Here's a detailed explanation of Module 1, Unit 1: Limits, Continuity and Differentiability from your MTH

281 course guide, structured to help you prepare for your CBT exams:

MTH 281: Mathematical Methods I - Module 1, Unit 1: Limit, Continuity and Differentiability

This unit is foundational, building upon your prior knowledge from MTH102 regarding limits. It
rigorously defines essential calculus concepts: limits, continuity, and differentiability, and explores their
interrelationships and applications.

1.0 Introduction

This section serves as a recap and an introduction to the more rigorous treatment of limits. You'll recall
that in MTH102, you learned about the "idea" of a limit, for example, how (sin x) / x approaches 1 as x
becomes very small. In this unit, the goal is to provide a precise and formal definition of the limit of a
function. It also aims to define continuity and identify conditions under which a function becomes
discontinuous. Crucially, these concepts of limit and continuity will then be used to establish a more
rigorous definition of differentiability.

2.0 Objectives

These objectives tell you exactly what you should be able to do after studying this unit. For CBT exams,
these often translate directly into questions:

* Establish the limit of functions: You should be able to calculate limits for various types of functions,
including those that might initially appear indeterminate (e.g., 0/0).

* Determine the continuity or otherwise of a function: You need to be able to identify if a function is
continuous at a given point or over an interval, and if not, pinpoint where it's discontinuous.

* Carry out the differentiation of a function: This means applying the rules of differentiation, potentially
from first principles (the definition using limits).

* Apply Rolle's and Mean-Value Theorem to solutions of some problems: You should understand these
theorems and know how to use them to prove inequalities or find specific points on a curve.

* Obtain nth differential coefficients of some simple functions by application of Leibnitz's formula: This
involves finding higher-order derivatives, especially of products of functions, using a specific formula.

3.0 Main Content

This is the core of the unit, where the concepts are explained in detail.

3.1 Limits

This section formally defines the limit of a function and discusses important nuances.
 * Definition of a Limit (Informal): If f(x) can be made arbitrarily close to a number l by choosing x
sufficiently close to a number a (but not necessarily equal to a), then l is the limit of f(x) as x approaches
a. This is written as lim (x->a) f(x) = l.

* Directional Limits:

* x can approach a from the left (values less than a, written as x -> a- or x -> a). The limit is l1.

* x can approach a from the right (values greater than a, written as x -> a+ or x -> a). The limit is l2.

* Crucial Point for CBT: For a general limit lim (x->a) f(x) to exist, the left-hand limit (l1) and the right-
hand limit (l2) must be equal. If l1 ≠ l2, the limit does not exist.

* Example: y = tan⁻¹(1/x) approaches π/2 as x -> 0+ and -π/2 as x -> 0-. Since these are different, lim (x-
>0) tan⁻¹(1/x) does not exist.

* Infinite Limits: When f(x) becomes arbitrarily large (positive or negative infinity) as x approaches a, we
write lim (x->a) f(x) = ∞ or lim (x->a) f(x) = -∞.

* Example: y = 1/x approaches +∞ as x -> 0+ and -∞ as x -> 0-.

* Exclusion of x = a: When evaluating lim (x->a) f(x), you exclude the point x = a itself.

* Reasons:

* f(x) might not be defined at x = a (e.g., (sin x)/x at x = 0).

* f(x) might be defined at x = a, but its value at a is not equal to the limit (e.g., a piecewise function
with a "hole" at x=a and a separate defined point).

* Example: A function defined as (x² - 1)/(x - 1) for x ≠ 1 and f(1) = 1. The limit as x -> 1 is 2, but f(1) is 1.

* Oscillating Functions: Some functions oscillate infinitely often as x approaches a point, preventing a
limit from existing.

* Example: y = cos(1/x) as x -> 0. It oscillates between -1 and +1 and does not approach a single value.

* However, y = x cos(1/x) as x -> 0 does have a limit (which is 0) because the x factor "squeezes" the
oscillation down to zero. This hints at the Squeeze Theorem (though not explicitly named here).

* Rigorous Definition of a Limit (Epsilon-Delta Definition): This is the formal definition.

* lim (x->a) f(x) = l if for any ε > 0 (however small), there exists a δ > 0 such that if 0 < |x - a| < δ, then |
f(x) - l| < ε.

* Key Idea: You can make f(x) as close as you want to l (within ε) by ensuring x is sufficiently close to a
(within δ). The value of δ typically depends on ε.
* Important Theorems on Limits: These theorems are crucial for evaluating complex limits.

* Theorem 1 (Sum/Difference): lim [f(x) ± g(x)] = lim f(x) ± lim g(x)

* Theorem 2 (Product): lim [f(x) * g(x)] = lim f(x) * lim g(x)

* Theorem 3 (Quotient): lim [f(x) / g(x)] = lim f(x) / lim g(x), provided lim g(x) ≠ 0.

* These theorems extend to any finite number of functions.

* Example 1 (Application of Theorems): Demonstrates how to evaluate lim (x->1) (x^m - 1) / (x - 1) for
rational m. It shows how to use algebraic manipulation and the limit theorems to arrive at the result m.
This is a classic example that often appears in exam questions related to limit evaluation.

* Self-Assessment Exercises 1: Practice these! They cover various limit evaluation techniques, including
those that might require algebraic simplification (e.g., factoring, rationalizing) or knowledge of standard
limits (e.g., lim (x->0) (sin x)/x = 1).

3.2 Continuous and Discontinuous Functions

This section defines continuity rigorously and identifies conditions for discontinuity.

* Definition of Continuity at a Point x = a: A single-valued function f(x) is continuous at x = a if all three

* lim (x->a) f(x) exists. (This implies left-hand limit = right-hand limit).

* The function is defined at x = a (i.e., f(a) exists).

* lim (x->a) f(x) = f(a). (The limit value must be equal to the function's value at that point).

* Discontinuity: If any of these three conditions are not met, the function is discontinuous at x = a. This
is often visualized as a "break" in the graph.

* Types of Discontinuities:

* Infinite Discontinuity: The function approaches ±∞ at the point of discontinuity (e.g., y = 1/x at x = 0).

* Finite Discontinuity (Jump Discontinuity/Removable Discontinuity): The function remains finite at the
discontinuity, but there's a jump or a hole (e.g., the piecewise function from Section 3.1 example, or (sin
x)/x at x=0 if f(0) is undefined).

* Continuity of Polynomials: Every polynomial of any degree is continuous for all x. This is a very
important result. The proof relies on the limit theorems, showing that lim (x->a) x^m = a^m, which is
f(a). Since a polynomial is a sum of such terms, and sums of continuous functions are continuous,
polynomials are continuous everywhere.
 * Continuity of Rational Functions: Every rational function (a ratio of two polynomials) is continuous
everywhere except at the points where the denominator vanishes (equals zero). These points are where
the function is undefined, leading to discontinuities (often asymptotes).

* Example: f(x) = (x + 3) / ((x - 1)(x - 2)) is continuous everywhere except at x = 1 and x = 2.

* Properties of Continuous Functions: The sums, differences, products, and quotients (except where the
denominator is zero) of continuous functions are also continuous.

* Self-Assessment Exercises 2: Practice finding points of discontinuity by checking the three conditions
for continuity. Look for values of x that make the denominator zero, or cases where the function might
not be defined or the limits don't match the function value.

3.3 Differentiability

This section defines the differential coefficient (derivative) using limits and reviews basic differentiation
rules.

* Definition of Differential Coefficient (Derivative): For a function y = f(x), the differential coefficient of y
with respect to x is defined as:

dy/dx = lim (Δx -> 0) [f(x + Δx) - f(x)] / Δx

* Geometrical Interpretation: This limit represents the slope of the tangent line to the curve y = f(x) at
point (x, y). If this limit exists, it implies the tangent line exists at that point.

* Notation: dy/dx, f'(x), y', Dy, or Df.

* Differentiability at a Point: A function y = f(x) is differentiable at x = a if dy/dx (or f'(x)) exists at that
point.

* Differentiation from First Principles: This means deriving the derivative using the limit definition, as
shown in the examples. You should be prepared to do this for simple functions.

* Example 2: Derives d/dx (sin x) = cos x from first principles, using trigonometric identities and
standard limits like lim (Δx -> 0) (sin Δx)/Δx = 1.

* Rules for Differentiating Products and Quotients: The unit assumes you are familiar with these.

* Product Rule: d/dx [f(x)g(x)] = f'(x)g(x) + f(x)g'(x)

* Quotient Rule: d/dx [f(x)/g(x)] = [f'(x)g(x) - f(x)g'(x)] / [g(x)]²

* Example 3: Shows the derivation of the quotient rule from first principles, illustrating how the limit
theorems are applied.

* Differential Coefficients of Inverse Circular Functions: Briefly touches on derivatives of inverse

* Relationship with Integration: Mentions that indefinite integration is the inverse operation to
differentiation.

* Self-Assessment Exercises 3: Practice differentiating from first principles for basic functions and
applying standard differentiation rules for more complex expressions involving logarithms, exponentials,
and trigonometric functions.

3.4 Continuity and Differentiability

This section clarifies the crucial relationship between these two concepts.

* Key Relationship: If a function f(x) is differentiable at x = a, then f(x) must be continuous at x = a.

* Proof Idea: If f(x) were not continuous at x = a, then f(a + Δx) - f(a) would not tend to 0 as Δx -> 0.
This would make the limit for the differential coefficient (which has Δx in the denominator) undefined.

* Conclusion: Differentiability implies continuity. Discontinuity implies non-differentiability.

* Converse is NOT True: Continuity does NOT imply differentiability.

* Example: A function with a "kink" or a "sharp corner" (like y = |x| at x = 0). The function is
continuous at that point (no breaks), but a unique tangent line does not exist, meaning it's not
differentiable there.

* Example Given: f(x) = sin(1/x) for x ≠ 0 and f(0) = 0. This function is continuous at x = 0 but not
differentiable there.

* "Pathological Functions": Mentions functions that are continuous everywhere but differentiable
nowhere, though these are typically not of great interest in physical applications.

3.5 Rolle’s Theorem and the Mean-Value Theorem

These are two fundamental theorems in differential calculus with important applications.

* i) Rolle's Theorem:

* Conditions: If f(x) is:

* Continuous in the closed interval [a, b].

* Differentiable in the open interval (a, b).

* f(a) = f(b) = 0 (the function values at the endpoints are zero).

* Conclusion: Then there exists at least one value c in (a, b) such that f'(c) = 0.
 * Geometric Interpretation: If a continuous and differentiable curve starts and ends at the same x-axis
level, there must be at least one point between the endpoints where the tangent line is horizontal (i.e.,
slope is zero, indicating a local maximum or minimum).

* ii) First Mean-Value Theorem (Lagrange's Mean-Value Theorem):

* Conditions: If f(x) is:

* Continuous in the closed interval [a, b].

* Differentiable in the open interval (a, b).

* Conclusion: Then there exists at least one value c in (a, b) such that f'(c) = [f(b) - f(a)] / (b - a).

* Geometric Interpretation: There exists at least one point c between a and b where the tangent line
to the curve is parallel to the secant line joining the points (a, f(a)) and (b, f(b)).

* Proof: The proof of the Mean-Value Theorem is shown by constructing an auxiliary function F(x) that
satisfies Rolle's Theorem. This is a common technique in mathematical proofs.

* Applications of Mean-Value Theorem: It's useful for:

* Establishing Inequalities: A key application is to show inequalities between functions.

* Result for Inequalities:

* If f'(x) > 0 in (a, b), then f(x) is strictly increasing in that interval. This means f(a) < f(x1) < f(x2) < f(b)
for a < x1 < x2 < b.

* If f'(x) < 0 in (a, b), then f(x) is strictly decreasing in that interval. This means f(a) > f(x1) > f(x2) > f(b)
for a < x1 < x2 < b.

* Example 6: Applies this result to show that 1 > (sin x)/x > 2/π in the interval 0 < x < π/2.

3.6 Higher Derivatives and Leibnitz’s Formula

This section introduces derivatives beyond the first order.

* Higher Differential Coefficients: When a function y = f(x) is differentiated multiple times, the results
are called higher derivatives.

* Second derivative: d²y/dx² or f''(x)

* nth derivative: dⁿy/dxⁿ or fⁿ(x)

* Leibnitz's Formula (for the nth derivative of a product): This formula is for finding the nth derivative of
a product of two functions, uv:

dⁿ/dxⁿ (uv) = (ⁿC₀ uⁿv) + (ⁿC₁ uⁿ⁻¹v¹) + (ⁿC₂ uⁿ⁻²v²) + ... + (ⁿCₙ uvⁿ)
 where uⁿ denotes the nth derivative of u, vⁿ denotes the nth derivative of v, and ⁿCᵣ are binomial
coefficients. This formula significantly simplifies finding higher derivatives of products compared to
repeated application of the product rule.

* Maxima and Minima (Brief Mention): This section briefly mentions that higher derivatives are used to
determine maxima and minima of functions (e.g., using the second derivative test). This is likely covered
in more detail later in the course.

How to Prepare for CBT Exams for this Unit:

* Understand Definitions: Be able to state and apply the formal definitions of limits, continuity, and
differentiability.

* Evaluate Limits: Practice all types of limit problems, including those requiring algebraic manipulation,
one-sided limits, and limits involving infinity.

* Identify Discontinuities: Given a function, be able to state its points of discontinuity and classify the
type of discontinuity.

* Differentiate from First Principles: Practice this for basic functions (e.g., x^n, sin x, cos x).

* Apply Differentiation Rules: Master the product, quotient, and chain rules, and derivatives of standard
functions.

* Understand Continuity-Differentiability Link: Know that differentiability implies continuity, but not
vice-versa, and be able to provide examples.

* Rolle's and Mean-Value Theorems:

* Know the conditions for each theorem.

* Understand their geometric interpretations.

* Be able to apply them to verify existence conditions or prove inequalities.

* Higher Derivatives & Leibnitz's Formula: Be able to calculate higher derivatives and know how to apply
Leibnitz's formula for products.

Good luck with your exams!