Q. Examine the nature of caliphates under the Umayyad and the Abbasid.

Umayyad Caliphate

The accession of Muawiya to the position of Caliph heralded the beginning of a monarchical rule
based on dynastic principles in Islam. Muawiya held the position of Caliph for most two decades (661
—80 CE) and all Caliphs following him belonged to the Umayyad clan. Therefore, the time span
between 661ce and 750ce is known as the period of Umayyad Caliphate. Muawiya made fresh
attempts to restore the authority of the Caliph to end the factionalism within the ruling Arab centralise
the authority of the Caliph, Muawiya set up new moral principles and political idioms to ensure
loyalty to the Caliph and also sought to increase the military and administrative powers of the
Caliphate. Muawiya gained popularity through his emphasis on the Arab virtues of conciliation,
generosity and respect for tribal traditions. In this context, M. Lapidus is of the opinion that while
earlier caliphate was based on closeness to Muhammad and great religious integrity, Muawiya's reign
was based on his ability to exemplify the Arab tribal patriarch but the two decades of Muawiya's rule
could not bring about an end to the civil war. Muawiya, by choosing his son, Yazid (680-683 CE), as
the next Caliph, not only established the notion of hereditary rule but also created conditions of
another round of civil war among the Arabs. The Shiites, the Kharijis and the old Muslim families of
Mecca and Medina opposed the Succession of Yazid and immediately rose to control the office of the
caliphate. The Shiites made a fresh claim of Ali's second Son Husayn to the position the Caliph.
Husayn's forces were defeated and massacred along with Husayn. Another prominent faction to
oppose Yazid was another Meccan aspirant Abdullah Ibn Zubayr, who gained support in Arabia and
Kufa. However, with the Umayyad leadership coming in the hands of the Marwan clan, the Umayyad
prevailed over the opponents by the use of force. It was under the caliphal leadership of Abd al-Malik
that the process of rebuilding of the Umayyad state began. But it was only after the successful military
campaigns against Ibn Zubayr and the kharijis and occupation of mecca and medina that the Umayyad
rule was stabilised. Under Abd al-Malik, the power of the caliphate was further centralised and
caliphate became an absolute monarchy. This period also witnessed the bureaucratisation of the
administration and growth of a professionally trained army, replacing the tribal contingents.
Umayyads changed the character of the Umayyad state at the level of ideology too. The earlier coins
(gold and silver) of the Byzantine and Sassanid regimes carrying Christian and Zoroastrian
ideological symbols were replaced by coins containing Arabic script that symbolised sovereignty of
the Umayyad state and its independence from the earlier regime. Under the reign of Abd al-Malik,
Jerusalem was now as that of the famous 'Dome of Rock' at the site of an ancient temple at Jerusalem
in 692 CE. The massive dome of the mosque became an important element of all subsequent Islamic
structures. During the reign several mosques and palaces were constructed at Medina and at
Damascus (capital the Umayyads). These mosques and their decoration, in the opinion of Ira M.
Lapidus while on the one hand symbolised the unity of the Arabs, it was also an expression of the
primacy of the state and its indispensability to the Muslim community on the other. The conquest of
North Africa was completed by the beginning of the eighth century CE. The Arabs consolidated
themselves in the Maghrib region through their alliance with the local Berber tribes, many of whom
converted to Islam. Regarding the conversion of the non-Muslims beyond Arab Peninsula under the
Umayyads, it can be said that it was a slow process. In the areas of Arab control in Byzantine and
Sassanid territory the process of conversion was not individual but a tribal affair. The opposition to
the Umayyad rule was both religious and political in nature. The sunnis as a religious group were
opposed to the Umayyad because of their administrative and military policies. The shias on the other
hand were still holding the dream of seeing someone from the family of Ali to become caliph as they
claimed that caliphate rightfully belonged to the family of Ali who they believed were chosen by the
God to lead the Muslim umma. The theory which Lapidus considers the most convincing, suggests
that the Abbasid revolution was a revolt against the dominance alliance of the Arab Military
chieftains, mainly of the Qays faction, and high-ranking Iranian nobles.
According to this the Abbasids were supported by a coalition of landowners (both Arab and Persian).
The Abbasid Caliphate was thus established in 750ce with Abbasid leader Abbas al-Saffah as the new
Caliph

Abbasid caliphate

The Abbasid takeover of the caliphate has been termed Abbasid 'revolution'. Talking about
the character of the 'revolution' Berkey is of the Opinion that ideologically, the movement
was directed towards the restoration of an ideal society-associated with the Arab Prophet
Muhammad rather than any resurgence of Iranian culture and identity despite the fact that
they were supported by few of the Iranian origin. Sociologically too, argues Berkey, the
movement had a deep Arab colouring as most of its leaders were Arabs and the rivalry
between the Qays and the Yemenis played an important role in determining which Arab
settled in Khurasan joined the rebellion and which opposed it. But another aspect of this
'revolution' was the fusion of Arab and Iranian traditions which had resulted from Arab
expansion in Iran, Including the present-day Afghanistan and extending beyond the Oxus
River. The first major step taken by the Abbasids after coming to power was to shift the
administrative base of the caliphate from Syria to Baghdad. However, the Abbasid capital of
Baghdad included three complexes—the administrative city, the army camp and workers
quarters. Under the Abbasids, army and administration was organised 0n new principles. The
military superiority of Arabs in the army was reduced and were recruited that were organised
in a manner that they remain loyal to the dynasty rather than their respective tribes. Like the
Umayyads, the Abbasid Caliphs also centralised power to the extent that it reached the level
of absolute monarchy under al-Mansur. The practice of prostration and kissing the ground
before Caliph along with splendour of the Caliph's court at Baghdad were all symbolic of
Caliph's supreme authority. Under the Abbasids, administration became more routinised with
the organisation of administration into three main bureaus- revenue, chancery and the army.
The bureau of revenue was responsible for tax collection, the chancery for keeping records
and correspondence and the army bureau was to look after payment of the centralised army
and to look after the court expenses and payment to the pensioners. A controller’s office was
attached with each bureau and barids (messengers) were appointed to provide information
secretly about all the offices. The local administration was organised by the Abbasids with
the basic purpose of collection of taxes The local administrative units in Iraq and Egypt
were divided into revenue units such as Kura, tassuj and rustaq. Local surveys were
undertaken by the local officials to find out the land under cultivation, yield and the crops
grown which was then conveyed to the central government. There were two types of iqta
grants—iqta tamliq and iqta istighalal. The first type of grant usually consisted of
uncultivated but cultivable wasteland with an Objective of extending area under cultivation as
despite the growth of trade and commerce, land tax remained. The chief source of the
caliphal state. The second type of iqta grant was assigned to those individuals who agreed to
pay the central government a fix sum of money in return for the right to tax the peasantry. By
the mid-eleventh century many parts of the erstwhile Abbasid rule came under the control of
the Turks that were ultimately displaced by the Mongols in 1258 CE, thus formally-bringing
about an end to the Abbasid Caliphate.