Unit-2 Feedback Amplifiers Notes

If some portion of the output signal of an amplifier is made to combine with the
external input signal, then the characteristics of the amplifier becomes modified. The method
of combining some part of the output signal with input signal is called feedback.

There are two types of feedback:

1. Positive feedback
2. Negative feedback.
1. Positive feedback

Positive Feedback the feedback in which the feedback energy i.e., either voltage or
current is in phase with the input signal and thus aids it is called as Positive feedback. Both
the input signal and feedback signal introduces a phase shift of 180 o thus making a 360o
resultant phase shift around the loop, to be finally in phase with the input signal.
The positive feedback increases the gain of the amplifier; it has the disadvantages
such as
 Increasing distortion
 Instability
It is because of these disadvantages the positive feedback is not recommended for the
amplifiers. If the positive feedback is sufficiently large, it leads to oscillations, by which
oscillator circuits are formed.

2. Negative feedback
The feedback in which the feedback energy i.e., either voltage or current is out of
phase with the input and thus opposes it, is called as negative feedback. In negative feedback,
the amplifier introduces a phase shift of 180 o into the circuit while the feedback network is so
designed that it produces no phase shift or zero phase shift. Thus the resultant feedback
voltage Vf is 180o out of phase with the input signal Vin.
Though the gain of negative feedback amplifier is reduced, there are many advantages
of negative feedback such as
 Stability of gain is improved
 Reduction in distortion
 Reduction in noise
  Increase in input impedance
 Decrease in output impedance

Because of these advantages negative feedback is frequently employed in amplifiers.

Negative feedback in an amplifier is the method of feeding a portion of the amplified output
to the input but in opposite phase. The phase opposition occurs as the amplifier provides 180o
phase shift whereas the feedback network doesn’t. While the output energy is being applied
to the input, for the voltage energy to be taken as feedback, the output is taken in shunt
connection and for the current energy to be taken as feedback; the output is taken in series
connection.
Main types of negative feedback circuits:
i. Negative Voltage Feedback
ii. Negative Current Feedback

i. Negative Voltage Feedback:

In this method, the voltage feedback to the input of amplifier is proportional to the
output voltage. This is further classified into two types

a. Voltage-series feedback
b. Voltage-shunt feedback

ii. Negative Current Feedback

In this method, the voltage feedback to the input of amplifier is proportional to the
output current. This is further classified into two types.

a. Current-series feedback
b. Current-shunt feedback
Feedback principle and concept:

Sampling network:

The sampling network monitor the output and maintain unaltered despite of the
variations of the device parameters. There are two types of sampling methods.

1. Voltage sampling or node sampling

2. Current sampling or loop sampling
Comparator or Mixer network:

The output of β network is connected at the input such that the output of the amplifier
is brought back to desired value. There are two methods of mixing:

i. Series mixing
ii. Shunt mixing

Series mixing:

In this method, the output of β network is connected in series with the input signal.
When series mixing is used at the input, it means that the output of β network is a voltage and
driving source is a voltage(i.e, Thevenin’s source).

Shunt mixing:

In this method the output of β network is connected in shunt at the input. When shunt
mixing is used at the input, it means that the output of β network is a current and the driving
source is a current source(Norton’s model).
Classification of amplifiers:

To understand the concept of feedback, the amplifiers are classified into

i. Voltage amplifiers
ii. Current amplifiers
iii. Transconductance amplifiers
iv. Transresistance amplifiers

1. Voltage amplifiers:

The amplifier is considered as a two port network and represented as Thevenin’s

equivalent circuit.

If Ri >> Rs; then Vi = Vs

If Ro << RL; then Vo = Av. Vi

Thus an ideal voltage amplifier should have infinite input resistance and zero output
resistance.

Vo
Av = with RL = ∞
Vi

2. Current amplifiers:

The amplifier is considered as a two port network and represented as Norton’s

equivalent circuit.

If Ri << Rs; then Ii = Is

If Ro >> RL; then IL = Ai. Ii

Thus an ideal current amplifier should have zero input resistance and infinite output
resistance.

IL
Ai = with RL = 0
Ii
3. Transconductance amplifiers:

The amplifier is considered as Thevenin’s equivalent in its input side and Norton’s
equivalent circuit at output side.

4. Transresistance amplifiers:

It consists of Norton’s equivalent circuit at input and Thevenin’s circuit at output side.

If Ri << Rs , then Is = Ii

If Ro << RL, then Vo = Rm Ii

Vo
Rm = with RL = ∞
Ii

Transfer gain (Feedback Topologies):

1. Voltage series feedback amplifier:-

 Vo
Gain with feedback Avf =
Vs

Vo
Internal gain A =
Vi

⸫ Vo = A.Vi ----- 1

Vs = Vi + Vf=

⸫ Vs = Vi + β.Vo ------ 2

Devide equation 1 by equation 2

Vo AV i
=
Vs Vi+ β . Vo

AV i
=
Vi+ A β . Vi

A
Avf =
1+ Aβ

2. Current series feedback amplifier(Transconductance amplifier):-

The input is a voltage Vs and the output signal is a current Io. The ratio of Io/Vs is
called transconductance gain. The transconductance gain with feedback is
Io
GMf =
Vs
Transconductance without feedback is
Io
GM =
Vi
⸫ Io = GM.Vi
From the figure Vs = Vi + Vf
= Vi + βIo
= Vi + βGM Vi
Vs = Vi(1 + βGM )
Io GM V i
= GMf =
Vs V i (1+ β G M )
GM
GMf =
(1+ β GM )
3.Voltage shunt feedback(Transresistance):-

The input is a current Is and desired output signal is a voltage Vo. The ratio Vo/Is is
called Transresistance gain.

Transresistance with feedback is

Vo
RMf =
Is
Gain of the internal amplifier is
Vo
RM =
Ii
⸫ Vo = RM.Ii
From the figure; Is = Ii + If
= Ii + β.Vo
= Ii + β.RM.Ii
Is = Ii(1 + βRM)
Vo R M Ii
= RMf =
Is I i (1+ β RM )
RM
RMf =
(1+ β R M )
4. Current shunt feedback:-
 The input to the amplifier is a current Is and the desired output signal is a current Io.
The ratio Io/Is is called current gain.
Current gain with feedback is
Io
AIf =
Is
Ii
Gain of the internal amplifier ; Ai =
Io
⸫ Io = Ai.Ii
From the figure; Is = Ii + If
= Ii + βIo
= Ii + β.Ai.Ii
= Ii(1 + β.Ai)

Io AI I i
= AIf =
Is Ii (1+ β . Ai)
AI
AIf =
(1+ β . Ai)
Advantages of negative feedback:
1. Improved gain stability
2. Improved bandwidth
3. Reduced harmonic distortion
4. Reduction in noise
5. Higher input resistance
6. Lower output resistance
7. Increase in linearity

1. Improved gain stability:

Gain with negative feedback

A
Af =
1+ Aβ
Differentiate w.r.t A
( 1+ Aβ ) dA−AβdA
dAf = 2
(1+ Aβ)

u Vdu−udv
d = 2
v v
dA
= 2
(1+ Aβ)

dA f dA 1
Now = 2 ×
Af (1+ Aβ) Af

dA 1+ Aβ
= 2 .
(1+ Aβ) A
 dA
= A
1+ Aβ

dA
= percentage change in the gain of internal amplifier
A
dA f
= percentage change in the gain of the feedback amplifier
Af
dA
Eg; If = 20% and (1 + Aβ) = 10
A
dA f dA
20
Then = A = 2%.
Af 10
1+ Aβ
Thus if the internal amplifier gain changes by 20%, then the gain of feedback amplifier
changes by 2% only.

2. Improved Band width:-

Calculation of input resistance of feedback amplifiers:

1. Voltage series feedback amplifiers:

From the circuit,

Vs
Rif = ---- 1
Ii

From the input loop;

 Vs = Vi + Vf

= Vi + β.Vo ---- 2

From the output loop;

RL
Vo = Av.Vi. ; Ro << RL
RO+ RL

= Av.Vi ---- 3

Substitute equqtion 3, in equation 2

⸫ Vs = Vi + βAv.Vi

= Vi(1 +Av.β)

= Ii.Ri(1 + Av.β)

Vs Ii . Ri(1+ Av . β )
Rif = =
Ii Ii

Rif = Ri(1 + Av.β)

2. Current series feedback amplifiers:

3. Voltage shunt feedback amplifier:

Method of Analysis of a Feedback Amplifier:

To analyse the feedback amplifier it is necessary to follow the following steps.

Step1: Identify the topology(Type of feedback)

a. To find the type of sampling network

i. By shorting the output Vo = 0, if the feedback signal Xf becomes zero, then it is

voltage sampling.
ii. By opening the output loop, Io = 0, if the feedback signal Xf becomes zero, then it is
current sampling.

b. To find the type of mixing network

i. If the feedback signal is subtracted from externally applied signal as a voltage in the
input loop, then it is series mixing.
ii. If the feedback signal is subtracted from externally applied signal as a current in the
input loop, then it is shunt mixing.

Step 2: Find the input circuit

i. For voltage sampling make Vo = 0 by shorting the output

ii. For current sampling make Io = 0 by opening the output loop.

Step 3: Find the output circuit

i. For series mixing make Ii = 0 by opening the input loop

ii. For shunt mixing make Vi = 0 by shorting the input.

Step 4: Replace the active device by small signal model

Step 5: Find the open loop gain A of the amplifier

Step 6: Indicate Xf and Xo on the circuit and evaluate β = Xf.Xo

Step 7: From A and β, find D, Af, Rif and Rof.

Calculation of input resistance with feedback topologies

1. Voltage series feedback;

 Vs
From the circuit, Rif =
Ii

Vs = Vi + Vf

= Vi + βVo ----- 1

RL
From the output loop, Vo = Av.Vi
Ro+ RL

= Av. Vi ----- 2

Substitute eq. 2 in eq. 1

⸫ Vs = Vi + β.Av.Vi

= Vi(1 + Av.β)

= Ii.Ri(1 + Av.β)

Vs Ii . Ri(1+ Av . β )
⸫ Rif = =
Ii Ii

Rif = Ri(1 + Av.β)

i.e. Rif = Ri.D

Current Series feedback:

Current shunt feedback:

Vi
From the circuit, Rif =
Is
Is = Ii + If
= Ii + β.Io
 Ro
From the output loop, Io = AI.Ii.
Ro+ RL
= AI. Ii
⸫ Is = Ii + βAI Ii
= Ii(1 + AI.β)
Vi
⸫ Rif =
Is
I i Ri
Ii (1+ A I . β)

Ri
Rif =
D

1. Analysis of Voltage Series feedback Amplifier(Emitter follower):

Step1: Identify the topology.

a) Sampling Type.
The feedback voltage Vf and sampled signal Vo is considered across RE.
By shorting output voltage(Vo = 0), feedback signal (Vf = βVo = 0). Then it voltage
sampling.
b) Mixing Type.
From the figure, the feedback signal Vf is subtracted from externally applied signal
Vs. Hence it is series mixing.
⸫ The topology is voltage series feedback.

Step 2&3: To find input and output circuit.

 a. Input circuit:
For voltage sampling, make V o = 0. The source Vs (in series with Rs) appears
between Base and Emitter. Hence RE does not belong to the input circuit.
b. Output circuit:
make Ii = 0 . then RE appears only in the output circuit.
Step 4: Replace the transistor with h-parameter model.

Step 5: Find the open loop voltage gain.

Vo hfe I b R E
Av = =
Vs Vs

From input loop; Vs = Ib(Rs + hie)

hfe I b R E hfe R E
⸫ Av = =
Ib (Rs+ hie) (Rs+ hie)

50× 100
= = 2.38
1 K +1.1 K

Step 6: Indicate Vo, Vf and calculate β.

Since both the voltages across RE are equal, then

Vf
β= = 1
Vo

Step 7: Calculate D, Avf, Rif, Rof.

Desensitivity D = (1 + Aβ)

h fe R E β
= 1+ ; But β = 1.
( Rs+ hie)

hfe R E
= 1+
( Rs+ hie)

Rs +hie+hfe R E
= = 3.38
(Rs+hie)
 A
Gain with feedback, Avf =
1+ Aβ

h fe R E
(Rs+hie)
=
Rs+ hie+ hfe R E
(Rs+hie)

hfe R E
= = 0.7
Rs +hie+hfe R E

Input resistance with feedback, Rif :

Ri = Rs + hie = 1+1.1 = 2.1 K

Rif = Ri(1 +Aβ) = 2.1 × 3.38 = 7 K

Rs +hie+hfe R E
= (Rs + hie).
(Rs+hie)

= Rs + hie +hfe RE.

Output resistance with feedback, Rof:

Vo
Output resistance without feedback, Ro = = Lt RE →∞ [RE]
Io

Ro
Output resistance with feedback, Rof =
(1+ Aβ)

¿ ℜ→ ∞ [R E ]
= Rs+ hie+ hfe R E
(Rs+hie)

(Rs+ hie)
= Lt RE →∞ [RE] . R h
R E [ s + ie + hfe ]
RE RE

(Rs+ hie)
Rof =
hfe

Current series feedback (Common emitter configuration with unbypassed RE):

The voltage drop across RE is;

Vf = IE. RE

= (Ib + Ic) RE

= Ic RE

= - Io RE

Step1: Identify the topology.

Vf and Vo are at different points. It is current series.

By Io = 0, feedback signal Vf = 0.Hence it is current sampling.

Vf is subtracted from Vs. hence it is series mixing. So it is current series feedback amplifier.

Step 2&3: To find input and output circuit.

To find the input circuit;

Set Io = 0 at the collector. RE appears at the input circuit.

To find output circuit;

Set Ii = 0. Then RE appears at the output circuit.

Step 4: Replace the transistor with h-parameter model.

Step 5: Find the open loop transfer gain.

Io −hfe I b
GM = =
Vi Vs

−hfe I b
=
I b (R s +hie + R E )

−hfe −50
= = = - 0.015
( R s+ hie + R E ) 1 K +1.1 K +1.2 K

Step6: Indicate Io, Vf and calculate β.

Vf I e RE −I o R E
β = = = = - RE. = - 1.2K
Io Io Io

Step 7: Calculate: D, GMf, Avf, Rif and Rof.

hfe R E
D = 1+ βGM. = 1 + = 19.18
¿¿
GM
GMf = = - 0.782×10-3.
D

V o I O RL
Voltage gain with feedback Avf = =
Vs Vs

= GMf.RL.= - 1.72
Input resistance Ri = Rs + hie + RE. = 3.3 KΩ
Input resistance with feedback Rif = Ri(1 +GMβ)
h R
= Ri(1 + fe E )
¿¿
Rs +hie+ R E+h fe R E
= (Rs + hie + RE) .
Rs+hie+ R E

= Rs + hie + RE + hfeRE.
Output resistance Ro = ∞
Output resistance with feedback; Rof = Ro(1 +GMβ)
 = ∞ || RL = RL

Anallysis of Voltage shunt feedback amplifier:

Step 1(Identification of Topology):

At the input, the current is splitting into Ii and If. Hence it is shunt mixing.

V i−V o −V o
If = =
Rf Rf

If is proportional to Vo. Hence the circuit is voltage shunt feedback amplifier.

Step 2(To draw the input loop circuit):

Set Vo = 0

It is clear that Rf appears between input terminals. Now replace the voltage source by
a current source.
To draw the output loop circuit:

Set Vi = 0

Rf is now in shunt with the output terminals.

Oscillators :
An oscillator is a circuit (amplifier with positive feedback) which generates an output
waveform at a desired frequency without any external input. It converts dc energy into ac
energy.

Oscillator principle:

When a part of the output signal is added in phase to the input signal, then it is called
positive feedback or regenerative feedback.

Vo
The internal gain A = also called loop gain.
Vi

Vo
Feedback gain Af =
Vs
Also Vi = Vs + Vf
= Vs + βVo
⸫ Vs = Vi – βVo
Vo Vo
⸫ Af = =
Vs Vi – βVo
Divide with Vi.
Vo
Vi
Af =
Vo
1−β
Vi
A
Af =
1− Aβ
If Aβ →0; Af → ∞.
 Vo
i.e. Af = → ∞. It indicates that the circuit can produce output without external input
Vs
(Vs = 0) but by just feeding a part of the output as its own input. In other words the circuit
stops amplifying and starts oscillating.

Condition for oscillations:

Oscillations will not sustain if the product of the gain of amplifier and feedback factor
is less than unity.
Barkhausen criterion states that
i. The total phase shift around the loop is precisely 0 o or 360o or integral multiple of 2π
radians.
ii. The magnitude of the product of the open loop gain of the amplifier A and feedback factor
β is unity i.e. |Aβ| = 1
a. If |Aβ| > 1; the output goes on increasing.

b. If |Aβ| = 1; sustained oscillations

c. If |Aβ| < 1; The oscillations cease off.

 So for all practical purposes |Aβ| ≥ 1 to compensate the variations against change of
device age, temperature and supply etc. |Aβ| is larger than by 5%.

Classification of oscillators:
Oscillators are classified into different ways.
1. According to nature of waveform generated.
a. Sinusoidal or Harmonic oscillators
An electronic circuit that generates sinusoidal oscillations of desired frequency is
known as sinusoidal oscillator.
b. Non- Sinusoidal or Relaxation Oscillators
An oscillator which produces square wave, Triangular wave, Pulses, Saw tooth waves
is known as Non-Sinusoidal oscillators.
2. According to fundamental Mechanism
a. Negative resistance oscillators
The usage of negative resistance oscillators is to neutralize the positive resistance of
the oscillator by amplifying device of negative resistance.
b. Feedback oscillators
The usage of feedback oscillator is to satisfy the Barkhausen criterion. It is the
feedback amplifier with positive feedback
3. According to frequency of generated signals
a. Audio frequency oscillators (AFO)
These oscillators generate signals with audio frequencies i.e. up to 20 KHz.
b. Radio frequency oscillators (RFO)
These oscillators generate signals with radio frequencies i.e. 20 KHz to 30 MHz
c. Very High frequency oscillators (VHFO)
These oscillators generate signals with very high frequencies i.e. 30 MHz to 300 MHz
d. Ultra high frequency oscillators (UHFO)
These oscillators generate signals with Ultra high frequencies i.e. 300 MHz to 3 GHz
e. Microwave frequency oscillators
These oscillators generate signals with micro wave frequencies i.e. above 3 GHz.
4. According to circuit components
a. RC oscillators
In RC oscillators the oscillations are developed due to the resistor and capacitor which
determines the frequency of oscillator
b. LC oscillators
In LC oscillators the oscillations are developed due to inductor and capacitor which
determines the frequency of oscillator.
c. Crystal oscillator
In crystal oscillator the oscillations are developed due to crystal which determines the
frequency of the oscillator.

RC Phase shift Oscillator:

The circuit diagram of transistor RC phase shift oscillator consists of a CE amplifier

and a phase shifting network with three identical RC sections. It generates a sinusoidal signal
in the audio frequency range.
The resistors R1 and R2 will provide the self bias. RE stabilizes the operating point. CE
is the bypass capacitor which helps to increase the gain of the amplifier. Rc is the load
resistance.
The output of the amplifier is connected to three sections of RC phase shift network.
The output of the last section is returned to the input of the amplifier. CE amplifier has an
input resistance of hie (= 1KΩ). So R3 is selected as R3 = (R-hie). The values of R and C are
chosen such that for a given frequency f, the phase shift of each section is 60 o. Therefore the
ladder network produces 180o and transistor produces 180o. Hence for a given frequency the
total phase shift is 0o or 360o. The gain of the amplifier is maintained such that Aβ ≥ 1. Thus
Barkhausen criterion is satisfied and the circuit produces sustained oscillations with a
frequency
1 R
f = Where K = c
2 πRC √ 6+ 4 K R
Derivation for frequency:
The equivalent circuit is shown below. The transistor is replaced by small signal
model.

The current source is converted into a voltage source. The equivalent circuit is shown below.

The mesh equations for the above circuit are

1
I1(R + Rc + ) – I2 R + hfe Ib Rc = 0 ---- 1
jωC

1
-I1 R + I2(2R + ) – I3R =0 ---- 2
jωC

1
0 – I2R + I3(2R + ) = 0 ---- 3
jωC
As I1, I2 and I3 are nonzero currents, the determinant value is zero.

Expanding the determinant by 1st column,

1 1 2 1
[R + Rc + ] [ (2R + ) – R2] + R[-R(2R + ) + R hfe Rc] = 0 --- 1
jωC j ωC jωC

Equate imaginary terms to zero.

4R
2
4 RC R 4 R 2 1 R
2
R
2
+ + - 3 3- - =0
ωC ωC ωC ω C ωC ωC

6R
2
4 RC R 1
+ - 3 3 = 0
ωC ωC ω C

1
6R2 + 4RcR = 3 3 ---- 2
ω C

RC 1
R2(6 + 4 ) = 3 3
R ω C

1
ω2C2 = 2
6 R + 4 RC R

1
R2(6 + 4 K ) = 33
ω C

1
ωC =
R √6+ 4 K

1
f = Hz.
2 πRC √ 6+ 4 K

Equate real terms to zero from equation 1.

 R 4 RC 4R
4R3 - 3 2
2 - R + 4RcR -
2
2
2 2 - RcR - - 2R3 – R3 hfe Rc = 0
ω C ω C ωC

R 4 RC 4R
R3 - 2
2 + 4 RcR -
2
2
2 2 - RcR - - R3 hfe Rc = 0
ω C ω C ωC

1
Using ω2C2 = 2
6 R + 4 RC R

4R
R3 – 6R3 – 4RcR2 + 4 Rc R – 24 Rc R2 – 16 R2c R – Rc R2- – R3 hfe Rc = 0
ωC

Divide with RcR2 and simplify.

29
hfe = 23 + 4K +
K

To find minimum value of hfe:

dhfe
= 0
dK

d 29
i.e. (23 + 4 K + ) = 0
dK K

29
4- 2 = 0
K

K = 2.69

2.9
⸫ hfe min = 23 + 4(2.69) +
2.69

hfe min = 44.54

RC phase shift oscillator using FET:

Expand by column 1.

1 1 2 R
∆ Z = (R + ) [(2R + ) – R2] +R[-2R2 - ]
jωC jωC jωC

5R 6R
2
1
= R3 - 2 2 + - 3 3
ω C jωC jω C

Equate imaginary parts to zero.

6R
2
1
- 3 3 = 0
ωC ω C

1
ω =
√6 R 2 C 2
1
f = Hz.
2 πRC √ 6
Expand by column 3.

∆ 3 = Vo[R2]

∆3
⸫ I3 =
∆Z
2
VoR
2
= 3 5R 6R 1
R− + − 3 3
ω C jωC jω C
2 2

⸫ Vf = I3 R
3
VoR
2
= 3 5R 6R 1
R− + − 3 3
ω C jωC jω C
2 2

Vf
Now β =
Vo
3
R
2
= 3 5R 6R 1
R − 2 2+ − 3 3
ω C jωC jω C

Consider the real parts.

3
R
β = 3 5R
R− 2 2
ω C

1
we have 6R2 = 2 2
ω C
3
R 1
β = 3 2 =
R −5 R ×6 R 29

According to Barkhausen criterion Aβ = 1

⸫ Gain ≥ 29
Wien bridge oscillator using BJT:

Wien bridge oscillator is one of the most useful oscillators for generation of low
frequency signals. It consists of a two stage RC coupled amplifier and a lead-lag network as
shown in the figure. The two stage amplifier provides a phase shift of 0 o or 360o. R1C1 and
R2C2 is the lead-lag network. R3-R4 is a voltage divider network. The bridge is balanced at
resonance when the phase angle around the loop is 0o. The frequency of wien bridge is

1
f = Hz .
2 π RC

1
Z1 = R1 +
jωC 1
 1+ Jω R1 C1
=
jωC 1

1
R2
jωC 2
Z2 =
1
R 2+
jωC 2

R2
=
1+ Jω R2 C 2

Z 3 = R3

Z 4 = R4

The bridge balancing condition is Z1.Z4 = Z2.Z3

1+ Jω R1 C1 R2
. R4 = .R3
jωC 1 1+ Jω R2 C 2

R4(1+ jωR1C1).(1 + jωR2C2) = jωR2R3C1

R4 (1 + jωR2C2 + jωR1C1 – ω2R1R2C1C2) = jωR2R3C1 --- 1

Equating the real parts on both sides

R4 – ω2R1R2R4C1C2 = 0

1
ω2 =
R 1 R2 C 1 C 2

If R1 = R2 = R and C1 = C2 = C --- 2

1
f = Hz.
2 πRC

From 1, equating the imaginary parts on both sides,

ωR2R4C2 + ωR1R4C1 = ωR2R3C1

Using equation 2,
RR4C + RR4C = RR4C
2R4 = R3
R3
i.e. = 2 --- 3
R4
R4
Feedback voltage, Vf = Vo.
R 3 + R4
 Vf R4
Feedback factor, β = =
Vo R 3 + R4
Using equation 3,
R4
β =
2 R 4 + R4
1
⸫ β =
3
Since Aβ ≥ 1 → A ≥ 3.

Generalized analysis of LC oscillators:

The general form of a feedback oscillator is shown in the figure.

From the figure hie and Z1 are in parallel and I1 flows upwards as shown.
 Z1
I1 = - I2.
Z 1 +hie

I1 Z1
i.e. β = = -
I2 Z 1 +hie

Apply KVL at the output loop.

hie Z 1
V2 + ( ) I2 + I2Z3 = 0 ---- 1
hie + Z 1

Also V2 = ( I2 – hfe I1)Z2 ---- 2

Substitute equation 2 in 1

hie Z 1
( I2 – hfe I1)Z2 + ( ) I2 + I2Z3 = 0
hie + Z 1

hie Z 1
I2[ Z2 + + Z3] = hfe I1 Z2
hie + Z 1

I2[Z2(hie + Z1) + hieZ1 + Z3(hie + Z1)] = hfeI1Z2(hie + Z1)

I2 h fe Z 2(h ie+Z 1)
A= =
I1 Z 2(h ie+Z 1)+ hie Z 1+ Z 3(hie+ Z 1)

h fe Z 2(h ie+Z 1) −Z 1
⸫Aβ= ×
Z 2(h ie+Z 1)+ hie Z 1+ Z 3(hie+ Z 1) ( Z 1+ hie )

−h fe Z 1 Z 2
=
Z 2(h ie+Z 1)+ hie Z 1+ Z 3(hie+ Z 1)

For sustained oscillations, | A β | = 1

h fe Z 1 Z 2
= 1
Z 2(h ie+Z 1)+ hie Z 1+ Z 3(hie+ Z 1)

hfe Z1Z2 = Z2(hie Z1) +hieZ1 + Z3(hie +Z1)

= Z2hie + Z1Z2 + Z1hie +Z3hie+Z1Z3

hfe Z1Z2 = Z1Z2 + Z1Z3 + hie(Z1 + Z2 + Z3)

This equation represents Barkhausen criterion. The frequency of oscillations is

obtained by equating the imaginary terms on both sides.
 The condition for sustained oscillations is found by equating the real terms on both
sides.

Hartley Oscillator:

A Hartley oscillator using L and C is shown in the figure. It consists of a CE amplifier

and a tank circuit as feedback network.

When Vcc is applied, a transient current exists in the tank circuit and damped
harmonic oscillations are set up in the circuit. The oscillatory current in the tank circuit
produces ac voltages across L1 and L2. As terminal 3 is grounded, point 1 is 180 o out of phase
w.r.t point 2. The CE amplifier provides 180o. Therefore the total phase shift between input
and output is 360o. If the feedback is adjusted so that the loop gain Aβ = 1, the circuit acts as
1
an oscillator and produces a sinusoidal signal of frequency f = Hz. The condition
2 π √ LC
L1
for sustained oscillations is hfe ≥ .
L2

Derivation for frequency:

In Hartley oscillator Z1 and Z2 are inductive reactances and Z 3 is a capacitive

reactance.

Z1 = jωL1

Z2 = jωL2 and

1
Z3 =
jωC

The general equation for LC oscillator is

hie(Z1 + Z2 + Z3) + Z1Z2(1 + hfe) + Z1Z3 = 0

Substituting the values of Z1, Z2 and Z3,

1 1
hie(jωL1 +jωL2 + ) +(1+ hfe)(jωL1)(jωL2)+(jωL1) =0
jωC jωC

1 L1
hie jω(L1+L2 - 2 ) - ω2 (1 + hfe)( L1 L2 ) + =0
ω C C

Comparing imaginary parts on both sides,

1
L1+L2 - 2 =0
ω C

1
Or ω2 =
C( L1 + L2)

1
Hence f = Hz. where Leq = L1 + L2 .
2 π √ Leq C

Condition for sustained oscillations:

Comparing the real parts on both sides,

L1
- ω2 (1 + hfe)( L1 L2) + =0
C

(1+h fe)(L 1)( L2) L1

=
C (L1+ L 2) C

( L 1+ L2)
1+ hfe =
L2

( L 1+ L2)
hfe = - 1
L2

L1
or hfe ≥ .
L2

Colpitt’s Oscillator:
 A Colpitts oscillator using inductance L and capacitance C is shown in the figure. It
consists of a CE amplifier and a tank circuit as feedback network.

When Vcc is applied, a transient current exists in the tank circuit and damped
harmonic oscillations are set up in the circuit. The oscillatory current in the tank circuit
produces ac voltages across C1 and C2. As terminal 3 is grounded, point 1 is 180 o out of phase
w.r.t point 2. The CE amplifier provides 180o. Therefore the total phase shift between input
and output is 360o. If the feedback is adjusted so that the loop gain Aβ = 1, the circuit acts as
1
an oscillator and produces a sinusoidal signal of frequency f = Hz, where Ceq =
2 π √ LC eq
C1C2 C2
. The condition for sustained oscillations is hfe = .
C1 +C 2 C1

Derivation for frequency:

In Colpitts oscillator, Z1 and Z2 are capacitive reactances and Z 3 is an inductive

reactance.

1
Z1 =
jω C1

1
Z2 =
jω C2

Z3 = jꞷL

The general equation for LC oscillator is

hie(Z1 + Z2 + Z3) + Z1Z2(1 + hfe) + Z1Z3 = 0

Substituting the values of Z1, Z2 and Z3,

1 1 1 1 jꞷ L
hie( + + jꞷL) + . (1 + hfe) + =0
jω C1 jω C2 jω C1 jω C2 j ω C1
 −1 1 (1+h fe) L
j hie( - + ꞷL) - 2 + =0
ω C1 ω C 2 ω C1 C2 C1

Equating imaginary parts on both sides,

1 1
+ = ꞷL
ω C1 ω C 2

1 1
ꞷ2L = +
C1 C2

C1 +C 2
=
C1C2

1
ꞷ2L =
Ceq

1
ꞷ =
√ LC eq
1
f = Hz.
2 π √ LCeq

Condition for sustained oscillations:

Equating real parts on both sides,

(1+h fe) L
2 =
ω C1 C2 C1

1 + hfe = ꞷ2LC2.
C1 +C 2
= .C2.
C1C2
C1 +C 2
=
C1
C1 +C 2
hfe = –1
C1
C2
hfe =
C1
Clap Oscillator:
A Clap oscillator is similar to Colpitts oscillator except a small tuning capacitor C3 connected
in series with L.
1
Now Z1 =
jω C1
1
Z2 =
jω C2
 1
Z3 = jꞷL +
jω C3

The equation for LC oscillator is

hfe Z1Z2 = Z1Z2 + Z1Z3 + hie(Z1 + Z2 + Z3)

Substituting the values of Z1,Z2 and Z3,

−h fe 1 1 1 1 1
2 = - 2 + (jꞷL + ) + hie( + + jꞷL)
ω C1 C2 ω C1 C2 jω C 1 jω C 3 jω C 1 jω C2

−h fe 1 1 1 −1 1 1
2 = - 2 + (ꞷL + ) + jhie( - + ꞷL - )
ω C1 C2 ω C1 C2 ω C1 ω C3 ω C1 ω C 2 ω C3

Equating imaginary terms to zero,

1 1 1
+ + = ꞷL
ω C1 ω C 2 ω C3

1 1 1
ꞷ2L = + + ; C1 and C2 are very large.
C1 C2 C3

1
ꞷ =
√ LC 3
1
f = Hz.
2 π √ LC3