratory (AFRL) are using machine learning, AI and
autonomous systems to exponentially increase the speed of
materials discovery and lower the cost of technology.
 Top 10 Aerospace Technology Trends in 2021
10. Autonomous Flight Systems
• Implementing autonomous technologies has been a
growing trend across several industries, and the
aerospace industry is no exception. Much of this has
been focused on increasing autonomous flights, with
the end goal being to launch fully human-free flights.
While this may still be several years away, investments
and innovation will consistently be geared toward this in
the coming years. We might see planes being cut down
to just one pilot and subsequently becoming
autonomously operated in the coming years. This has
already occurred with drones, although this technology
will obviously need to be scaled-up before it’s ready for
passenger planes and longer journeys.
 Top 10 Marine sectors Technology Trends in 2021
[Link] Growth of Sensor Technology
• Sensor technology is one of the most advanced and well-
developed technologies today. With the introduction of
sensors, there is no need for checking equipment on the
ships manually. Connecting all the machinery to sensors
through wireless connectivity enables the crew on the ship
to keep accurate tabs on the working condition of
machines, the maintenance required at regular intervals,
and their complete operability on ships.
• In addition, if the sensors are combined with machine
learning and artificial intelligence, they can access remote
locations and analyze the data, immediately sending out
alerts if any of the ship’s parts need maintenance.
• Sensor technology, if calibrated correctly, can guarantee
 Top 10 Marine sectors Technology Trends in 2021
2. Robotic Automation
• The use of robots in every sector has become quite common in
the past few years. In the shipping industry, robots are gradually
being used to aid all the tasks. Activities like packing, delivering,
inspection, firefighting, etc. can be carried out by robots
effortlessly.
• Since robots work more effectively and without any breaks, the
shipping industry is anticipated to come to rely heavily on the use
of robots for every function. These robots will also be able to
locate and navigate ships and can be used to eliminate a threat in
case of an attack. The size of these robots is also being worked
upon. Robots the size of heavy machinery can take up a lot of
space and prove to be a hurdle. New types of robots, called ‘mini-
robots’, are being paired with the sensors to identify and record
all the data in the ship and work on it.
• Given the increasing trend of robotic automation, it can be
 Top 10 Marine sectors Technology Trends in 2021
3. Autonomous Ships
• Autonomous systems in shipping are gaining immense
popularity on account of their capability to deliver goods
without any interference. These systems operate at peak
efficiency for a significantly longer duration that is needed in
the shipping industry.
• Leading technology companies have invested in the research
and development of these autonomous systems. Surface,
underwater, and air-based vehicles are being used to monitor
activity, tap desirable locations for oil and natural gas, and
other such activities. These autonomous sysdetection
technology, which eliminates the human effort involved.
• For instance, a Transportation Management System (TMS) is a
system designed to manage the supply of goods efficiently. It
enables the company to keep a proper track record of their
 Top 10 Marine sectors Technology Trends in 2021
4. Advanced Environment-Friendly Material
• Increasing trade in the shipping industry has caused a lot of
pollution and environmental damage. Waste effluents, fuel from
ships, oil spills, and other shipping-related issues have made it
necessary to adopt a greener approach in the marsustainable
materials, like fibre-reinforced plastic, to carry a large itime
industry. Megaships are being designed with more quantity of
cargo at a time, thus reducing traffic. The reducing traffic will also
ensure reduced carbon footprint of the ships
• Increasing trade in the shipping industry has caused a lot of
pollution and environmental damage. Waste effluents, fuel from
ships, oil spills, and other shipping-related issues have made it
necessary to adopt a greener approach in the maritime industry.
Megaships are being designed with more sustainable materials,
like fibre-reinforced plastic, to carry a large quantity of cargo at a
time, thus reducing traffic. The reducing traffic will also ensure
 Top 10 Marine sectors Technology Trends in 2021
5. Efficient Propulsion Technique
• The large amount of fuel used in ships has adverse
effects on the environment. New technology combined
with innovative thinking has led to the substitution of
common fuels with low carbon fuels and alternative
fuels, thus reducing the emission of greenhouse gases
like carbon and sulfur.
• Modifications to the sails, hulls and other parts of the
ship can also increase propulsion, which have a positive
environmental impact.
 Top 10 Marine sectors Technology Trends in 2021

6. Port Management
• Optimization of operating procedures at the harbour
with the help of technology can reduce the time the
ships have to wait at the port. The reduced waiting time
will guarantee less carbon emission from ships at the
docks. To make the unloading of the ship faster, it is
important to make use of robots and other machinery
to lift heavy cargo.
 Top 6 Trends in Mechanical
Engineering
in 2021:
Interconnected Machines

• Machine to machine (M2M) or Interconnected

Machines is a method that facilitates direct
communication between machines either through a
wired or wireless medium. Industrial
instrumentation helps sensors in interconnected
machines to communicate vital information. This
trend will bring about efficient use of power and
diversified IP networks to influence faster and
better services around the globe through remote
monitoring in the supply-chain management.
 Digital
Manufacturing
• Automation has become the norm of the manufacturing
industry, which is why there is a growing need to model
automated tools, run relevant simulations, and
continuously analyse the functioning of these machines.
There is a growing need for manufactured goods in the
market today, and this is where digital manufacturing
comes into play. This trend will ensure faster and glitch-
free manufacturing processes which will prevent delays
in manufacturing, wastage, and will ensure flexibility in
the manufacturing industry.
 Biomedical
Engineering
• Biomedical engineering is one of the fastest emerging
trends in mechanical engineering today. It combines the
concepts of design and engineering to the field of
medicine and biology to modernise healthcare.
Biomedical engineering can help facilitate better patient
diagnosis, health monitoring, and therapy. Some of the
currently existing examples of biomedical engineering
are dental implants, pacemakers, and life saving
artificial organs. This branch of mechanical engineering
is projected to grow by leaps and bounds in the coming
years.
 Green
Manufacturing
• The need of the hour for the human race is to ensure a
more sustainable approach to life by engaging in
manufacturing practices that can reduce waste,
minimise pollution, utilise natural resources, and reduce
emissions. This can be done through green
manufacturing practices which will have a direct impact
on product design, streamlined manufacturing
processes, standardised regulations, and lean
manufacturing.
 Nanotechnology

• Nanotechnology is the branch of science that deals

in the manipulation of matter which consists of at
least one dimension with a size ranging from 1 to
100 nanometres. Nanotechnology is a wide field
with multiple areas of science including molecular
engineering, surface science, and energy storage.
This tech can amplify the applications of mechanical
engineering in various fields and industries.
 Industry
4.0
• We are still at the very crux of Industry 4.0 as this trend
emphasises on exchange of data and automation in the
mechanical engineering industry.
• On a broad spectrum, Industry 4.0 has led to the use of
mechanical sensors, Internet of Things, machine
learning, artificial intelligence, and cloud computing.
• Smart factories and smart manufacturing are going to
be the cornerstones of Industry 4.0. As the industry
demands, more and more colleges are upgrading the
curriculum of their mechanical engineering programs to
the requirements of Education 4.0.
Friday, November 15, 2024 68
 Non-renewable and renewable energy resources

Energy Ability & Capacity to do work.

• Most of the energy that we use is mainly
derived from conventional energy sources.
• Due to the vast demand of energy, the rate
of depletion of these resources has reached
alarmingly low levels.
• This situation has directed us to seek
alternate energy sources such as solar, wind,
ocean, biomass, Hydel etc.
Friday, November 15, 2024 69
 ENERGY SOURCES:

• The energy existing in the earth is known as CAPITAL energy.

• Energy that comes from outer space is called CELESTIAL or
INCOME energy.
• The CAPITAL energy sources are mainly, fossil fuels, nuclear
fuels and heat traps.
• CELESTIAL ENERGY SOURCES are- Electromagnetic,
gravitational and particle energy from stars, planets, moon etc,.
•ELECTROMAGNETIC ENERGY of the earth and sun is
called DIRECT SOLAR ENERGY.
•This results in WIND, HYDEL, GEOTHERMAL, BIOFUEL,
etc.
•GRAVITATIONAL ENERGY of earth and moon produces
TIDAL ENERGY.
Friday, November 15, 2024 70
 RENEWABLE SOURCES OF ENERGY:
Energy sources which are continuously produced in nature
and are essentially inexhaustible are called renewable energy
sources.
1. Direct solar energy
2. Wind energy
3. Tidal energy
4. Hydel energy
5. Ocean thermal energy
6. Bio energy
7. Geo thermal energy
8. Peat
9. Fuel wood
10. Fuel cells
11. Solid wastes
12. Hydrogen
Friday, November 15, 2024 71
 NON RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES:

Energy sources which have been

accumulated over the ages and not quickly
recovered when they are exhausted.

1. Fossil fuels.

2. Nuclear fuels.

3. Heat traps.
Friday, November 15, 2024 72
 Petroleum based solid, liquid and gaseous fuels.

Petroleum
Mineral oil composed of hydrocarbons formed in the
Earth’s crust.
Petroleum based fuels

A Thick flammable, yellow-to-black mixture of solid,

liquid and gaseous hydrocarbons
that occurs naturally beneath the earth's surface and can be
separated into fractions
including natural gas, gasoline, naphtha, kerosene, fuel and
lubricating oils, paraffin wax, and asphalt and is used as ra
w material for a wide variety of derivative products.
Friday, November 15, 2024 73
 Types of Fuels

The important fuels are as follows-

1) Solid fuels
2) Liquid fuels
3) Gaseous fuels

Friday, November 15, 2024 74

1) Solid fuels

• Coal is the major fuel used for thermal power plants to

generate steam.
• Coal occurs in nature, which was formed by the decay of
vegetable matters buried under the earth millions of years ago
under pressure and heat.
• This phenomenon of transformation of vegetable matter into
coal under earth’s crust is known as Metamorphism.
• The type of coal available under the earth’s surface depends upon
the period of metamorphism and the type of vegetable matter
buried, also the pressure and temperature conditions.
• The major constituents in coal moisture (5-40%), volatile matter
(combustible & or incombustible substances about 50%) and ash
(20-50%).

Friday, November 15, 2024 75

 2. Liquid Fuels
• All types of liquid fuels used are derived from crude
petroleum and its by-products.
• The petroleum or crude oil consists of 80-85% C, 10-15%
hydrogen, and varying percentages of sulphur , nitrogen,
oxygen and compounds of vanadium.
• The crude oil is refined by fractional distillation process to
obtain fuel oils, for industrial as well as for domestic
purposes.
• The fractions from light oil to heavy oil are naphtha,
gasoline, kerosene, diesel and finally heavy fuel oil.
• The heavy fuel oil is used for generation of steam.
• The use of liquid fuels in thermal power plants has many
advantages over the use of solid fuels.
Friday, November 15, 2024 76
 Some important advantages of liquid fuel are as follows:

1) The storage and handling of liquid fuels is much easier

than solid and gaseous fuels.
2) Excess air required for the complete combustion of liquid
fuels is less, as compared to the solid fuels.
3) Fire control is easy and hence changes in load can be met
easily and quickly.
4) There are no requirements of ash handling and disposal.
5) The system is very clean, and hence the labour required
is relatively less compare to the operation with solid fuels.

Friday, November 15, 2024 77

 3) Gaseous Fuels

• For the generation of steam in gas fired thermal plants, either

natural gas or manufactured gaseous fuels are used.
• However, manufactured gases are costlier than the natural gas.
• Generally, natural gas is used for power plants as it is
available in abundance.
• The natural gas is generally obtained from gas wells and
petroleum wells.
• The major constituent in natural gas is methane, about 60-
65%, and also contains small amounts of other hydrocarbons
such as ethane, naphthene and aromatics, carbon dioxide and
nitrogen.
• The natural gas is transported from the source to the place of
use through pipes, for distances to several hundred kilometers.
• The natural gas is colourless, odourless and non-toxic.
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Friday, November 15, 2024 79
Friday, November 15, 2024 80
 Fractional distillation: Crude Oil from the ground contains a mixture of
different length hydrocarbons. As the hydrocarbons have different lengths
they have different melting and boiling points. Longer hydrocarbons have
high boiling points and are very viscous (thick), smaller hydrocarbons have
low boiling points and are less viscous but more volatile (evaporate and
catch fire easily). Different hydrocarbons have different jobs - those that
ignite easily are used as fuels and those that are more viscous are used as
tar for making roads.
The hydrocarbons in crude oil are separated using fractional
distillations. This is where hydrocarbons are heated up until they have
vapourised and then fed into a fractionating tower. As the hydrocarbons
rise up the tower they cool and separate into their different fractions (the
tower is hotter at the bottom and cooler at the top).
Friday, November 15, 2024 81
Friday, November 15, 2024 82
 NUCLEAR ENERGY
Nuclear energy is the energy that
holds the nucleus of an atom.
The energy released during
nuclear fission or fusion is used
to generate electricity.

Nuclear fission uses

uranium to create energy.
Nuclear energy is a
nonrenewable resource because
once the uranium is used, it is
gone!

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 Nuclear Fission: - Nuclear fission is the process of splitting a
nucleus into two nuclei with smaller masses. Fission means
“to divide”.

“The most common nuclear fuels are uranium-235

(235U) plutonium-239. Not all nuclear fuels are used in fission
chain reactions”

Friday, November 15, 2024 84

 Nuclear Fusion: - Nuclear fusion is the combining of two
nuclei with low masses to form one nucleus of larger mass.
Nuclear fusion reactions are also called thermonuclear
reactions.

Friday, November 15, 2024 85

 Chain Reaction: - A chain reaction is an ongoing series of
fission reactions. Billions of reactions occur each second in a
chain reaction.

•On earth, nuclear fission reactions take place in nuclear

reactors, which use controlled chain reactions to generate
electricity.

•Uncontrolled chain reactions take place during the explosion

of an atomic bomb.

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Friday, November 15, 2024 87
 Working principle of a nuclear power station
The schematic diagram of nuclear power station is
shown in figure. A generating station in which nuclear
energy is converted into electrical energy is known as
nuclear power station.
The main components of this station are
1. Nuclear reactor
2. Control rods
3. Steam generators
4. Steam turbine
5. Coolant pump
6. Feed pump
7. Condenser
8. Cooling tower

Friday, November 15, 2024 88

Friday, November 15, 2024 89
 NUCLEAR REACTOR:- A nuclear reactor is a device in which
nuclear chain reactions are initiated, controlled, and sustained
at a steady rate, as opposed to a nuclear bomb, in which the
chain reaction occurs in a fraction of a second and is
uncontrolled causing an explosion.
CONTROL RODS: - Control rods made of a material that
absorbs neutrons are inserted into the bundle using a
mechanism that can rise or lower the control rods. The control
rods essentially contain neutron absorbers like, boron, cadmium
or indium.
STEAM GENERATORS: - Steam generators are heat
exchangers used to convert water into steam from heat
produced in a nuclear reactor core. Either ordinary water or
heavy water is used as the coolant.

Friday, November 15, 2024 90

 STEAM TURBINE: - A steam turbine is a mechanical
device that extracts thermal energy from pressurized steam,
and converts it into useful mechanical work. Various high-
performance alloys and super alloys have been used for
steam generator tubing.
COOLANT PUMP: - The coolant pump pressurizes the
coolant to pressures of the order of 155bar. The pressure of
the coolant loop is maintained almost constant with the help
of the pump and a pressurizer unit.
FEED PUMP: - Steam coming out of the turbine, flows
through the condenser for condensation and recirculation for
the next cycle of operation. The feed pump circulates the
condensed water in the working fluid loop.

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 CONDENSER: - Condenser is a device or unit which is used
to condense vapor into liquid. The objective of the condenser
are to reduce the turbine exhaust pressure to increase the
efficiency and to recover high quality feed water in the form
of condensate & feedback it to the steam generator without
any further treatment.
COOLING TOWER: - Cooling towers are heat removal
devices used to transfer process waste heat to the
atmosphere. Water circulating through the condenser is taken
to the cooling tower for cooling and reuse.
Friday, November 15, 2024 92
Friday, November 15, 2024 93
 The reactor of a nuclear power plant is similar to the
furnace in a steam power plant. The heat liberated in the reactor
due to the nuclear fission of the fuel is taken up by the coolant
circulating in the reactor.
A hot coolant leaves the reactor at top and then flows
through the tubes of heat exchanger and transfers its heat to the
feed water on its way. The steam produced in the heat exchanger
is passed through the turbine and after the work has done by the
expansion of steam in the turbine, steam leaves the turbine and
flows to the condenser.
The mechanical or rotating energy developed by the
turbine is transferred to the generator which in turn generates the
electrical energy and supplies through a step-up transformer,
a circuit breaker, and an isolator. Pumps are provided to
maintain the flow of coolant, condensate, and feed water.

Friday, November 15, 2024 94

 ADVANTAGES:-
• Nuclear power generation does emit relatively low amounts of
carbon dioxide (CO2).
• The emissions of greenhouse gases and therefore the
contribution of nuclear power plants to global warming is
therefore relatively little.
• This technology is readily available, it does not have to be
developed first.
• It is possible to generate a high amount of electrical energy in
one single plant.

Friday, November 15, 2024 95

 DISADVANTAGES:-
•The problem of radioactive waste is still an
unsolved one.
•High risks: It is technically impossible to build a
plant with 100% security.
•The energy source for nuclear energy is Uranium.
Uranium is a scarce resource, its supply is estimated
to last only for the next 30 to 60 years depending
on the actual demand.

Friday, November 15, 2024 96

Friday, November 15, 2024 97
 Nuclear power is the fourth-largest source
of electricity in India after thermal, hydroelectric an
d renewable sources of electricity.
As of 2023, India has 22 nuclear reactors in
operation in 7 nuclear power plants, having an
installed capacity of 6780 MW and producing a
total of 30,292.91 GWh of electricity while 6 more
reactors are under construction and are expected to
generate an additional 4,300 MW.
The total installed power generation capacity
is the sum of utility capacity, captive power
capacity, and other non-utilities which is 482.232
GW as on 31 March 2022.
Friday, November 15, 2024 98
 Hydro Power

Hydropower or water power

is power derived from the energy of falling water or
fast running water, which may be harnessed for
useful purposes.
Since ancient times, hydropower from many
kinds of watermills has been used as a renewable
energy source for irrigation and the operation of
various mechanical devices, such
as gristmills, sawmills, textile mills, trip hammers,
dock cranes, domestic lifts, and ore mills.

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Friday, November 15, 2024 100
 Hydro Power Plant

In hydroelectric power plants the potential energy of water

due to its high location is converted into electrical energy. The
total power generation capacity of the hydroelectric power
plants depends on the head of water and volume of water
flowing towards the water turbine.
The hydroelectric power plant, also called as dam or
hydro power plant, is used for generation of electricity from
water on large scale basis. The dam is built across the
large river that has sufficient quantity of water throughout
the river. In certain cases where the river is very large, more
than one dam can built across the river at different locations.
The rain water flowing as river can be stored behind dams and
released in a regulated way to generate hydro power.
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Friday, November 15, 2024 103
 Fundamental parts of hydro power plant

• Dam
• Reservoir
• Penstock
• Surge tank
• Turbines and generators
• Switchgear and protection

Friday, November 15, 2024 104

 RESERVOIR: A reservoir is a storage space, where water is
stored. A reservoir usually means an
enlarged natural or artificial lake, storage pond created using
a dam or lock to store water.
DAM: A dam is a barrier that holds the water or underground
streams. The main function of dam is to stop the flow of water
and reserve the water in reservoir.
PENSTOCK: A penstock is a sluice or gate or intake structure
that controls water flow, or an enclosed pipe that delivers water
to hydro turbines.
SURGE TANK: A surge tank (or surge drum) is a standpipe or
storage reservoir at the downstream end of a closed channel or
dam. It serves as a barrage pipe to absorb sudden rises of
pressure, as well as to quickly provide extra water during a less
drop in pressure.
Friday, November 15, 2024 105
TURBINES & GENERATORS:
Turbine is a rotary machine that converts kinetic
energy and potential energy of water into mechanical work.
Generator is a device that converts mechanical
energy to electrical energy for use in an external circuit.
Basically, the generators work on the principle of magnets which
is that when you pass a magnet near a conductor, electric current
flows through it.
SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION:
In an electric power system, switchgear is the combination
of electrical disconnect switches, fuses or circuit breakers used
to control, protect and isolate electrical equipment. Switchgear is
used both to de-energize equipment to allow work to be done and
to clear faults downstream. This type of equipment is directly
linked to the reliability of the electricity supply.
Friday, November 15, 2024 106
Principles of electric power generation from hydropower plants

The water flowing in the river possesses two type of energy:

(1) The kinetic energy due to flow of water and
(2) Potential energy due to the height of water.
In hydroelectric power plant potential energy of water is
utilized to generate electricity.
The potential energy of water stored at a height is
converted into mechanical energy in water turbine. The
mechanical energy produced by the water turbine is converted
into electrical energy by the generators. And the system is
controlled by the control unit. After doing useful work water is
discharged from the turbine to the river through a water to the
tail race through a draft tube.

Friday, November 15, 2024 107

 ADVANTAGES:
1. Environmental friendly source.
2. Large scale power generation.
3. Hydroelectricity does not "use" water, all of the water is
returned to its source of origin.
4. It is also another absolutely clean source of energy.
5. Dams are designed to last many decades and so can
contribute to the generation of electricity for many years /
decades.
6. The lake that forms behind the dam can be used for water
sports and leisure / pleasure activities. Often large dams
become tourist attractions in their own right.
7. The lake's water can be used for irrigation purposes.
8. They do not pollute the atmosphere.

Friday, November 15, 2024 108

 DISADVANTAGES:
1. Dams are extremely expensive to build and must be built
to a very high standard.
2. In summer water may not sufficient to produce
electricity.
3. The creation of dams can also create flooding of land.
4. The building of large dams can cause serious geological
damage.
5. Dams built blocking the progress of a river in one
country usually means that the water supply from the
same river in the following country is out of their
control. This can lead to serious problems between
neighboring countries.

Friday, November 15, 2024 109

 Solar Power
Energy from the
sun.
Why is energy
from the sun
renewable?

Friday, November 15, 2024 110

 Solar radiation
Solar radiation is radiant energy emitted by the sun from a
nuclear fusion reaction that creates electromagnetic energy. The
spectrum of solar radiation is close to that of a black body with a
temperature of about 5800 K. About half of the radiation is in the visible
short-wave part of the electromagnetic spectrum.

Friday, November 15, 2024 111

 Solar Constant

Solar constant, is a measure of flux density. It is the

quantity of radiant solar energy received at the outer layer of
the earth’s atmosphere that has a mean value of 1370 watts
per square meter.
The surface of the earth receives about 1014kW of
solar energy from the sun. One square meter of the land
exposed to direct sun-light receives an energy equivalent of
about 1.353 kW of power. This constant may increase by only
0.2 percent of each 11 year solar cycle. The radiant solar
energy falling on the earth surface is directly converted into
thermal energy. The surfaces on which the solar rays fall are
called collectors.

Friday, November 15, 2024 112

 Insolation
Insolation is the amount of solar radiation reaching the
earth. Also called Incident Solar Radiation. Maximum value is
1000 kW/m2.

Components of Solar Radiation:

• Direct radiation
• Diffuse radiation
• Reflect radiation

Friday, November 15, 2024 113

 Solar Thermal Energy harvesting:

Radiant solar energy is directly converted into thermal

energy (heat energy) by using a collector. This process is called
as Helio thermal process. The surface on which the solar rays
falls is called a collector.
Solar energy collector is a device which absorbs
incoming solar radiation, coverts it into heat energy and
transfers this heat to a fluid (usually air, water or oil) flowing
through the collector.
There are two types of collectors:
(a) Flat plate collectors
(b) Focusing collectors

Friday, November 15, 2024 114

LIQUID FLAT PLATE COLLECTORS

It has the following components:

(a) Absorbing plate –
•Made of Copper, Aluminium or steel.
•It is coated with material to enhance the absorption of solar
radiation.
•From the absorbing plates heat is transferred to tubes which
carry either water or air.
Friday, November 15, 2024 115
(b) Water tubes –
•These are metallic tubes through which water circulates.
Which are attached to the absorber plate.
(c) Transparent covers –
•Sheets of solar radiation transmitting materials placed above
the absorbing plate.
•They allow solar energy to reach the absorbing plate
while reducing convection, conduction and re-radiation heat
losses.
•Made of a toughened glass, usually 4mm thick. Which helps
in reflecting the incident solar energy back to the absorber
plate.
•Glass cover permits the entry of solar radiation as it is
transparent for incoming short wave length.
(d) Insulation –
• It minimizes and protects the absorbing plate from heat
losses.
Friday, November 15, 2024 116
 Working

Sun rays falling on the transparent covers are transmitted to

the absorbing plate. The absorbing plate usually of Cu, Al
or galvanized iron is painted dead black for maximum
absorption. The collector (plate) will absorb the sun energy and
transfer it to the fluid in the pipe beneath the collector plate.
Use of flat mirrors on the sides improves the output. Water
from the overhead tank is made to flow through the water
tubes. Solar rays passes through the transparent cover and falls
on the absorber plate. Heat energy from the absorber plate is
transferred to the cold water flowing through the tubes. Warm
water rises above the cold water because of low density and
flows into the heater tank.

Friday, November 15, 2024 117

 SOLAR POND

Friday, November 15, 2024 118

• A salinity gradient solar pond is an integral collection
and storage device of solar energy.
• By virtue of having built-in thermal energy storage, it can be
used irrespective of time and season.
• In an ordinary pond or lake, when the sun's rays heat up the
water this heated water, being lighter, rises to the surface and
loses its heat to the atmosphere.
• The net result is that the pond water remains at nearly
atmospheric temperature.
• The solar pond technology utilizing this phenomena by
dissolving salt into the bottom layer of this pond, making it too
heavy to rise to the surface, even when hot.
• The salt concentration increases with depth, thereby forming a
salinity gradient.

Friday, November 15, 2024 119

 • The sunlight which reaches the bottom of the pond
remains entrapped there.
• The useful thermal energy is then withdrawn from the
solar pond in the form of hot brine.
•The pre-requisites for establishing solar ponds are: a large
tract of land (it could be barren), a lot of sun shine,
and cheaply available salt (such as Sodium Chloride)
or brine.
• Generally, there are three main layers. The top layer is
cold and has relatively little salt content.
• The bottom layer is hot up to 100°C (212°F) and is very
salty.
• Separating these two layers is the important gradient zone.

Friday, November 15, 2024 120

 Solar pond electric power plant:-

Friday, November 15, 2024 121

• The energy obtained from a solar pond is used to drive a
Rankine cycle heat engine.
• Hot water from the bottom level of the pond is pumped to the
evaporator where the working fluid is vaporized.
• This vapour then flows under high pressure to the turbine where
it expands and work thus obtained runs an electric generator
producing electricity.
• The vapour is then condensed through a cooling system and the
liquid is pumped back to the evaporator and the cycle is repeated.
Application of solar ponds:-
[Link] and cooling of buildings.
[Link] of power
[Link] process heat.
[Link] animal housing.
[Link] crops on farms.
Friday, November 15, 2024 122
 Photovoltaic Cell
Solar energy can be directly converted to electrical energy by
means of photovoltaic effect. Photovoltaic effect is defined as the
generation of an electromotive force (EMF) as a result of the
absorption of ionizing radiation. Devices which convert sunlight to
electricity are known as solar cells or photovoltaic cells. Solar cells
are semiconductors, commonly used are barrier type iron-selenium
cells.
• Iron-selenium cells consist of a metal electrode on which a
layer of selenium is deposited.
• On the top of this a barrier layer is formed which is coated with a
very thin layer of gold.
• The layer of gold serves as a translucent electrode through
which light can impinge on the layer below.
• Under the influence of sunlight, a negative charge will build up
on the gold electrode and a positive charge on the bottom electrode.
• This difference in charge will produce voltage in proportion to
the suns radiant energy incident on it.
Friday, November 15, 2024 123
Friday, November 15, 2024 124
 Basic photovoltaic system for power generation:
This system consists of the following:
1. Solar array (solar cells)
2. Blocking diode
3. Battery storage
4. Inverter
5. Switches and load centre
• In the solar cell array due to photovoltaic effect electrical power
(D.C.) will be produced in proportion to the suns radiant energy
incident on it.
• This generated power will be stored in the battery storage.
• A blocking diode ensures that the battery would not discharge
power back to solar array during the period when there is no sunlight.
• An inverter converter converts the D.C power to A.C. and sends it to
the load centre.
• From the load centre A.C. power is distributed accordingly with the
help of switches.

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Friday, November 15, 2024 126
15-Nov-24 ENERGY AND STEAM 127
Friday, November 15, 2024 128
 Wind is the flow of
WIND air on a large scale. On
the surface of the Earth,
wind consists of the
bulk movement of air.

Wind Power
Wind power is the use
of air flow through
WIND power wind turbines to
mechanical power
generators for electric
power.
Friday, November 15, 2024 129
Power in the wind:
Wind energy is the energy contained in the force of the
winds blowing across the earth surface. Wind energy is
defined as the kinetic energy associated with the
movement of large masses of air over the earth’s surface.
Wind possesses kinetic energy by virtue of its motion.
Any device capable of slowing down the mass of moving air,
like a sail or propeller, can extract part of this energy and
convert into useful work.
The kinetic energy of one cubic meter of air blowing at
a velocity V is given by,
E = 1/2 mV²

Friday, November 15, 2024 130

 The rate at which the wind energy is transferred,
i.e., wind power is given by,
P = EV
P = 1/2ρAV3 W/m2
No device, however well designed can extract all
the wind energy because the wind would have to be
brought to halt and this would block the passage of
incoming air through the rotor.
It has been found that for maximum power output
the exit velocity is equal to one-third of the entrance
velocity. Thus a maximum of 60% of the available energy
in the wind is converted into mechanical energy.

Friday, November 15, 2024 131

Wind Energy Conversion:

Friday, November 15, 2024 132

Friday, November 15, 2024 133
 • A windmill is the oldest device built to convert the wind
energy into mechanical energy used for grinding, milling
and pumping applications.
• It consists of a rotor fitted with large sized blades.
• Now improvement in performance is achieved by
applying sound engineering and aerodynamic
principles.
• Nowadays the wind energy is used to produce electrical
energy.
• Wind energy is converted into mechanical energy in
wind turbines.
• These wind turbines are coupled to generators the
mechanical energy is converted into electrical energy.
Friday, November 15, 2024 134
Friday, November 15, 2024 135
Friday, November 15, 2024 136
 Advantages of Wind Energy:
• Wind is free, wind farms need no fuel.
• Produces no waste or greenhouse gases.
• The land beneath can usually still be used for farming.
• A good method of supplying energy to remote areas.

Disadvantage of Wind Energy:

• The wind energy available in dilute form, hence bigger size
energy conversion machines are required.
• Wind energy systems are noisy in operation.
• Large space is required.
• High initial cost.
• High maintenance cost
Friday, November 15, 2024 137
 Biofuel
• Biofuel, any fuel that is derived from biomass—that
is, plant or algae material or animal waste.
• Since such feedstock material can be replenished readily,
biofuel is considered to be a source of renewable
energy, unlike fossil fuels such as petroleum, coal,
and natural gas.
• Biofuel is commonly advocated as a cost-effective and
environmentally benign alternative to petroleum and other
fossil fuels, particularly within the context of rising petroleum
prices and increased concern over the contributions made by
fossil fuels to global warming.
• Many critics express concerns about the scope of the
expansion of certain biofuels because of the
economic and environmental costs associated with
the refining process and the potential removal of
vast areas of arable land from food production. 138
Friday, November 15, 2024
 Types of biofuels
• Some long-exploited biofuels, such
as wood, can be used directly as a raw
material that is burned to
produce heat.
• The heat, in turn, can be used to run
generators in a power plant to
produce electricity.
• A number of existing power facilities
burn grass, wood, or other kinds of
biomass.
Friday, November 15, 2024 139
• Liquid biofuels are of particular interest
because of the vast infrastructure already in
place to use them, especially for
transportation.
• The liquid biofuel in greatest production is ethanol
(ethyl alcohol), which is made
by fermenting starch or sugar.
• Brazil and the United States are among the leading
producers of ethanol.
• In the United States ethanol biofuel is made
primarily from corn (maize) grain, and it is
typically blended with gasoline to produce
“gasohol,” a fuel that is 10 percent ethanol.
Friday, November 15, 2024 140
 • In Brazil, ethanol biofuel is made primarily
from sugarcane, and it is commonly used as a
100-percent-ethanol or in gasoline blends
containing 85 percent ethanol. fuel
• Unlike the “first-generation” ethanol biofuel
produced from food crops, “second-
generation” cellulosic ethanol is derived from
low-value biomass that possesses a
high cellulose content, including wood chips,
crop residues, and municipal waste.
• Cellulosic ethanol is commonly made from
sugarcane bagasse, a waste product from sugar
processing, or from various grasses that can
be cultivated on low-quality land.
• Given that the conversion rate is lower than with first-
generation biofuels, cellulosic ethanol is dominantly
used as a gasoline additive.
Friday, November 15, 2024 141
• The second most common liquid biofuel is biodiesel,
which is made primarily from oily plants (such as
the soybean or oil palm) and to a lesser extent from
other oily sources (such as waste cooking fat from
restaurant deep-frying).
• Biodiesel, which has found greatest acceptance in
Europe, is used in diesel engines and usually blended
with petroleum diesel fuel in various percentages.
• The use of algae and cyanobacteria as a source of
“third-generation” biodiesel holds promise but has
been difficult to develop economically.
• Some algal species contain up to 40 percent lipids by weight,
which can be converted into biodiesel or synthetic petroleum.
• Some estimates state that algae and cyanobacteria could yield
between 10 and 100 times more fuel per unit area than
second-generation biofuels.
Friday, November 15, 2024 142
 Other biofuels include methane gas and biogas—
which can be derived from the decomposition of
biomass in the absence of oxygen—
and methanol, butanol, and dimethyl ether—
which are in development.

Friday, November 15, 2024 143

 Economic and environmental
considerations
• In evaluating the economic benefits of biofuels, the
energy required to produce them has to be taken
into account.
• For example, the process of growing corn to
produce ethanol consumes fossil fuels in farming
equipment, in fertilizer manufacturing, in corn
transportation, and in ethanol distillation.
• In this respect, ethanol made from corn
represents a relatively small energy gain; the
energy gain from sugarcane is greater and
that from cellulosic ethanol or algae
biodiesel could be even greater.
Friday, November 15, 2024 144
• Biofuels also supply environmental
benefits but, depending on how they are
manufactured, can also have serious
environmental drawbacks.
• As a renewable energy source, plant-
based biofuels in principle make little net
contribution to global
warming and climate change; the carbon
dioxide (a major greenhouse gas) that
enters the air during combustion will have
been removed from the air earlier as
growing plants engage in photosynthesis.
Friday, November 15, 2024 145
• Such a material is said to be “carbon
neutral.”
• In practice, however, the industrial production
of agricultural biofuels can result in
additional emissions of greenhouse gases
that may offset the benefits of using a
renewable fuel.
• These emissions include carbon dioxide from the
burning of fossil fuels during the production
process and nitrous oxide from soil that has been
treated with nitrogen fertilizer. In this regard,
cellulosic biomass is considered to be
more beneficial.
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• Land use is also a major factor in evaluating the
benefits of biofuels.
• The use of regular feedstock, such
as corn and soybeans, as a primary
component of first-generation biofuels
sparked the “food versus fuel” debate.
• In diverting arable land and feedstock
from the human food chain, biofuel
production can affect the economics of
food price and availability.
• In addition, energy crops grown for biofuel can
compete for the world’s natural habitats.
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• For example, emphasis on ethanol derived from corn
is shifting grasslands and brushlands to corn
monocultures, and emphasis on biodiesel is bringing
down ancient tropical forests to make way for oil
palm plantations.
• Loss of natural habitat can change the hydrology,
increase erosion, and generally reduce biodiversity of
wildlife areas.
• The clearing of land can also result in the sudden
release of a large amount of carbon dioxide as the
plant matter that it contains is burned or allowed to
decay.
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• Some of the disadvantages of biofuels apply mainly to
low-diversity biofuel sources—corn, soybeans,
sugarcane, oil palms—which are traditional
agricultural crops.
• One alternative involves the use of highly diverse mixtures
of species, with the North American tallgrass prairie as a
specific example.
• Converting degraded agricultural land that is out of
production to such high-diversity biofuel sources could
increase wildlife area, reduce erosion, cleanse waterborne
pollutants, store carbon dioxide from the air as
carbon compounds in the soil, and ultimately restore
fertility to degraded lands.
• Such biofuels could be burned directly to
generate electricity or converted to liquid fuels as
technologies
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 Environmental issues like Global warming and
Ozone depletion.

• What is global warming?

• Generally, the environmental phenomenon of rising heat
and humidity is called Global warming.
• This temperature rise has a huge impact on polar glaciers.
Every year this elevating temperature melts a significant
amount of glaciers.
• This unhealthy rise in temperature is a big threat to earth
and makes the atmosphere of earth difficult to live in day
by day.
• This phenomenon results from an excessive amount of
carbon in the outer atmosphere.
• Some human activities like increased use of
CFC(Chloroflurocarbon) products like refrigerators, air
conditioners, cars, spray cans, etc., burning natural gases,
coal and oil, etc are mainly responsible for it.
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 Causes of Global Warming

• The alarming rise in temperature is not a natural

occurrence.
• These high levels of heat and humidity are becoming a
life threat for the living creatures on earth.
• And behind the immense rise in temperature, there are
several reasons.
• Here we are listing some major causes of global
warming.
• Carbon Footprints – Generally, an increase in carbon
footprints refers to the increasing population of human
and other living creatures who participate in the rise of
carbon levels of the atmosphere by releasing carbon into
the environment ( like when humans enhance their
lifestyles, it is responsible for more release of carbon).

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• Pollution – The increasing pollution levels are another
major cause of global warming. When the different
elements of the atmosphere like hydrogen, nitrogen,
carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide etc., rise or decrease
unnaturally causes pollution.
• Deforestation- Deforestation is one of the primary
reasons for the unnatural rise in temperature worldwide.
As modern society thrives and the project of a more
civilized surrounding gets more priority, cutting trees and
eliminating forests have become common practices.
Trees play a pivotal role in keeping carbon dioxide levels
in the air in check. But fewer trees indicate a higher level
of carbon dioxide resulting in temperature rise.

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• Increased Greenhouse gases- Greenhouse gases like
carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, CFC etc., are naturally
present in the air. Still, abnormally increased levels of these
gases cause the temperature to rise unnaturally.
• Industrial causes- It is well known that industrial wastes
produce the majority of the pollutants on earth. Also, they
release a large number of Greenhouse gases which cause
global warming.
• Agricultural causes- Many farmers these days use
chemical-based pesticides and fertilizers for agricultural
purposes that are very harmful to our environment and pollute
the air, water and soil. That is why they have a great amount
of responsibility for global warming.

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 What is the ozone layer?

• Earth’s atmosphere has many layers, and each layer has

its unique features.
• The ozone layer is a crucial part of the atmosphere. It is
a part of the stratosphere (a layer of the atmosphere).
• The ozone layer works as a shield for the earth
and reflects most of the UV rays produced by
the sun.
• It protects the earth like an umbrella and interrupts
harmful UV or ultraviolet rays to reach the earth’s
surface.
• Therefore, the ozone layer also helps maintain the
earth’s natural temperature.

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 Global warming and ozone layer
depletion
• Global warming and ozone layer depletion are
environmental phenomena that are closely
intertwined.
• The term ozone hole means depletion in the ozone
layer.
• This layer works as a protective layer of earth and
helps absorb an excessive amount of UV rays,
CFCs, Halon gas etc., that are harmful to living
creatures of the earth.
• Depletion in the ozone layer can create various
severe health problems.

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• Increased Greenhouse gases, heat, pollution
etc., are causing global warming and
depletion of the ozone layer.
• Also, UV rays entering the earth’s
atmosphere because of ozone layer depletion
increases the temperature of the earth.
• So, both of these alarming environmental
phenomena result from human activities like
pollution, carbon release, deforestation,
increased Greenhouse gases etc.
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