Pearl Centre, S.B. Marg, Dadar (W), Mumbai  400 028. Tel.

4232 4232

EE : ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
Module 4 : Power Electronics
INDEX
Sr. Pg.
Contents SubTopics
No. No.
1. Power Semiconductor Devices
Introduction 1
Power Semiconductor Devices 4
Power Diodes 5
Notes Power Transistors 8
Power Mosfets 10
IGBT (Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor) 12
Thyristors 13
2. Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR)
Introduction 23
High Current SCR 25
Low Current SCR 25
Rating of SCR 26
Notes
Protection of SCR 29
Triggering Method of SCR 31
Series  Parallel Operation of SCR 39
Triac 42
3. Converter
Introduction 45
Rectifier 45
Inverter 58
Notes Cyclo Converter 69
Three Phase Converter 71
Three Phase Inverter 81
Three Phase Cyclo Converter 83
Sr. Pg.
Contents SubTopics
No. No.
4. Chopper Regulator
Introduction 85
Oscillation Chopper 87
Morgan’s Chopper 94
Monolithic Timer NE555 99
Notes Common Use of Voltage Regulators 109
Voltage Reference Applications 112
Linear Regulator Applications 119
Switching Regulators 120
723 General Purpose Regulators 122

5. AC and DC Drives
Introduction 131
DC Drive 131
Characteristic of DC Motor 132
Notes
Different Type of Drives 138
Chopper Fed Drive 142
Induction Motor Drive 149

Practice Problems
Questions 167
Answer key 181
Model Solutions 182
 Topic 1 : Power Semiconductor Devices

INTRODUCTION
Power electronics is defined as the applications of solid state electronics for the control
and conversion of electric power. Power electronics is based on switching of power
semiconductor device. Semiconductor device are made of silicon or silicon carbide
(under development)
Classification of power semiconductor devices

GATE/EE/SLP/Module_4/Ch.1_Notes/Pg.1
Vidyalankar : GATE – EE

Application of these device can be shown as,

Characteristic of these device can be shown as.

GATE/EE/SLP/Module_4/Ch.1_Notes/Pg.2
 Notes on Power Semiconductor Devices

Circuit consisting of these semiconductor device has power circuit and triggering circuit
and switching characteristics of power semiconductor.

GATE/EE/SLP/Module_4/Ch.1_Notes/Pg.3
Vidyalankar : GATE – EE

Rating and characteristic of device is of atmost importance to designer. Rating of

commercially available devices are as shown in fig.

POWER SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES

Most of the power semiconductor devices are made up of silicon or silicon carbide.
Various types of semiconductor devices can be broadly classified as
a) Power diodes
b) Power Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJTs)
c) Power metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistors (MOSFETs)
d) Insulatedgate bipolar transistors (IGBTs)
e) Thyristors (SCRs, GTOs,triac,diac)

GATE/EE/SLP/Module_4/Ch.1_Notes/Pg.4
 Notes on Power Semiconductor Devices

POWER DIODES

A diode acts as a switch to perform various functions, such as switches in rectifiers, free
wheeling in switching regulators etc. Power diodes can be assumed to be ideal switches
for most applications.
A power diode is a two terminal pn junction device similar to an ordinary signal diode
except for its current carrying capacity. It has a low resistance to current flow in one
direction (anode to cathode) and high resistance to current flow in the opposite direction
(cathode to anode). The figure below shows sectional view of a pn junction and its
symbol.
Anode cathode Anode cathode
p n

pn junction symbol
Fig. pn junction & diode symbol
When the anode potential is positive with respect to the cathode, the diode is said to
be forward baised and this is its low resistance state. There is a small voltage drop
across the diode. when the cathode potential is positive with respect to the anode,
the diode is reverse biased. A small reverse current flows and this increases with the
applied reverse voltage till a point when the avalanche or zener voltage is reached.
The v  i characteristics of the diode are expressed by the schockley equation as
follows
 
ID = Is e VD /nVT  1
where
ID = current through the diode, A
IS = leakage current typically 106 to 1015 A
VD = diode voltage (anode positive w.r.t the cathode), V
n = emission coefficient (varies from 1 to 2)
The emission coefficient n depends on the material and the physical construction of
the diode. For germanium diodes n is considered 1 and for silicon it is 2. But for most
practical silicon diodes it is between 1.1 to 1.8 and
kT
VT = Thermal voltage =
q
k = Boltzman’s constant = 1.3806  1023 J/k
T = absolute temperature in Kelvin
q = electron charge = 1.602  1019 C,
At room temperature of about 25C,
VT = 25.7 mV
The diode v  i characteristics are shown in the figure.

GATE/EE/SLP/Module_4/Ch.1_Notes/Pg.5
Vidyalankar : GATE – EE

i forward biased region

VBR

o v
Reverse leakage
current

Reverse biased region

Fig. Diode v  i characteristics
Forward biased region : VD > 0
ID is very small if VD < VTD (Threshold voltage  0.7V) If VD > VTD, the diode conducts
fully.
Now, for VD > VTD, eVD /nVT  1
 ID  IS e VD /nVT

Reverse biased region : Now, VD < 0

 VD /nVT
If VD  VT , e  1
 ID  IS
Breakdown Region :
The reverse voltage is high. The breakdown voltage VBR is a voltage, where a small
change in reverse voltage beyond VBR, the reverse current rises rapidly. The
operation will not be destructive if power dissipation is within a safe level.
Reverse Recovery Characteristics :
The current in the forward biased region is due to the net effect of majority and
minority carriers. When the forward current is reduced to zero, the diode continues to
conduct due to minority carriers that remain stored in the pn  junction and the bulk
semiconductor material. The minority carriers need some time to recombine with
opposite charges to be neutralized. This time is called the reverse recovery time of
the diode. It is denoted as trr and is measured from initial zero crossing of the diode
current to 25% of the maximum reverse current IRR. It consists of two components.
The part ta due to charge storage in the depletion region and tb is due to the charge
storage in the bulk semiconductor. The ratio of tb / ta is called the softness factor. The
two extreme types of reverse recovery are shown in the figure below.

IF tRR IF

ta ta tb
tb

0.25IRR 0.25IRR

IRR IRR

Soft recovery Abrupt recovery

GATE/EE/SLP/Module_4/Ch.1_Notes/Pg.6
 Notes on Power Semiconductor Devices

Soft recovery is more common.

di
The break reverse current can be expressed in reverse as
dt
di
IRR = t a
dt
Reverse recovery time tr1 is defined as the time interval between the instant the
current passes through zero during the changeover from forward conduction to
reverse blocking condition and the moment the reverse current has decayed to 25%
of its peak reverse value iRR .
Reverse recovery charge QRR is the amount of charge that flows across the diode in
the reverse direction due to changeover from forward conduction to the reverse
blocking condition.
1 1 1
QRR  IRR t a  IRR tb  IRR trr
2 2 2
2QRR
 IRR 
trr
Usually ta >> tb in which case trr  ta. Also, peak value of reverse current IRR is
expressed in terms of reverse di/dt as
di
IRR = t a
dt
2QRR
 trr 
di / dt
di
IRR  2QRR
dt
If a diode is in reverse biased condition, a leakage current flows due to minority
carriers. When a forward voltage is applied then diode has to carry current in forward
direction. The time required for this process is called the forward recovery (turn  on)
time. The rate of change of current di/dt has to be controlled to avoid localized
current flow and failure of the diode.
The reverse recovery time is usually much larger than the forward recovery time. The
reverse recovery time restricts the frequency at which the diode can be used. Hence
we need to use fast recovery diodes or Schottky diodes in high frequency
applications.
Fast Recovery Diodes :
They have recovery time of about 5s. They are used in dc  dc and dc  ac
converters where the recovery time is critical. Fast recovery diodes are made by
diffusion and recovery time is controlled by platinum or gold diffusion.

Schottky Diodes :
The charge storage problem of a pn junction is minimized in the Schottky diode by
setting up a “barrier potential” with a contact between metal and a semi conductor. A
layer of metal is deposited on a thin epitaxial layer of n  type silicon. The potential
barrier relates the behaviour of a pnjunction. The rectifying action depends only on
the majority carriers, hence there are no excess minority carriers to recombine.

GATE/EE/SLP/Module_4/Ch.1_Notes/Pg.7
Vidyalankar : GATE – EE

POWER TRANSISTORS
Power transistors have controlled turn  on and turn  off characteristics. They can be
broadly divided into following categories
1) Bipolar junction Transistors
2) Metal oxide semiconductor field  effect transistors (MOSFETs)
3) Insulatedgate bipolar transistors (IGBTs)
BJTs :
A BJT is formed by adding a second p or n region to a pnjunction diode. The
transistor with two nregions and one pregion is called NPN transistor and the one
with two pregions and one nregion is called PNP transistor.

Collector Collector Collector Collector

n IC p IC
IB IB
p n
Base Base Base Base
n IE p IE

Emitter Emitter Emitter Emitter

npn transistor PNP transistor

The three terminals are named collector, base and emitter as shown in the figure.
For an NPN type, the emitter is made wide, the base is narrow and collector nregion
is narrow and heavily doped. For a PNP type the emitter side player is made wide,
the nbase is narrow and collector p-layer is narrow and heavily doped.

Steady State Characteristics :

Usually in switching applications, commonemitter configuration of the transistor is
used.
IC
IB VCE1
RC

VCE2
+
RB VCC
VCE  VCE2 > VCE1
+ IB
VB VBE IE

O
VBE
Circuit diagram Input Characteristics

The figure shows the circuit diagram and input characteristics of an npn transistor in
the common emitter (CE) configuration. For a PNP transistor, all the currents and
voltages are reversed. The output characteristics of the npn transistor are shown
below.

GATE/EE/SLP/Module_4/Ch.1_Notes/Pg.8
 Notes on Power Semiconductor Devices

Saturation
region Active
IB
region
IBn

IB2 IBn > IB2 > IB1 > 0

IB1
IB0

Cut off region

Output Characteristics
The three operating regions of a transistor are cutoff, active and saturation. In the
cutoff region, the transistor is off or the base current is not enough to turn it on and
both junctions are reverse biased. In the active region, the transistor acts as an
amplifier, where the base current is amplified by a gain and the collector base
junction is reverse biased & base emitter junction in forward biased. In the saturation
region, base current is sufficiently high and the collector  emitter voltage is low. The
transistor acts as a switch. Both the junctions are forward biased. The transfer
characteristics is as shown in fig.
VCE Active
VCE

Transfer characteristics
Cut
off

saturation
VCE(sat)

IB VBE

The current equation for the transistor can be writer as

IE = IC + IB
The base current is the input current and the collector current is the output current.
The ratio of IC to IB is known as the forward gain F.
I
F  hFE  C
IB
 1  1  F 
 IE  IB 1  F   IC  1    IC  
 F   F 
 F
Let F  F  F 
1  F 1  F
1
 IE   IC
F

GATE/EE/SLP/Module_4/Ch.1_Notes/Pg.9
 Vidyalankar : GATE – EE

 IC  FIE
Consider the common emitter configuration shown
V  VBE
IB = B
RB
FRC
VC  VCE  VCC  ICRC  VCC   VB  VBE 
RB
VCE  VCB  VBE
 VCE  VCE  VBE
Thus the collector base junction is reverse biased as long as VCE  VBE and hence
the transistor stays in the active region.

POWER MOSFETS
A BJT is a current controlled device and requires base current for current flow in the
collector. A power MOSFET, on the other hand, is a voltage controlled device and
requires only a small input current. The switching speed is very high and the switching
times are of the order of nanoseconds. Hence they are widely used in low power high
frequency convertors.
There are two types of MOSFETS (i) depletion types and (ii) enhancement type. An
nchannel depletion type and nchannel enhauncement type MOSFETs are shown in the
figure.

(D) P type Metal (D) Metal

n+ P=type
Subs n+ P type
(G) Subs
trade (G) +
n + Subs
Metal trade VDD VDD
Channel  trade 
n+ Channel n+
Oxide + VGS
(S) (S)
ID 
+ 

VGS
nchannel depletion type nchannel enhancement type
MOSFET MOSFET
RD
RD
D D
G
+ N G
+ DD +
 +
NDD
VGS S VGS S 
 
Symbol Symbol

GATE/EE/SLP/Module_4/Ch.1_Notes/Pg.10
 Notes on Power Semiconductor Devices

An nchannel depletion type MOSFET is formed on a ptype subtrate, with two

heavily doped n+ regions for low resistance connections. The gate is isolated from the
channel by a thin oxide layer. The three terminals are called gate(G), drain (D) and
source (S). If the gate to source voltage VGS is negative, some of the electrons in the
nchannel area are repelled and a depletion region is created below the oxide layer
resulting in narrower channel and high drain to source resistance RDS. If VGS is made
negative enough, the channel becomes completely depleted resulting in no current
flow from drain to source i.e. IDS = 0. The value of VGS at which this occurs is called
pinch  off voltage VP. If VGS is positive, channel becomes wider and IDS increases
due to reduction in RDS.
An nchannel enhancement type MOSFET has no physical channel. If VGS is positive
and induced voltage attracts electrons from the psubstrate and accumulate them at
the surface beneath the oxide layer. If VGS is greater than the threshold voltage VT,
enough electrons are accumulated to form a virtual n channel and the current flows
from the drain to the source.
The polarities of VDS, IDS & VGS are reversed to a ptype channel enhancement
MOSFET.
The enhancement type MOSFETs are generally used in power electronics
applications as switches because they stay off at zero gate voltage.

Steady State Characteristics :

The MOSFETs are voltage controlled devices and have a very high input impedance.
The gate draws a very small leakage current of the order of nano amperes. The
transconductance which is the ratio of drain current and gate voltage defines the
transfer characteristics.
The transfer and output characteristics of MOSFETs is shown in the figure. The three
regions of operation are  cut off region, Pinch  off region and linear region.
ID IDC

IDC

VP 0 VGS 0 VT VGS

nchannel depletion Type nchannel enhancement type

0 VP VT 0 VGS
VGS

ID ID

pchannel depletion Type pchannel enhancement type

GATE/EE/SLP/Module_4/Ch.1_Notes/Pg.11
Vidyalankar : GATE – EE

Transfer Characteristics
Pinch off /
ID linear Saturation region
region VGS5
VGS5 > VGS4 > VGS3 > VGS2 > VGS1
VGS4
VGS3
VGS2
VGS1
VDS
VGS = VT
Output Characteristics of enhancement type MOSFET
In the cut off region, VGS  VT and the MOSFET is off. For the linear region, VDS  VGS
 VT and for the pinch off, VDS =  VGS  VT.
In the linear region, the ID varies in proportion to the VDS. For switching action, power
MOSFETs are operated in the linear region due to high current and low voltage. In
the saturation region, the drain current is constant for any value of VDS and the
transistors are used for voltage amplification.
ID
Transconductance is defined as gm 
VGS VDS  constant

The o/p resistance, r0 = RDS, which is defined as

VDS
RDS 
ID
is normally very high in the pinchoff region of the order of M and is very small in
linear region of the order of M.

IGBT (INSULATED GATE BIPOLAR TRANSISTOR)

An IGBT combines advantages of BJTs and MOSFETs. An IGBT has high input
impedance like MOSFETs and low on state conduction losses, like BJTs. The
construction of an IGBT is shown in the figure.
Collector

p+ substrate

n+ Buffer layer

n epi

p+
p p
n+ p n+
Gate Gate

Emitter
IGBT  Construction

GATE/EE/SLP/Module_4/Ch.1_Notes/Pg.12
 Notes on Power Semiconductor Devices

The construction is similar to that of an MOSFET except the p+ substrate. However

the performance is closer to a BJT than an MOSFET. This is due to the p+ substrate
injecting minority carriers into the nregion.
IGBT is a voltage controlled device like an MOSFET. When the gate is made positive
with respect to the emitter, n carriers are drawn into the pchannel near the gate.
Thus the IGBT is turned on by simply applying a positive voltage to the gate to open
the channel and is turned off by removing the gate voltage to close the channel.
The symbol and circuit and typical output characteristics are shown in the figure.
IC
ID VGE =
C RD 10V
RS G
+ 9V
+ 8V
VG RGE E
 VCC 7V
6V

Circuit
VCE
Output Characteristics

THYRISTORS
Thyristors are a family of pnpn devices used as bistable switches, operating from
nonconducting state to conducting state. Conventional thyristors are designed with gate
controlled turn off i.e. the transition from conducting to a non conducting state occurs only
when the current is brought to zero by the external circuit.
Thyristor construction and symbol is shown in the figure.
Anode
A Anode
p p
J1
n
J2 Gate n
p
J3 p
G n n+
k cathode

cathode Gate
The thyristor can be split into two sections one npn transistor and one pnp transistor.
When the anode voltage is higher wrt the cathode the junctions J1 and J3 are forward
biased and J2 is reverse biased. Hence only a small leakage current flows through
the thyristor. This is called the forward blocking state of the thyristor. If the anode to
cathode voltage VAK is raised sufficiently to the forward breakdown voltage VBO
avalanche breakdown of J2 occurs. The device will conduct and the voltage drop
across it will only be the ohmic drop of about 1V. The anode current is limited by the
external circuit resistance. The anode current should be more than a value known as
latching current to maintain required amount of carrier flow across the junction;
otherwise the device reverts to its forward blocking state. Latching current IL is the
minimum anode current required to maintain the thyristor in the on state immediately
after the thyristor is turned on and the gate signal is removed.

GATE/EE/SLP/Module_4/Ch.1_Notes/Pg.13
Vidyalankar : GATE – EE

Once the thyristor is on, it behaves like a conducting diode and there is no control
over the device. The device conducts freely as there is no depletion layer on the
junction J2. But, if the current is reduced below the level called holding current IH a
depletion region develops across junction J2 and device reverts to the blocking state.
IL > IH.
When the cathode is at a higher potential than the anode junctions J1 and J3 are
reverse biased hence a small reverse current biased flows through the device.
The thyristor is never turned on by increasing VAK above VBO as this process is
destructive. Instead the turnon is achieved by applying a positive gate cathode
voltage and keeping VAK much below VBO. Once the thyristor is on and the anode
current is greater than holding current, the device continues to conduct even if the
gate signal is removed. The thyristor characteristics are shown below.
IT

Forward voltage drop (conducting)

Reverse IL Forward
breakdown voltage leakage current
IH
VAK IT
VBO A
+
Reverse
VAK
leakage current Gate triggered 
k
RL

Thyristor Characteristics

Two transistor model of thyristor :

A
IA = IT
IB1 = IC2
1
Q1

Q2
2
K IB2

K
The regenerative or the latching action due to a positive feed back can be
demonstrated by using a two transistor model of the thyristor. A thyristor can be
considered as two complementary transistors, one pnp Q1 and the other npn Q2 as
shown in the figure.

GATE/EE/SLP/Module_4/Ch.1_Notes/Pg.14
 Notes on Power Semiconductor Devices

The collector current IC, the emitter current IE and the leakage current of the collector
base junction ICBO are related as
IC = IE + ICBO
where  = common base current gain
 IC / IE  ICBO << IC
 For transistor Q1,
IC1 = 1 IA + ICBO1
 For transistor Q2,
IC2 = 2 IA + ICBO2
IA = IC1 + IC2 = IA   2IK  ICBO1  ICBO2
For gating current IG,
IK = IA + IG
 I I I
 IA  2 G CBO1 CBO2
1   1   2 
The current gains 1 and 2 increase with the respective emitter currents IA and IK. If
the gate current IG is suddenly increased the anode current immediately increases
which further increases 1 and 2. The increase in 1 and 2 further increases IA.
Thus, there is a regenerative effect.

GTO (Gate turn off thyristor) :

GTO just like an ordinary thyristor, is turned on by applying positive gate voltage. But
a GTO can be turned off by a negative gate signal. GTO is a nonlatching device.
The GTO symbol and construction are shown in the figure.
A Anode (A) A
P
n Q2
p
n+
n n
p
G n+ Q1 G
P
n
Turn on
K K
Gate (G) Turn off
Cathode (k)
Compared to a traditional thyristor, GTO has an additional n+ layer near the anode
that forms a turn off circuit between gate and cathode in parallel with the turn on
gate. The equivalent circuit shown is similar to that of a thyristor except the internal
turnoff mechanism. If a large pulse current is passed from the cathode to the gate to
take away sufficient charge carriers from the cathode, i.e. from the emitter of npn
transistor Q2 can be pulled out of regenerative action. As transistor Q1 turns off,
transistor Q2 is left with an open base & the GTO returns to the non  conducting
state.

GATE/EE/SLP/Module_4/Ch.1_Notes/Pg.15
Vidyalankar : GATE – EE

GTO requires a large initial gate trigger pulse for turn on. Once the GRO is on,
forward gate current must be continued for the whole of the conduction period to
ensure the device remains in conduction.

Triacs ((Bidirectional Triode Thyristors) :

A TRIAC can conduct in both directions and is normally used in acphase control. It
can be considered as two SCRS connected in antiparallel with a common gate as
shown.
T1

T1

G SCR2
SCR1

T2

T2

The VI characteristics of a TRIAC are shown below

ON STATE
T2  ve

V
OFF STATE
T2  ve

vI Characteristics of a TRIAC

The triac is a bidirectional device. Hence the terminals are not designated as anode
or cathode. If T2 is positive w.r.t T1 , the triac can be turned on by applying a positive
gate signal between G and T1 . Similarly, it T2 is negative w.r.t T1 , it is turned on by
applying a negative gate signal between G and T1 . It is not necessary to have both
polarities of gate signals and a TRIAC can be turned on with either a positive or a
negative gate signal.

GATE/EE/SLP/Module_4/Ch.1_Notes/Pg.16
 Notes on Power Semiconductor Devices

Comparison of these device are shown in figure

GATE/EE/SLP/Module_4/Ch.1_Notes/Pg.17
Vidyalankar : GATE – EE

Fig shows comparison specifying characteristics rating advantages and limitation

GATE/EE/SLP/Module_4/Ch.1_Notes/Pg.18
Notes on Power Semiconductor Devices

GATE/EE/SLP/Module_4/Ch.1_Notes/Pg.19
Vidyalankar : GATE – EE

GATE/EE/SLP/Module_4/Ch.1_Notes/Pg.20
Notes on Power Semiconductor Devices

GATE/EE/SLP/Module_4/Ch.1_Notes/Pg.21
Vidyalankar : GATE – EE

Diac
Diac is two electrode, bidirectional avalanche diode which can operate in either
direction,
Device consist of the PnPn section in antiparallel as in figure below
A

h3
J1 p1 A
J2 J2
n1
J3 J2
p2
J3 B
n2
B
(a) Structure of diac (b) Symbol
p1n1, p1 n2 with junction J1, J2 & J4 & p2  n1  p1 n3 with junction J1,J2, J3 are in
antiparallel which operate in either direction due to avalanche breakdown of RB
junction a in figure below.
I

VI characteristics of diac

 When (A) is positive w.r.t. (B) junction J2 and J4 are forward biased & junction are
R.B.
 When voltage is increased more than break over voltage holes are injected from
p1 to n1
which drift into J3 which further diffuse into h3 & go back to supply through (A)
 When (B) is positive w.r.t. (A), J3 & J1 are forward biased & J2 & J4 are reverse
biased.
 The triggering voltage depends on the avalanche breakdown characteristic of
R.B junction of the device.



GATE/EE/SLP/Module_4/Ch.1_Notes/Pg.22