RADIO BROADCAST PROGRAMMING

The Nature of Radio Broadcasting

Selecting the best programme to fill the broadcast airtime depends largely on the broadcast
personnel’s understanding of the nature of the medium on the one hand and the understanding of
what the target audience wants on the other hand. Understanding the nature of the medium
implies taking note of the characteristics of the medium and taking full advantage of the
medium’s potentials to fulfill the expectations of the target audience. It also means taking
cognizance of the shortcomings of the station in your script so as to be able to create an
unforgettable message that will help you achieve the desired goals of the programme.

The medium of radio is one that affords both the technical crew and the on-air personalities the
opportunity to make information available on a timely basis without the complexities of visual
consideration. All that the performer needs to do is to speak intelligently into the microphone
while the audio console operator provides the technical support.

Characteristics of Radio Broadcasting

a. Radio informs: The medium of radio is such that it affords both the technical crew and
the on-air personality the opportunity to make information available to the audience on a
24/7 basis and as events occur. In other words information that the audience needs to
make informed decisions or to help audience members relax are part of the programmes
that a station transmits on a daily basis. The medium in other words is a medium of
immediacy where fast-breaking news is relayed first to thousands of listeners in different
places in a matter of minutes. Information about an event can be filed in by listeners via
cell phones, short message service (SMS) and fax to presenters who immediately relay
such information with caution by calling for more information from other sources around
the event.
b. Radio educates: Radio can educate us and broaden our knowledge of issues and events.
Even more importantly, radio is now used to complement classroom teaching in more
interesting and exicting ways and at learners’ convenience.
c. Simplicity of radio: The simplicity of radio takes various forms. In the first instance
radio is easy to operate and as such does not require heavy equipment that is needed
 when compared with television. In another words, it affords those working in the station
to be creative and express themselves freely but take cognizance of acceptable on-air
norms. Again, its simplicity makes production process less cumbersome when compared
with the production process in television.
d. Radio is inexpensive: Radio is not only simple, it is also financially healthy. Firstly, it is
cheaper it terms of acquiring the receivers. Secondly, it is financially healthy because it
does not require a full complement of staff that is needed for television. Some radio
stations in Nigeria are managed by few staff and in some countries it is even less. This
means that the station gets to pay fewer wages and as such can deploy resources to areas.
Its inexpensive nature also affords production personnel to be creative.
e. Radio can do without electric power: One good thing about radio particularly in
developing countries where electricity supply is erratic is that people can listen to radio
broadcast just by powering their receivers with batteries.
f. Radio receivers are portable and mobile: Radio receivers come in different shapes and
sizes which makes it possible for people to carry and move their receivers around without
losing out on any aspect of their favourite programmes.
g. Radio transcends illiteracy barrier: Unlike the print media which require some degree
of literacy, radio does not depend on a literate audience. All that is required is a good ear
and a good listening habit. This is what is meant when it is stated that radio transcends
the barriers of illiteracy.
h. Radio is an entertainment medium: Radio is a medium that provides entertainment to
different category of listeners. Its raw material is sound and as such relies heavily on
music.
i. Radio is a medium of persuasion: When enlightening a large, heterogeneous and
dispersed audience and is the ultimate goal is to persuade them, radio may be the best
medium to use. This is because radio can be used to persuade and motivate people to
action.
j. Radio is a supplemental medium: The uniqueness of radio lies in the fact that a listener
can be engaged in other chores while listening to it. In this regard, Dominick (2002)
states that radio is rarely the prime focus of our attention but rather “it provides an audio
background for other activities.”
 k. Radio messages are transient in nature: The medium of radio has been described as
one of the media with immediacy impact. The nature of the medium allows immediate
information to be disseminated to millions of listeners in a matter of seconds. However,
just as its information can be disseminated rapidly, so also can listeners miss the
information.
l. Radio is an audio medium: The simplicity of radio implies that producers can design
programmes without planning for video –it is an audio-only medium. This is why
Asemah’s (2011:20) notes that radio is a blind theatre.

Characteristics of Radio Broadcasting Audience

The concern of every radio station is to know those who constitute its audience, when the target
audience is available, audience social and economic status, their location and profession among
other variables. The answer to these issues lay in research. Audience research is a major element
for any media producer. Broadcast audience research will give audience demographics which
will define audience age and the work they do. In other words it defines the socio-economic
pattern of the audience. Knowing the demographics of a broadcasting station’s audience will
help producers to design and shape station programme to appeal to a group with known listening
habits. A well designed information gathering mechanism will also give a station seeking to
know about its audience psychographics characteristics.

The technique of successful broadcast operation is to be able to match the characteristics of the
audience with programme content and presentation style. It is important for every radio station to
understand who its audience is. Onabajo (2000) notes that audiences are known to the media
primarily as statistical aggregates produced by rating services and market researches and the
media’s orientation to their audiences is dominated by numbers. Research suggests that if useful
information is to be effectively conveyed to people through the broadcast media, the presenter
must be sensitive to what the audience wants or needs.” Idebi (2010:56) lists the characteristics
of radio audience as follows:
 Radio audience has no social barriers, obstacles or distinctions. They cut across the
divides-doctors, professors, women, children among others.
 Radio has no personal value, as its message is personal to the people being addressed
because it is also a friendly medium.
  Radio audience is non-captive and they are restless. They tune in for good programmes
and switch or tune off from such station at the slightest provocation or when the
programme becomes boring.
It is widely acknowledged that, media producers construct their audiences based on three factors
– demographics, psychographics, and lifestyle. The demographic characteristics of audience
include age, gender, income, and occupation, cultural and socio-economic factors. Although it is
not always feasible to analyze every psychological traits of radio audience, there are, however,
several factors that are critical for making programme decisions. The indicators are attitudes,
personality type, behaviour among others. The indicators for lifestyle on the other hand are the
different activities that mark people as different from others.
 Concept of Broadcast Programme

A broadcast programme can take the form of information, education and entertainment created to
meet certain specific needs of the viewing or listening audience. According to Wikipedia (2015)
television programme or television show [and by extension radio programme] “is a segment of
content intended for broadcast on television, other than a commercial, channel indent, trailer, or
any other segment of content not serving as attraction for viewership. It may be a single
production, or more commonly, a series of related productions (also called a television series)”.
Broadcast programmes can be classified into two broad categories; spoken word and music.
Spoken word according to Duyile (2005) are talks, discussions, educational broadcasting,
interviews, drama, documentary, magazines, news and current affairs programmes and religious
broadcasting; while music programmes include pre-recorded programme, live musical
performance of all kinds and variety of entertainment. On the other hand, James and Ward
(1998) classified broadcast programmes into four major categories namely:

1. Public affairs or programmes which are made up of news, interview, sports, documentary
among others.
2. Entertainment programmes which are drama, musicals and talk shows.
3. Children’s programmes which are moonlight tales, drama, educational programmes and
cartoons.
4. Enlightenment programmes, mostly sponsored by government and its agencies.

A radio programme is what a station has to offer to its listeners and advertisers. The type of
programme a station has determines the type of people who listens to it and the amount of
adverts it commands. A radio program is a segment of content intended for broadcast on radio. It
may be a one-time production or part of a periodically recurring series. Regardless of who is
listening or watching, Pennington (2000) advises that broadcast stations must through their
programmes:

i. Convince listeners that they are on their side, and interested in what concerns them;
 ii. Encourage them to feel part of the programme;
iii. Encourage them to contribute their views and concerns them.

On the basis of this therefore, the task of every programmer/producer/director is to:

i. Choose programmes that meet the needs and wants of an audience.

ii. Negotiate the development or “rights” to a programme.
iii. Organize those programmes into a cohesive schedule that flows from one program to the
next.
iv. Market the programmes to the appropriate audience.
v. Convince advertisers the programmes will reach their consumers.

Radio Programme Format

There are two main of radio programming formats – music and talk. Every type of programme
falls under these two broad categories.

a. Music format
Music programmes on radio are designed around the various genres of music which include the
following:
 Country-western format: This genre of music attracts mostly older generation
and those who love country music. Music in this format reveals emphasis on steel
guitar and vocals in a southwestern accent.
 Folk: This genre includes contemporary as well as traditional music. This could
include highlife music that is found in most African societies.
 Adult Contemporary (AC): This consists of a blend of suitable oldies and
current soft-rock hits
 Classical: This refers to serious music that has survived for several generations. It
is the type of music that is played by symphony orchestras in concerts hall.
 Jazz: This type of music is highly rhythmical and often free-form music.
 Gospel/Religious music: This type of music is often inspirational and used to
spread the gospel.
 Reggae: This genre of music is associated with Jamaicans but popular in different
African countries.
  Top 40: On some radio stations it could be Top 10, Top 100 and are labeled so
because they are current hit records. It consists of selections that are most popular
in terms of requests and record sales.

b. Talk Format
According to Onabajo (1999:10), talk programmes are basic forms of broadcasting and
existed before radio began, so it is no surprise that other broadcast programmes is an off-
shoot of talk. The different programmes that emanate from talk include drama,
documentary, news, magazine, interview, discussion among others.

Sources of Radio Programmes

A radio station generates its programmes either internally or externally. Internally
generated programmes are those programmes that are developed and produced by the
local staff of a station or network while externally generated programmes are those
developed in collaboration with other producers.
a) Internally Produced Programmes: They are referred to those programmes put
together by the local staff of a broadcast station as well as those produced by the
staff of a network.
b) Externally Produced Programmes –
i. Independent producers: These are independent producers who come up
with programmes like drama, soap opera, discussion and talk shows as a
means of livelihood. These producers may syndicate their programmes to
interested stations. They buy air time from stations but source funds from
sponsors of the programme.
ii. Religious programmes: Some stations are accepting religious
programmes from sermons, live crusades and magazine programmes.
iii. Reality shows: the trend world over is reality TV, and Nigeria is not left
out. Today programmes like Maltina dance hall, Nigeria idol, MTN
Project Fame among others command good number of audience across the
nation.
 iv. Live shows/coverage: This kind of programme seasonal, entertainment
and socio-cultural events like Ileya festival, Christmas carnival, musical
shows et cetera to fill the air and also source for funds. Although these
programmes are seasonal, they are planned (depending on when the event
occur) to fall into the station’s quarterly scheduling of programmes.

Programme Scheduling Strategies

Every station attempts to arrange their programmes in such a way that will suit the audience they
cater for. Broadcast Programming or scheduling is the defined as thepractice of arranging
television or radio programmes on a daily, weekly, or season-long schedule. The practice is use
to schedule programmes to build an audience for a new show, retain audience, or compete with
other stations’ programmes.

Station schedule programme in a particular time for the following reasons:

1. To maximize the size of an audience targeted by advertisers
2. To attract audience for the programme;
3. To give the programmes the best chance to survive or be accepted by its target audience;
4. To match programmes with target audience available at the time; and Deliver audiences
to advertisers in the composition that makes their advertisements most likely to be
effective (Ellis, 2000).

Scheduling strategies:
1. Block programming occurs when the television network schedules similar programmes
back-to-back. The concept is to provide similar programming to retain viewership.
2. Crossprogramming involves the interconnection of two shows. This is achieved by
dragging a storyline over two episodes of two different programmes.
3. Bridging is being used when a station tries to prevent the audience from changing
channels during a junction point - the main evening breaks where all channels stop
programmes and shift gear (Ellis, 2000). This is achieved in a number of ways including:
having a programme already underway and something compelling happening at a
 junction point, running a programme late so that people ‘hang around’ and miss the start
of other programmes, or television advertising the next programme during the credits of
the previous.
4. Counterprogramming: It is used when a time period is filled with a programme whose
appeal is different from the opponent programme because it is a different genre or
appeals to a different demographic.
5. Dayparting is the practice of dividing the day into several parts, during each of which a
different type of radio programming or television programming appropriate for that time
is aired. Daytime television programmes are most often geared toward a particular
demographic, and what the target audience typically engages in at that time. Depending
on the station, for instance, television airtime is divided into various parts, such as: sign-
on, early morning news, early morning, late morning, daytime television, early fringe,
lunchtime news, early afternoon, late afternoon, early evening, evening news, prime time,
late-night news, late night television, graveyard slot, sign-off (closedown), late fringe,
post late-fringe.
6. Hammocking is a technique used by broadcasters whereby an unpopular programme is
scheduled between two popular programmes in the hope that viewers will watch it. Public
television use this as a way of promoting serious but valuable content.
7. Hotswitching: In this strategy, the programmers eliminate any sort of commercial break
when one programme ends and another begins; this immediately hooks the audience into
watching the next programme without a chance to change the television channel between
programmes.
8. Stacking is a technique used to develop audience flow by grouping together programmes
with similar appeals to ‘sweep’ the viewer along from one programme to the next (Vane
and Gross, 1994, p. 175). Stripping is running a syndicated television series every day of
the week. It is commonly restricted to describing the airing of shows which were weekly
in their first run. Shows that are syndicated generally have to run for several seasons (the
rule of thumb is usually 100 episodes) in order to have enough episodes to run without
significant repeats.
9. Tent pole programming: For this strategy, the station programmers bank on a well-
known series having so much audience appeal that they can place two unknown series on
 either side, and it is the strength of the central programme that will bring the others along
to victory.
10. Special theming days (such as for Christmas holiday), or theme weeks, such as
Discovery Channel’s Shark Week, when all programmes aired have implicit or
subliminal themes along the major theme or season.

The 4P’s of Programming

The components of the broadcast programming are classified into four headings, namely:
planning, production, placement and promotion.

1) PLANNING: Planning, according to Onabajo (2002:19) is an attempt to force future

situation and plan towards it. It refers to how programmes are generated and transmitted
on air waves. A broadcast station cannot plan without first putting the audience, the
marketing potential, advertisers and sponsorship into consideration. According to
Onabajo (2002), programme planning involves several steps and these include:
 Concept: According to him Onabajo is when idea comes up to produce any
programme. The idea is nurture and developed; thereafter the programme
objectives are set bearing in mind the type of audience the programme is made for
and how it will benefit them as a member of the public.
 Programme funding: This usually involves the management. This is because
once a programme is developed, the management is informed which will then
provide fund for the hire of equipment and production expenses.
 Scripting: This is the stage when the storyline is actualized into shooting script,
director’s or producer’s script as well as for the artistes.
 Cast: This includes those who will take part in the production. Their function is
to interpret the script meaningfully into action or voice that will be recorded for
either live or recorded programmes.
 Production: This involves the technical crew, cast, director, and the producer.
They all must play their part in the production so as to achieve the set objective
2) PRODUCTION: Operation or production in broadcast involves the way programmes are
produced and projected to the audience in a favourable manner in the overall public
interest (Onabajo, 2002:21). There are a variety of programme that makes air on a daily
basis on television. Some make it to prime time, some are a product of syndication and
some died even after the first episode. The reason programmes succeed or fail lie in the
production process. These processes are pre-production, product and post-production.
 The Pre-production Stage: The pre-production stage is generally the
conceptualization stage - a stage where everything that will ensure a successful
production is identified and put in place. This stage according to Burrow and
Woods (1978:261) is further divided in five areas, namely: script familiarization,
facilities and equipment, cast and crew, production requirements and script
preparation. These is where all these activities outlined and planned at the
planning stages are implemented and made actionable.
 The Production Stage: The production stage actually meant you are ready to
start rolling the tapes. The script guides both the cast and crew with the strong
monitoring from the director. Production could be shot in the studio and it may be
a remote area production. When it is an outside location, the site selected must be
in consonance with what the script says. But beyond that, it means also making
sure that all the equipment needed is available.
 The Post Production Stage: Post-production or the evaluation stage includes
ensuring that the recorded programme falls within the allotted time adding inserts
arranging the visuals in a proper sequence, credits at both the beginning and at the
end of the programme as well as taking stock of the budget. According to Kristain
(2014), the post production level can occur after production or simultaneously
during production, depending on the planned approach for workflow.

3) PLACEMENT: In scheduling programmes, the director of programmes must along with

is supporting staff make the decision on how to arrange programmes in such a way that
each will have available audience and potential sponsors. In arranging programmes, the
unit must ask the following question as well as provide answers to the:
i. Which programme should be placed first and why?
 ii. Which programme should come next and why?
iii. Which programme should come after and why?
iv. What time of the day should the programme be aired and why?
v. Who are the audience of the programme and when are they likely to be around?

An honest answer to these question will help the programmed department take the
decision on which programmes comes first, which should come in the middle and
which should come last for every programme throughout the day and the days of the
week. Again, knowing which audience view or listen to what will aid the smooth
placement of programmes however knowing the demographics of the audience will
assist the department of the time scheduling.

4) PROMOTION: When a new programme is produced broadcast stations employ various

means to create awareness for the programme. The idea is to continually promote the
programme before it start showing and even the programme start showing. The idea is to
sell the programme to the target audience and possible sponsor(s). Brookins (2014)
maintains that promotion allows businesses (by extension broadcast media) to reach out
to consumers (audience) using various forms of techniques and strategies to capture their
attention. This explains why Ward (2014) holds the view that it is important to let people
know about a product because it helps to increase acceptance in a competitive market.
 The Principles of Writing for Radio

Radio is an aural medium, the radio script must be pleasing to the ear. Therefore, the radio script
must be written in a conversational style. There is always time constraint in radio production.
This suggests that the radio script must be written and timed to ensure that a programme does not
exceed its time limit. The constraints of the medium also mean that the scriptwriter writes in the
conversational style. His adoption of this style will make his script appear lively in order to
sustain interest. There are principles every broadcast scriptwriter must be familiar with if he/she
intends to make a success of his/her career in radio. Broadcast script, particularly radio script
must measure up to laid down parameters. These parameters are clarity, conciseness,
completeness, conversational style, currency and correctness.

i. Clarity: A clear radio script means that the writer employs simple, easy-to- understand
language to convey the message to the audience. It also means that there is sequence of
pattern which allows the story to flow logically. Clarity in radio script writing is very
important due to the ephemeral nature of radio messages. Once they are missed, they may
be difficult to retrieve. Due to this fact clarity must be the watch word of every radio
script writer. The only way the listener can follow the story is for the writer to develop
the story in a logical way. Clarity of thought implies the following:
 The script should be clear enough to avoid misinterpretation;
 It is preferable if a sentence expresses one main idea;
 The writer must choose words that everyone will understand. That is the writer
must use words that are within the vocabulary of the listener. Use everyday
language or expression
 Descriptive words should not be sacrificed;
 Avoid vague language;
 Use the active rather than the passive voice when you can;
  Avoid using slangs or jargons. It is not every listener that may be familiar with
such slangs hence it is advisable to always translate military, technical and legal
jargons into simple language; and
 Don’t switch codes. Don’t use foreign language that is outside the audience’ns
understanding.
ii. Conciseness: This means that the writer has eliminated all unnecessary words that add
nothing to the message. Radio is not a medium of too many words like newspaper; as
such the copy must be direct, clear and brief.
 Avoid wordiness;
 Be brief;
 Avoid words that on the surface appear good but manifest meaning say the
opposite of the intention of the writer.
 Get straight to the point;
 Use short but effective sentences;
 State only relevant information;
 Avoid repetition.
iii. Completeness: This means that the script must have all the information the audience
needs. Regardless of the audience that the script is meant for, it must, like the news story,
include in it at least four of the five “Ws” i.e. who, what, when, where, why and in some
programmes like drama include the how or “H.”
iv. Conversational: the principle of having a successful programme and audience loyalty is
to write the way you talk, just as if you are carrying on a conversation with just one
person and not the millions listening at the other end. As observed by
[Link] (2014) the twofold objective of the
conversational tone is that first, it allows the announcer to pick up the drift of the story
and second, it makes the copy sound “right” to the audience. A good broadcast writer
“listens” to the story being written.
v. Current: currency in a copy meant that the copy is timely and up to date. Currency in
drama gives the suggestion of relevance and relatable to the people.
vi. Correct: correct presentation of facts and figure is the hallmark of good journalism as
well as writing.
  Have perfect grammar, and spelling. Bad grammar and wrong spellings will make
the writer appear incompetent;
 Punctuation is absolutely vital to expressing the right meaning;
 Double check;
 Make sure your facts and figures are accurate; and
 Make sure your documents are in the correct format.

Tips to Note in Radio Programme Writing

It is important for programme developers, script writer, producers and directors that in the
medium of radio:
a. Writing style is not the same as newspaper and as such must appear natural when the
copy is being read. The best way to make it appear as natural one-on-one conversation is
to use the everyday speech that an average listener would understand;
b. It is an immediate medium that presents events as if they are occurring now; radio uses
present tense to give its copy the sense of immediacy.
c. It is a personal medium that is a person to person medium; it creates a relationship
between the presenter and the listeners that sometimes goes beyond on-air relationship.
There may be thousands listening to the station at the same time but each has the sense of
having intimate relationship with the host of the programme.
d. Words are only heard once on radio and if not well encoded may be lost on the listener.
The radio script must be clear and simple.
e. Is a sound-only medium scriptwriter must take care that words and sound are carefully
selected and used.