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Jobs and the

Design of Work

LEARN I NG 0UT coMES

After reading this chapter, you should be able to do 3
the following: Identify and describe alternative approaches to job
design.
1 Differentiate between job and work. 4 Identify and describe contemporary issues facing
2 Discuss the traditional approaches to job design. organizations in the design of work.
CCThe meaning of work differs from persc
to
person and from culture to culture.
EARNNGOUTCOME 1
Work in
Organizations
AJoh is delined s an emplovee's specific wvork and task
activities in an organization. A job is not the sane as an

Orginizational position or a career. Organialional post-

tion identifies a job in relation to other parts of the orga-
1ZAtiOn; career relers to a sequence of job exPeriences
over time.
ork is ellortful, productive activity resulting in a

procuct or a service. Work is one important reason whyy

organizations exist. A jolb is composecl of a set of specilic
tasks, each of which is an assigned piece of work to be done
1 a specilic time period. Work is an especially important
liman endeavor because it has a powerful effect in bind-

Throughwork, people
become securely attacheed
to reality and securely
Connected in human
relationships.

become
ing a
person to reality. Through work. people
securely attacled to reality and securely connected in
man reationslips. IW'ork has diflerent meanings for dif-
lerent people. For :all people. work is organized into jobs,
nd jobs lit into the larger stnucture of an organization.
The structure of jolbs is the coneem of this clhapter, and
the structure ol the organi-
ation istlhe concem ol the job
Ient chapter. Botth clapters A set of specified work and task

Cmplasie organizations as activities that engage an indIvidual

sets of tusk and authorily In an organzation

relationslhips througl1 whieh work

people get work dlone.
Menlal or physical activity that has
procuctive resuls.
The Meaning
of Work meaning of work

Ihe way a person interprets and

The meaning of work dil-
understands the value of work as
fers frou persou to person
part of lite
and fronu culture to culture.

277
 in cach country who defined work
who defined
workers
of An examinat.
centage the sX patterns.
to of
In an
increasingly global workplace, it is important according to each
percentage of workers in
a snall
understand and appreciate diferences among indivichals shows that
of the table Pattern
Pa E or Pattern F to
and cultures with regard to the meaning of work. One used cither
work,
all six
countries
there are significant diffo
study found six patterns people follow in defining
Furthermore,
define work. in how work is defined. In the
and these help explain the cultural differences in peoples countries
among
ences
defined most positively and with he
motivation to work. Netherlands, work is
llective
and colle reasons for doing it.
Pattern A people define work as an activity in which balanced personal
value comes from performance and for which a person
most
least positively
and with the most cole
Work is defined and Japan. Belgims
devoid of
isaccountable. It is generally self-directed and tive r e a s o n
for doing it
in Germany
a middle position
negative affect.
Israel, and the United States represent
P'altern B people define work as an activity that pro- between these two.
vides a person with positive personal affect and identity. international study, 5,550 people across
In another
Work contributes to society and is not unpleasant. in wenty different countri
Patlern C people define work as an activity from ten occupational groups
Scales (WVS).2 The WVs i
completed the Work Value
which profit accrues to others by its performance and thirteen items measuring various aspects
that may be done in various settings other than a working composed of
environment, such as responsibility
and iob
of the work
place. Work is usually physically strenuous and somewhat security. The study
found two c o m m o n basic work dimen-

compulsive. sions across

one
cultures. Work content
is dimension
Patlern D people define work as primarily a physical measured by items such of responsibility
as "the amount

activity a
person must do that is directed by others and context is the other dimension, measured
on the job." Job
generally performed in a working place. Work is usually "This
such as "the policies of my company." find-
devoid of positive affect and is unpleasantly connected to by items
many cultures distinguish
that people in
pertormance. ing suggests and elements of the
Patteru E people define work as a physically and between the nature of the work itself
context in which work is done. This supports Herzberg's
mentally strenuous activity. It is generally unpleasant and two-factor theory of motivation (see Chapter 5) and his
devoid of positive affect.
PatternFpeople define work as an activity con- job enrichment method discussed later in this chapter.
strained to specific time periods that does not bring posi Although the meaning of work differs among countries,
tive affect through its performance.
new theorizing about crafting a job also suggests that
These six patterns were studied in six different coun- individual employees can alter work meaning and work
tries: Belgium, Germany, Israel, Japan, the Netherlands, identity by changing task and relationship configurations
and the United States. Table 14.1 summarizes the per- in their work."

TABLE 14.1 Work Definition Patterns by Nation

PATTERN
SAMPLE B C D E People in
Total Sample (N3 4,950) 11% 28% 18% 22% 11% 12% many cultures
Nation
Belgium 8% 0% 13% 19% 11% % distinguish
Germany 8% 26% 13% 28% 11% 14% between the
Israel 4% 22% 33% 23% 9% 9%
Japan 21% 11% 13% 29% 10% 17% nature of the
The Netherlands 15% 43% 12% 11% 9% 9%
United States 8% 30% 19% 19% 12% 11%
work itself and
Note: X2 5 680.98 (25 degrees of freedom). P,.0001 Significance level
elements of the
n Pattern A, work is valued for its performance. The person is acCCOuntable and
generally sell-directed. In Pattem B, work provides a
person with positive afect and identity. It contributes to society. In Pattem C, work provIdes profit to others by its
cal and not confined to a working place. In Pattem D, work is a required physical performance. Inis physi-
activity drected by others and generaly
context in which
Pattern E, work is physically and mentaly strenuous. ns generaly unpieasant. in Patern F, work S unpleasant. In
t does not bring posiüve affect through pertormance.
Constrained to specific time periods.. work is done.
soURCE: From G. W. England andL Harpaz, "HOw Working Is Delinea: Naionat conexls and
Influences," frorn Journal of
Demographic and Organizational Role
Organizalional Behavior 11, 1990. Opyrignt Join Wey & Sons, Limted. Reproduced with permission.

278 PART
4 Organizalional Processes and Structure
 Jobs in Organizations
thority relationships
Task a n d .

ucture. Jobs are the Tobs basic

define an

task-au thority structure and are

organization'
building blocks s
of this "If I had enough
s t r u c t u r a

element to which considered the micro- arms and legs and time,
relate. Jobs are
usually designedemployees
to
most
directly
portother
jobs in the
organization. complement and sup-
Isolated jobs
I'd do it all myself"
although one was

c 1970 entified at
Coastal are
rare, -Harold Geneen, former chairman of ITT
ing
the early 1970s. Shortly after Oscar Corporation
dur-
compar risti, Texas, to Wyatt moved the
from Corpus
developed organizational charts and Houston, Coastal
the company had job
because

ofcharting the
organizati
grown so
large. descriptions
In the
work lit together into a whole. For example, an envelope
Salesperson who wants to take an order for one million
he beloved corporate structure, it was process envelopes from John Hancock Financial Services must
that t
economist discovered
Everyone he worked
for assumed to no one. reported coordinate with the production department to establish
neculiarities are rare, however.
pecu
someone else. Such an
achievable delivery date. The failure to incorporate
this
Jobs in organizatio are interdependence into his planning could create con-
to make a
contribution to theinterdependent and designed flict and doom the
company to failure in meeting John
goals. For salespeople organization'
and to be
s overall mis- Hancock's expectations. The central concerns ot this
Lcion people must be ettective. For successful, the pro- chapter are designing work and structuring jobs to pre-
vent such problems and to ensure
be effective, the material production people employee well-being
to

must be effective. These

department Inllexible jobs that are rigidly structured have an acverse
elffect and lead to stressed-out
interdependencies employees.
The larger issues in the design of organiza-
require care-
tions are the competing processes of differ-
ful planning entiation and integration in organizations.
and design so
(See Chapter 15.) Differentiation is the
that all of the process of subdividing and de-
pieces of partmentalizing the work of an
organization. Jobs result from
MAN
differentiation, which is nec-
essary because no one can do
it all (contrary to the lamous
statement made by Harold Ceneen.
former chairman of ITT: "If I had
enough arms and legs and
time, I'd do it all myself").
Even small organizations must
divide work so that each per
son is able to accomplish a
manageable piece olf the whole. At the
same tinme the organization divides up the
work, it mustalso integrate those pieces
back into a whole. Integration
is the process of connecting
jobs and departments into a
coordinated, cohesive whole.
For exanuple, if the envelope
salesperson had coordinated
with the production manager
before finalizing the order with
John Hancock, the company
coud have met the customer's
expectations, and integration
WOuld have occurred.

Jobs and the Design ot Work 279

 the worker is to execi
ecute
The role ol
cach task carefully. management, such
I ICC 2 elements of
scicntitie as

the task. The dlitlerential piece-rate systems

stuclies.
motion
Traditional time and
and the
scientilic
selection of workers, all focus On
of pay, benefit of th
Approaches the efficicnt
use of labor to the
economic

to Job Design Corporation.

Job Enlargement/
F'aiure to clifferentiate, integrate, or both may result
in badly designed jolbs, which in tum cause a varietyof Job Rotation

perfomance problems in organizations. Good job design traditional approach to overcome

is a

helps avoid these problems, improves proluctivity, and Job enlargement work, such as boredom
enhances employee well-being. Approaches to job design the limitations of overspecialized
is job design that increases
a method of
that were developed during the twentieth century are Job enlargement a variation of
in a job. Job rolation,
rotation, job enrichment, and the the number of tasks
job enlargement/job a worker
to a variety ol special.
job characteristics theory. Each approach offers unique job enlargement, exposes
time. The reasoning behind these
ized tasks
job over
benefits to the organization, the employee., or both, but
of overspecialization is as
each also has limitations and drawbacks. Furthermore, approaches to the problems
follows. First, the core problem with overspecialized work
an unthinking reliance on a traditional approach can be
a serious problem in any company. The later job design was believed to be lack of variety. That is, jobs designed
scientific management were too narrow and limited
approaches were developed to overcome the limitations by to each
of traditional job design approaches. For example, job in the number of tasks and activities assigned
worker. Second, a lack of variety led to understimulation
enlargement was intended to overcome the problem of
worker. Third, the worker
boredom associated with scientific management's nar- and underutilization of the
utilized by increas-
rowly defined approach to jobs. would be more stimulated and better
the in the job. Variety could be increased by
variety
Scientific Management ing
activities or by rotating the
increasing the number of
Scientilic management, an approach to work design first worker through different jobs. For example, job enlarge-
advocated by Frederick Taylor, emphasized work sim- ment for a lathe operator in a steel plant might include
plification. Work simplification is the standardization selecting the steel pieces to be turned and performing
and the narrow, explicit specification of task activities for all of the maintenance work on the lathe. As an example
workers.' Jobs designed through scientific management of job rotation, an employee at a small bank might take
have a limited number of tasks, and each task is scientili- new accounts one day, serve as a cashier another day, and
cally specified so that the worker is not required to think process loan applications on a third day.
or deliberate. According to
Taylor, the role of manage-
ment and the industrial engi-
neer is to calibrate and define Arguments for Work Simplificalion
1. Work simplfication allowed workers of diverse ethnic and skill backgrounds to work
work simplification together in a systematic way, an important factor during the first great period of globaliza-
Standardization and the narrow. tion and immigration to America in the late 1800s.
explicit specification of task actvi
2. Work simplification leads to production efficiency in the
Ties for Norkers organizaion and, therefore, to
higher profits.
job enlargement
A method of job design that in-

Creases the number of activities in Limilations of Work Simplification

a job to overcome the boredom of
1. It undervalues the human capacity for
Overspecialized work thought and ingenuity Jobs designed through sci
entific management only portion of a person's capabilities. Underutilization makes
use a
job rotation
work boring, monoton0Us, and
A variation of job enlargement in understimulating and may cause a variety of work
problems.
which workers are exposed to
2. Work simplification tends to treat labor as
a varety of specialized jobs a means of production, thereby dehumanizing
the work force.
Over time

280 Organizational Processes and Structure

 Assembly-lineartitudes
Assemb
hayeositive workersgenerally
toward POsitive attitudes toward pay, security, and siper
security, and supervision SiO.
They conchded that job enlargement and joD
rotation would improve other job aspects, such s
repetition and a nechanical work pace
Job rotatiton and cross-training prograns are
Varitions of job enlargement. Pharmaceutical com-
Pany Eli Lilly has found that job rotation can be a
proactive means for enhancing work experiences

or career developnent and can have tangible ben

elits for employees in the form of salary increses
an promotions. 0 In cross-training. workers are

trained in different specialized tasks or activities.

Al
three kinds of
programs horizontally enlarge jobs;
that is, the number and variety of an employee s
CWorkbook Stock/Jupiter images
tasks and activities increased. Graphic Controls
are

orporation (now subsidiary of Tyco Intemational)

a

USed eross-training to develop flexible workforce

a

One of the first studies of the that enabled the company to maintain high levels of
problem of
WOrk was conductec at IBM
after World Warrepetitive production
II. The
implemented a
job
he war and evaluated the enlargement program dur-
eftort after six
Job Enrichment
nmost important results were
years. The Whereas
two
significant increasee a job enlargement increases the number of job
in product quality and
reduction in idle
a
activities through horizontal loading, job enrichment
nple and for machines. Less obvious time, both for ncreases the amount of job responsibility th1rough verti
and measurable
re the benelits ot job
enlargement to IBM through
cal loading. Both approaches to job design are intended,

hanced worker status and improved manager-worker part, to

increase job satisfaction for employees. A study
nmmunication. TBM concluded that job enlargement
to test whether job satisfaction results from characteristics
of the job or of the person found that an interactionist
Pnuntered the problems
of work
specialization. A con-
temporary study in aSwedish electronics
assembly plant
Pproach is most accurate and that job redesign can con-

tribute to increased
used physiological measures of muscle
tension. job satisfaction for some employees.
Job en- Another wo-year study found that intrinsie job satisfac-
largement had a positive ettect on mechanical exposure tion and job perceptions are reciprocally related to each
variability
other2
A laterstudy examined the effects of mass production Job ericlhment is a job design or redesign method
iobs on assembly-line workers in the automotive indus- aimecd at increasing the motivational factors in a job. Job
try. Mass production jobs have six characteristics: me-
enrichment builds on Herzberg's two-factor theory of mo-
chanically controlled work pace, repetitiveness, minimum
tivation, which distinguished betveen motivational and
skill requirements, predetermined tools and techniques, hygiene factors for people at work. Whereas job enlarge
minute division of the production process, and a
require- ment recommeds increasing and varying the mumber of
ment for surface mental attention, rather than
thoughtful activities a person does, job enrichment recommends in-
concentration. The researclers conducted 180 private in- creasing the recognitio1, responsilbility, and opportunity lor
terviews with assembly-line workers and tound
generally achievement. For example, enlarging the lathe operator's job

wo keyprobemscan arise in the cross-training

A variation ot joo enlargement in

Implemental1on otjob enrichment which workers are trained in difter-

ent specialized tasks or activties.

1. An initial drop in oerforrmance can be expected as workers CAUTION

job enrichment
accommodate to the change. Designing or redesigning jODS Dy

2. irst-line supervisors may experience some anxiety or hostility Corporating motivational tactors
nto them.
as a result of employees' increased responsibility.

JODS an0 the Desmof WOrk 281

 between the individual and
interaction
the it is person-ioh
emphasizes therefore, a

means
adding maintenance activities, and enriching the attributes of the job;
tlhe operator meet with customers who
specific
than a
universal job design model. It
job means
having fit model
rather forth
of 470 workers in
buy the products. research study
originated in a
eleven industries,
The stuche
jobs should be
Herzberg believes that only certain
seven
different jobs across

relevant task characteristics for

enriched and that the first step is to select the jolbs ap- and classified
measured
tound tour core job char
propriate for job enrichment.l3 He recognizes that some these forty-seven jobs
and
and
responsibility,
are selected for e n
people prefer simple jobs. Once jobs acteristics: job variety,
autonomy,
richment, management should brainstorm about possible interaction. The study also found that core

interpersonal all workers in the same

changes, revise the list to include only specific changes characteristies did not aflect
related to motivational factors, and screen out generali- job religious belieBs, andethnic back.
worker's values,
ties and suggestions that would simply increase activities way. A worker responded to the job.
influenced how the
or numbers of tasks. Those whose jobs are to be enriched ground with rural values and strong religious
should not participate in this process because of a conflict Specifically, workers characteristics, and
in core
beliefs preferred jolbs high
of interest values and weaker religious beliefs
A seven-year implementation study of job enrichment workers vith urban
characteristics.
low in c o r e
at AT&T found the approach beneficial." Job enrichnment preferred jobs
Richard Hackman and his colleagues modified the
required a big change in management style, and ATKT three critical psychologi.
found that it could not ignore hygiene factors in the work original model by including the
cal states of the
individual and retining measure-
environment just because it was enriching existing jobs. characteristics. The result is the Job
ment of core job
Although the AT&T experience with job enrichment was Characteristies Model shown in Figure 14.1The Job
positive, critical review of job enrichment did not find
a

that to be the case generally.3 One problem with job en- Diagnostic Survei (JD>', most commonly used job
the

richment as a strategy for work design is that it is based on design measure, was developed to diagnose jobs by mea-
characteristics and three critical
an oversimplified motivational theory. Another problem is suring the five core job
states shown in the model.
The core job
the lack of consideration for individual differences among psvchological
employees. Job enrichment, like
scientific management's work spe-
FIGURE 14.1
cialization and job enlargement/job
THE JOB CHARACTERISTICS MODEL
rotation, is a universal approach to
the design ofwork and thus does not
differentiate among individuals. Core job
Critical Personal and
psychological work outoomes
dimensions
Job states

Characteristics
Skill variety High internal
Theory Experienced
meaningfulness
Work motivation
Task identity
The job characteristics theory, of the work
Task significance Hhgh-quality
which was initiated during the mid- r perfomance
Experienced
1960s, is a traditional approach to responsibility
Autonomy for outcomes iigh satisfaction
the design of work that makes t h the work
of the work
a significant departure from
Knowledge of the Ow absenteeism
the three earlier approaches. It
Feedback actual results of and turnover
the work activities
Job Characteristics Model
A tramework for understanding
person-iob it through the interac
tion of core job dimensions with Employee
critical psychological states Within growth
need
a person.
strength
Job Diagnostic Survey (JDS)
The survey instrument designed to
measure the elements in the Job
SOURCE: J. R Hackman and G. R. Oldham,
Characteristics Model. Job Outcomes." The Job Diagnostic Survey
"The Relationship Among Core Job Dimernsions, the Critical
An Instrument tor the Psychological States, and On-the
Reprinted by permission of Greg R. Oldham. DiagnoSIs of Jobs and the Evaluation of Job
Redesigrn Projects, 197

282 Organizational Processes and Structure

 FEAAE
1
ERSTICS DEEINE Skill variety. The
different activitiesdegree
and
to which a
job includes
tiple skills and talents ofinvolves the use of mul- Autonomy. The degree to which the job provides the
Task identioy. The degree to whichthe employee. employee with substantial freedom, independence, and
pletion of a whole and identifiable the job requires com- Giscretion in scheduling the work and in determining the
is doing a job from piece of procedures to be used in carrying lit out.
beginning to end with awork -that Feedback from the job itself. The degree to whlch car-
Outcome tangible
yng out the work activities results in the employee
Task signiicance. The degree to Obtaining direct and clear information about the effec
substantial impact on the lives or which the job has a
work of tiveness of his or her
whether in the immediate organization or other people performance
nal environment. in the exter-

teristics stimulate the eritical

characte

e man shown in Figure 14.1. psychological states in

aanner
nal and work outcomes, as This results in varying
person
identified in the
redesign eftorts through one or more of five implementing
COncepts: (1) combining tasks into laurger jobs, (2) fonning
Hackman and his colleagues say that the figure. hatural work teans to increase task
identity and task igniti-
Lamcteristics interact to determine an overallfive core job cance, (3) establishing relationslips with customers, (4) load-
0dential Score (MPS) for specific job. The Motivating
a
MPS indi-
ing jobs vertically with more responsibility, and/or (5) opening
nates a job's potential tor feedback chanels for the job incumbent. For example, it an
motivating incumbents. An indi
hual's MPS isdeternmined by the automotivee mechanic received little feedback the quality
following equation: of
repair work
on

perfonned, one redesigm strategy woulkl be

to solicit customer feedback one month after each
Skill 1 Task Task repur
MPS= variety+lidentityj +|significance A more recent sequence of two studies con-
3 X [Autonomy] x [Feedback]. ucted in Egypt aimed to disaggregate work au-
tonomy, one important component in job design
The Job Characteristics Model includes gowth need theory Study 1 included 534 employees in tvo Egptian
strength (the desire to grow and fully develop one's abili- organizations. Study 2 involved 120 managers in four orga-
ties) as a moderator. People with high growth need nizations. The results indicated that separate work method,
strength
respond favorably to jobs with high MPSs, and individuals work schedule, and work crnteria autonomy were three
with low grovth need strength respond less separate facets of work autonomy.
favorably to such
pbs. The job characteristics theory further suggests that core Khandeval and Aleem" studied the factor structure of
job dimensions stimulate three critical psychological states the job characteristics model
among managers in a public
organization in India using the
axcortding to the relationships specified in the model. These sector JDS scale. Contrary to
the hypothesized five-factor stnucture, only two factors were
cntical psychological states are defined as follows:
significant for interpretation. The structure of the first fac-
L Experienced meaningulness ofthe
work, or the degree tor indicates that the overall
importance and worth of a job
to which the empleee experiences the job as one that is related to the amount
of interaction with others as a part
of role behavior. The job should present a challenge to the
isgenerally meaningful, valuable, and worthwhile.
2 Experienced responisibility for work outcomes, or individuals and provide thenm with intormation about
per-
thedegree to whirh the employee feels personally formance competencies. The stnicture of the secod factor
accountable and responsible for the results of the indicates that a whole and identifiable piece of work, where
an individual gets information about his/her
work he or she does. performance
from others, and the individuals given responsibility for the
3. Knowledge of resuits, or the degree to which the
job are related.
understands, on a continuous
employee knows and An altemative to the Job Claracteristics Model is the
basis, how effectively he or she is performing the job. Job
Characteristics Inventory (JC) developed by Henry Sims
administered and Andrew Szilagyi.* The JCI primarily
early studv, Hackman and Oldham job
ln one mcasures core

e JDS to 65S emplovees working on sixty-two different jobs characteristics. It is not as comprehensive as the JDS or the
e n business organizations." The JDS was usetul for job new WDQ because it does not inncorporate critical psvcholog-

Jobs and the Des gn of VWork

283
 engaged
n
nes work rolea
Being huly energv, tim.
the environment.
demand
ancd yet
be highly
appropriate
attorcd opportunity f.
for
job caun
b a l n c e and
To achieve need to strategically and
and effort. c o m m e n s u r a t e

recovery,
there is a

r o m one's job and

work role ona pe-
ppropriately
dlisengage
of energy in respone
effective
management
The
riodic basis. leads to both high perfomance and
nd work role
to one's job while the design
of work is important,
renewal. Thus,
personal characteristics and worl
k
response
to job
the human spirit's
features is equally important.
design
LEARNINGOUTCOME 3

Alternative

ical states, A p p r o a c h e s

personal and
to Job Design
work outcomes,
or employee needs
traditional job design approaches has
The JCI does give Because each of the
to job design have
some consideration to limitations, several alternative aPproaches
ot decades. This section exam
structural and individual
emerged o v e r
the past couple
that are im the process of being
variables that affect the rela- ines four of these
alternatives

examines the social information-

First, it
tionship between core job clhar tried and tested.
acteristics and the individual.2 One Second, it reviews ergonomics and the
processing model. and Paul
framework of Michael Canmpion
comparative analysis of the JCI and JDS found interdisciplinary
similarities in the measures and in the models' predictions. framework builds on the traditional job design
Thayer. Their intermational
The comparative analysis also found two differences.
First, this section examines the
have different
approaches. Third, and Scandinavians.
the scales in the two models appear to
the Japanese, Germans,
variety perspectives of
ettects on performance. Second, the autonomy scales in the on the health
and well-being aspects of
Finally, it focuses
models appear to have different effects on employee sat- work enables individuals to adapt,
two
isfaction. Overall, the JCI, JDS, and new WDQ all support
work design. Healthy life activities27
function well, and balance work with private
the usefulness of a person-job fit approach to the design of the design of work through
emerging filth approach
to
An
work over the earlier, universal theories. work was addressed in
teams and autonomous groups
Chapter 9.
Engagement Psychological conclitions related to job
design features are aparticularconcemofthe JobCharacteristies Social Information
in
Model. One study of over 200 managers and employees ProcesSing
a midwestem insurance company lound that meaninglulness.
The traditional approaches to the design of work empha-
safety, and availability were three important psychoBlogical the characteristics. In contrast,
conditions that affected employees engagement in their
size objective core job
for its
social informatiou-processing (SiP) model empha-
jobs and work roles. Engagement at work is important sizes the interpersonal aspects of work design. Speciically,
positive indivicdual and organizational outcomes. Engagement
is the hamessing of organizational members to their work the SIP model says that what others tell us about our jobs
themselves is important.3 The SIP model has four basic premises
roles. When engaged., people employ and express
physically, cognitively, and about the work environment First, other people pro-
emotionally as they perform vide cues we use to understand the work environment.
engagement
Second, other people help us judge what is important in
The expression of oneself as one their jobs and their work roles.
pertorms in work or other roles
For esample, Gallup's Qwas our
jobs. Third, other people tell us how they see our jobs.
used to improve engagement Fourth, other people's positive and negative feedback
social information-process for a clinical nutrition group helps us understand our feelings about our jobs. This is
ing (SIP) model at St. Mary's/Duluth Clinic very consistent with the dynamie model of the job design
A model that suggests that the Health System." process that views it as a social one involving job-holders
important job factors depend in Full engagement requires supervisors, and peers.30
part on what others tell a person the strategic management of People's perceptions and reactions to their jobs are
about the job one's energ in response to shaped by inlormation from otlher people in the work en-

Organizational Processes and Structure

284
 The
dijficult
subjective
a feedback of other peop
a persor
particular task is may be n
eople about how
IS
motivation to perform important to
more

estimate of the task's"m than an objective

objective an
vironment." In other
In other words, what others
iob may be important to
believe difficulty.
about
per ns of, and reactions understanding
to, the
job. This
the
person's Ergonomics and
peretive job characteristics are does not mean hterdisciplinary Framework
tharot others can modify the these
means that
others can unimportant; rather, it Michael Campion and Paul Thayer use ergonomics
way
alfectus. For
example, one characteristics
study of task complexity found based on engineering, biology, and psychology to develop
objectiv complexi of task un intercdisciplinary framework for the design of work.
the a
uhat must be
fom the subjective task
complexity distinguished Actually, they say that four approaches-the mccha-

enployee,3 Although objective task experienced by the nIstic, motivational, biological, and pereeptual/motor
complexity
tor. the presence ot others in the work may be a Pproachesare necessary because no one approach can

l
social interaction,
or even
daydreaming
environment
be
sOlve all performance problems caused by poorly designed
may
Jitional sources of motivation. The SIP model important
obs. Each approach has its benefits as well as its limita-
makes an tions. One ergonomics study of S7 acdministrative munici-
nportant contributi to the
design of work by emphasiz- pal employees found lower levels of upper bocly pain along
the importance of other people and the social
context with othher positive outcomes of the workstation redesign.
fyork. For example, relational job design may motivate The interdisciplinary framework allows the job designer
amnlovees to take prosocial action and make a positive dif or manager to consider trade-offs and alternatives among
farence in other people's lives." In addition, the relational as the approaches based on desired outcomes. If a maager
pects of the work environment ay be more finds poor performance a problem, for exanmple, the man-
important than
obiective core job characteristics. Therefore, the subjective ager should analyze the job to ensure a design aimed at
feedback of other people about how difficult a particular improving perlormance. The interdisciplinary framework
task is may be more important to a person's motivation to is important because badly designed jobs cause far more
perform than an objective estimate of the task's difliculty. performance problems than managers realize.
The biological approach to job design emphasizes
the person's interaction with physical aspects of the work
environment and is concerned with the amount of physi-
cal exertion, such as lifting and muscular etfort, required
by the position. For example, an analysis of medical
claims at TXI's Chaparral Steel Company identified lower
back problems as the most common physical problem
experienced by steel workers and managers alike. As a
result, the company instituted an education and exercise
program under expert guicance to improve care of the
lower back. Program graduates received back cushions for
their chairs with "Chaparral Steel Company" embossed
on them. Lower back problenis &ussociated with improper
lifting may be costly, but they are not fatal.
The perceptual/motor approach to job design also em-
phasizes thhe person's interaction with physical aspects the
of
work enviroment and is based on engineering that consicl-
ers humam factors such as strength or coorlination, ergo-
nomics, and experimental psvchology. It places an important

ergonomics
Miller designed the
Herman The science ot adapting work and

Aeron chair to bean ergonomic working Conditions to the enployee

solution for office wórkers. Or worker

JoUs and te Desgn of /ork 285

 intermational,
an appreciation of

become global and n a t i o n s is increasingly important

more

on human interaction with computers,

informa-
emphasis the perspectives of
other in particular
Scandinavians

tion, and other This approach addresses and

operational systems. The Japanese,
Germans,
and organiza-
how people mentally process information acquired from on the desigrn
distinctive perspectives
and have perspective is forged within
the physical work through perceptual
environment
tion of work."
Each country's
and each is dis.
fine e c o n o m i c system,
motor skills. The approach emphasizes perception and cultural and
motor skils as opposed to the gross motor skills and muscle its unique used in North
America.
approaches
The tinct from the
strength emphasized in the mechanistic approach.
be relevant to Approach The Japanese
perceptual/motor approach is more likely to
The Japanese
operational and technical work, such as keyboard operations began harnessing their productive energies during
and data entry jobs, which may tax a person's concentra- on the product quality ideas of
the 1950s by drawing the central
tion and attention, than to managerial, administrative, and Edwards Deming."In
addition,
W in the
custodial jobs, which are less likely to strain concentration involved economic
became actively
govemment
and attention. and it encouraged companies to
resurgence
of Japan,
Onestudy using the interdisciplinary framework to than to maimize profits.2 Such
industries rather
conquer
improve jobs evaluated 377 clerical, 80 managerial, and
90 the Japanese cultural
which built on

analytical positions."7 The jobs were improved by combining an industrial policy, how work is
has implications for
ethic of collectivism,
tasks and adding ancillary duties. The improved jobs pro- Frederick Taylor and his
successors in

vided greater motivation for the incumbents and were better done. Whereas
of an individual
the United States emphasized
the job
from a
perceptual/motor standpoint. The jobs were poorly worker, the Japanese
work emphasizes the strategic
system
designed from a mechanical engineering standpoint, how collective and cooperative working
ever, and they were unaffected from a biological standpoint. level and encourages
arangements." As Table 14.2 shows, the Japanese emphasize
Again, the interdisciplinary framework considers trade-offs and other- or self-directedness
and alternatives when evaluating job redesign efforts. perfomance, accountability,
Americans emphasize the positive
Aleem studied the interdisciplinary model of Campion in defining work, whereas
social benefits of work.
and Thayer to empirically establish the relationship be affect, personal identity, and
has drawn
tween job design criteria and to adapt this approach to The Japanese s u c c e s s with lean production
blue-collar workers in a large public sector oil retinery in the attention of managers. Lean production methods
India. Instead of the fourfold TABLE 14.2 Summary of Outcomes from Various Job Design Approaches
taxonomy of the job design
criteria, a two-factor struc- JOB DESIGN APPROACH
POSITIVE OUTCOMES NEGATIVE OUTCOMES
ture emerged. Motivational (DISCIPLINE)
job design contributed sig- Mechanistic Approach Decreased training time Lower job satisfaction
nificantly affective job out-
to (mechanical engineering) Higher personnel utilization levels Lower motivation
comes, but other job designs Lower likelihood of error Higher absenteeism
such as perceptual motor and Less chance of mental overload
biological designs were also Lower stress levels
significantly related.
Motivational Approach Higher job satisfaction ircrssed training time
International (industrial psychology) Higher motivation Lowsr ersonnel utilization levels
Greater job involvement Geeer chance of errors
Perspectives Higher job performance Sreater crance of mental
on the Design Lower absenteeism overioad and stress
of Work
Biological Approach Less physical effort Higner financial costs because
Each nation or ethnic
(biology) Less physical fatigue of changes in equipment or job
group has a unique way of Fewer health complaints environment
understanding and design- Fewer medical incidents
ing work. As organizations Lower absenteeism
Higher job satisfaction
lean production Perceptual Motor Approach Lower likelihood of error Lower job satisfaction
Using committed employees with (experimental psychology) Lower likelihood of accidents Lower motivation
ever-expanding responsibilities to Less chance of mental stress
achieve zero waste, 100 percent Decreased training time
good product, delivered on time, Higher personnel utilization levels
every time. sOURCE. Reprinted from Organizational Dynamics, inter/1987 Copyright 1987, with permission from Elsevier
Science.

286 Organizational Processes and Structure

 the
production
althoug thereconcept
similar

of
(STS), are
some socioteclmical
emphasis todifferences."
sslems

STS gives greater

particular, In
their discipline and effhicieney have enabled Gcrmany to
olf-managed
and autonomous
work teamwork and De highly productive while its workers labor substantialy
fewer hours than do Americans.
the design groups, to the
natu cs. The process, and to human ongoing
values in the The traditional German
approach to work design was
approaches
workp r o c e s s .
are
similar, however, in that teehnocentrie, an approach that placed technology and
both
from
difler ylor's scientilic engineering at the center of job design decisions. Recently,
mphasize
management and
ae iob variety, teedback to work both German industrial engineers have moved to a inore ian-
en human resOurces, and control groups and teams, thropocentric approach, which places human consicler-
supe
co
ance
to the
point of origin. One of production vari-
three-year evaluation ations at the center of
job design decisions. The lormer
oflean assembly lines, and worktlow
teams, approach uses a natural scientific process in the design
s Droduction practices was condhucted infomalization of work, whereas the latter relies on a more humanistic
es in
Employees in all lean Australia5 process, as shown in Figure 14.2. In the anthropocentric
prOduction groups were
and the
assembly-line negatively approach, work is evaluated using the criteria of practica-
affected,
the employees worst. bility and worker satisfaction at the individual level and the
The German

ach to work has been shaped by

Approach The German acceptability at the group level.
criteria of endurability and
Figure 14.2 also identifies problemn areas and disciplines
eational system, cultural values,Germany's unique
Ppl
concerned with each aspect of the work design.
and economic
em. The Germans are highly educated and well
5yste
a
Approach The
The Scandinavian
organized people. For example, their educational system Scandinavian cultural values and economic system stand
a multitrack design with technical and university in contrast to the German system. The social democratic
alternatives. The Germ economic
system puts a strong tracition in Scandinavia has emphasized social concerm
emphasis on ree enterprise, private property rights, rather than industrial efficiency. The Scandinavians
and management-labor cooperation. A comparison of work model that design
place great emphasis on a
oluntary and mandated management-labor encourages a high degree of worker control and good
vo
cooperation
in Germany found that productivity was superior under SOcial support systems for workers."* Lennart Levi believes
voluntary cooperation." The Germans value hierarchy that circumstantial and inferential scientific evidence
and authority relationships
and, result, are generally
as a
provides a sufliciently strong basis for legislative and
disciplined." Cemany's workers are highly unionized, and policy actions for redesigns aimed at enhancing
worker

well-being. An example of
such an action tor promoting
FIGURE 14.2
good working environments
HIERARCHICAL MODEL OF CRITERIA FOR THE EVALUATION OF HUMAN wORK and occupational health was
Swedish Government Bill
1976/77:149, which stated,
Scientific approaches Levels of evaluation Problem areas and
of labor sciences of human work assignment to disciplines Work should be safe both

Technical, anthropmetric, physically and mentally but

and psychophysical also provide opportunities for
Practicability
View problems (ergonomics) involvenment, job satislaction,
om
and personal development."
natural Technical, physiological,
SCience and medical problems
Endurability ergonomics and
Occupational health) sociotechnical systems (STS)
Primanly Pnnarily
oriented to Criented Economical and sociological Giving equal attention to technical
individuals to groups problems (Occupational and social considerations in jotb
Acceptablity psychology and soCIology
personnel management) design.
View
from Sociopsychological and technocentric
cultural
economic problemns Placing technology and engneeing
studies
Satisfaction (occupational psychology
and sociology, personnel
at the center of jod design
management) decisions.

anthropocentric
Placing human considerations at

in J. C. Quick, L
. Murphy, and J. J. Hurell, eds. the center of job design decisions
Industrial Engineering Perspective, Heprinted with permission
Luczak, "Good Work' Design: An Ergonornic, the American
Psychological Association.
n ©1997 by
Work (Washington, D.C). Copyright
dng
Well-Being at
Jobs and the DeSIgn ot Wotk 287
 You? on
What about
Scheduling shifts gmployees in clockwise the Chapter
14 Review

manner (1st, 2nd, rather than acounterclock- Card provides you

with

wise manner (1st, 2nd) is more compatible witn opportunity to

evalu-
an

human biology. ate how psychologically

work envi-
healthy your
ronment is.

with the supervisors for

groups weekly meetings
held
review and planning of
perlormance and targets.
of BEHEL, redesign efforts
At the Hardwar plant
umits. A task force was set
highlight the role of service
workers, supervisors, and an in-
up, which comprised
with the multiskill require-
dustrial engincer to cope
work. The group received
ments of the redesigned
the industrial engineer to
on1-the-job training from
multiskill requirements of the redesigned
the Swedish Parliament set up the Swedish cope witlh
In 1991, work. Certain shorteomings in
the work design that usel
Working Life Fund to fund research, intervention task force's
were o v e r c o m e by thhe
to frustrate the workers
programs, demonstration projects in work design. For
and
recommendations that the design group
maintain a close

example, a study of Stockholm police on shift schedules contact wvith the production units.
There was a diffusion
found that going froma daily, counterclockwise rotation
to a clockwise rotation was more compatible with human of the scheme of work design to the wlhite-collar areas
Such as personnel, finance, and medical departments.
biology and resulted in improved sleep, less fatigue,
At both BHEL Hardwar and Tiruchirapalli, the work
lower systolic blood pressure, and lower blood levels of
could be restructured without technological constraints.
triglyeerides and glucose." Henee, the work redesign
improved the police officers' health. The production groups were reorganized by changing
the composition of work teams. For instance, at the

Indian Research Tiruchirapalli production/engineering departments, the

computer system section was redesigned. The system ana
The work by Nitish R. De and his colleagues5" at the lyst was working at the module level. Hence, integration at
V. V. Giri National Labour Institute, New Dellhi, repre- the application level was not complete. As the system was
sents some of the pioneering efforts of work restructuring redesigned, all system analysts were involved in the design-
in public enterprises and government systems in ndia. ing of the system at the applieation level.
At BHEL (Tiruchirapalli), the introduction of work A sinilar change in the
supenvisory role was brought
redesign and the formation of autonomous work groups about at a post office in Simla as a result of job redesign.
relieved the supervisor from daily routine lunctions such as Mail delivery work was redesigned to a new group lor1 ol
work allocation and quality control, allowing him more time lunctioning instead of a one-1man-jolb basis. The group de
for boundary maintenance. One member from the small cided to have a group leader to be rotated every two weeks

TABLE 14.3
INCREASE CONTROL BY: REDUCE UNCERTAINTY BY:
Telecommuting
MANAGE CONFLICT THROUGH and alternative
>giving workers the oppor- >providing employees with participative decision
tunity to control several
aspects of the work and the
timely and complete infor
mation needed for their
making work patterns
Supportive supervisory
workplace
designing machines and
Work styles such as job
>making clear and unam- having sufficient resources
tasks with optimal response
times and/or ranges
biguous work assignments available to meet work sharing can
improving communication demands, thus preventing
>implementing performance
monitoring systems as a
at shift change time Conflict increase
>increasing employee access
source of relevant feedback
to workers.
to information sources flexibility for
employees.
288 Organizational Processes and Structure
 Today, telecommuing can be
ideal for
careers (e.g, Web designers and a
variety of
work makes at
coders, analysts, woiK makes telecommuting and and leadership antithetical and
marketers, financial salespeople) and
or
intractable.
acTable. Leadership is personal idu interpersonal,
and orconal, requiring
the expansion of
intellectual commerce and in the future, human interaction and 1face time. Followers need eaders to be
onlyallows
that listof jobs and
work for e-commerce will ere
there toto lead, and that cannot be done through telecommutng.
which lead,
ideal to grow. Leadersnip posItons, however, telecommuting is UURGE: J. Welch and S. Welch, "The Importance of Being There," Business weer p
onthat list because the inability to work
may never appear 16 2007)
face-to-face with 92
people
hat every postman co uld get a
chance
so to be a
leader.
the
be a liason betbveen
en
groups and the subpostnmaster.3.2to Worker uncertainty, while at the same time managng
conllict and task/jol dlemands.
Work Design and Well- Task nertainty was slown to have an alverse etlet
Being on norale in a study of 629 emplovment security work units
An international in Calilomia and Wisconsin." More important, the study
group of scholars. includ-
ing American
social scientists, showed tlat norale wvas better preclicted bv consicleriug
has been
cemed out signing work and con both the overall design of the work unit and the task ncer-
jobs that are both tunty. This study suggests that if one work design par:ne
healthy and productive." Economic and industry- ter, such as task uncertainty, is a problem in a job, its adverse
enecific upheavals in the United States during the 1990s
ellects on people may be mitigated by other work design pa-
led to job loss and unemployment, and the adverse health rameters. For example. higher pay may offset an employees
impact of these tactors has received attention.3 Attention frustration with a difficult coworker, or a friendly, supportive
has also been devotecd to the effects of specific work
working enviroment may offset frustration with low pay.
design parameters on
psychological health."5 For example Sec Table 14.3 for more information on increasing control,
by mixing cognitively challengng and *mindless" work reducing uncertinty, and maunaging conllict.
throughout the day. one may reduce pressures for chronic
Overwork and enhance creativity. In addition, task/job
design can be improved by enhancing core job eharacter
LEARNNG OUTOOME 4
istics and not patterning service work after assembly-line
work. Frank Landy believes that organizations should
Contemporary
redesign jobs to iierease worker control and reduce
Issues in the
Design of Work
A umber of contemporary issues related to specitic
an effect on iucreas-
aspects of the design of work have
ing numbers of emplovees. Rather than addressing job
design or worker well-being in a comprehensive wav,
these issues address one or another aspect of a job. The
issues include telecommuting, altemative work pattems
technostress, and skill developnent. One stuh found that
employees stay motivated when their work is relationally
designed to provide opportunities for respectful contact
with those eritical to their work. Telecommuting and
altemative work patterns suclh as job sharing can inercase

flexibility for employees. Companies use these and otlher

to the design of work as was to manage a
approaches
growing business wvlile contributing to a better balnce
of work and fanmily lile for emplovees.

Telecommutin9
Teleconmting, as noted in Chapter 2, is when emplovees
work at luome or iu other locations geographieallh separite

C e Lesar 289
 Communications) tried
ot SBC
Pacific Bell (now part In 1990, Pacific
Rell
Irom their company's main location. Telecommuting may
telecommuting
on a large scale." For example
telecommuted.
entail working in a combination of home, satellite office, who
had 1,500 managers home tour days
a week as an
nd main office locations. This flexible arrangement is might
work at
of the an employee and spend
o n e
day a week at
designed to achieve a better fit between the needs information systems
designer
work exchanges, and
individual employee and the organization's task demands. location in meetings,
the main office Pacific Bell m a n a gers
er
Cisco Systems manager Christian Renaud moved Irom
with others.
Of 3,000
Iowa,
coordination
S7 percent said telecom-
Calitormia and began telecommuting from Johnston, to a mail survey,
said it
responding stress, 70 percent
when he and his wife began their family. would reduce employee
muting reducing absentee
Telecommuting has been around since the 1970s but satisfaction while
was

the would increase job productivity

slower to catch on than some expected.55 This was due to
increase
said it would
inherent paradoxes associated with telecommuting." Actually, ism, and 64 percent often odd working hours (to
with a greater emphasis on managing the work rather than
Civen high attrition rates, and oftice expenses, "work-
U.S. time),
tratlic jams,
the worker, managers can enhance control, effectively decen keep become an
attractive altermative for
out of home" has
tralize, and even encourage teamwork through telecommut- ing However, this culture has
and Indian BPO and 1T companies.
ing. A number of companies, such as AT&T in Phoenix now spread remarkably,
enabling Indian
firms to tap a

Bell Atlantic (now part of Verizon Communications), have Rather than just the youth.
programs in telecommuting for a wide range of employees. huge unutilized pool of talent.
individuals, physically the challenged,
housewives, retired
These flexible arrangements help some companies respond and students work in
new mothers,
unwell employees,
to changing demographics and a shrinking labor pool. The
aund deadlines, and form a
Travelers Croup (now part of Citigroup) was one of the home comfort, delivering quality
that companies are tapping in India.
tirst companies to try telecommuting and was considered an steady pool of people
Many companies, including IBM, American Express,
industry leader in telecommuting. Because of its confidence soltware giants such as Wipro,
in its employees, Travelers reaped rewards from telecom- and CE, apart from
used the home oftice concept.
muting, inclucing higher productivity, reduced absenteeism, Infosys, and TCS, have
and time in com-
Home offices cut wastage of energy
expanded opportunities for workers with disabilities, and an
increased ability to attract and retain talent." muting, reduce attrition rates, and crucially reduce the
costs of operation, oflice space, transportation, and even

salaries to cut costs, while improving efficiency and pro-

estimate cost savings of up to 15-20
ductivity. Experts
to 25 percent of work
percent with manpower utilizing up
hours from home.
T. K. Kurien, Wipro business process outsourcing
chief, says, "Apart from the areas connected to privacy,
control, and data security issues, a lot of functions such
as finance, HR, writing, translation work, Web design-
ing, IT work, selling, marketing, transcription, outbound
call center work, and other low-end processes and those
requiring less supervision and less face-to-face interaction
with clients and teams can be dor: from home."
British banking giant HSBC's iniia arm has started
the "work from honie" culture for new mothers on ma-
ternity leave. WiMax, a super-speedy version of wireless
broadband, provided by all major telecom service provid-
ers such as Tata, Reliance, Bharti, BSNL, MTNL, VSNL,
and Sify has enabled thousands of business out- process
sourcing executives India to work out of homes.
in
Telecommuting is neither a cure-all nor a universally fea-
sible altermative.
Many teleconmuters leel a sense ol social
isolation. Some executives are
concenmed that while telecom-
muters are more
productive, their lack of visibility may holc
back their careers.
Furthermore, not all forms of work are
amenable to
telecommuting.
For example, firefighters anc
police officers must be at their duty stations to be successhu
in
their work. Employces for whom
telecommuting is not

290 Organizational Processes and Structure

 viable e witlin cOnpany nity leel
a

e In allition, jeatous
of tlose able
telecomnuting
telecomm

the
potentinl
to reate
sweatshops te 21st lvave the
ovel, emergingof
nay lerval fron G:00) A.M. lo 9:0 A.M. This
arrnget
issiue century."'Ts,
is a g e d le asee tralfie ad comting pressiures. t us
pminuting
w l a t responsive to individual biorlythns, allewin
Alternat Work Patterns y r r s to go to work early andd nigthawks to work latr.
I cOmpanices withot formal fextime progratns, ees

lob sharing alternative work

is an

person oCCupies singe atlern which more

in a y be an individal opt ion arrangd hetwern Sufee
a
jolb. Jolb saring VISor ancl
sulorclinale. For exanple, a first-line suervisor
he an
to
alterTIative

and labor pool

lecommuting lor acddressing demo- may w l i t s to complete a college degrec nay Cglate a
concerns. Jolb wOrk Sebeclnle accomnodating botlh job requireents act

range ol naagerial sharing

grph

through a wile is fomd

and IFSC Scled1les at tlhe niversity. Flextime options ny
well as
obs, a s we in
producti0nprofessional
and service
jobs. It is not
Ore likely for high performers who assure their bosses
ommon among senior cxecutives. tat work quality and proxluctivity will ot suller On the

The four-day kweek is a

second type Clioury sicle, onee study foundd thal a woman on a llex
schedule. of altera-
tive
work
Information
systenms personnel at
DeWork schedule was perceiverd to have less job-career
he jted Services utomobile Associalion
Unite
lication and less advancenent motivation, tlo1gi no
San AAntonio, Texas, work 1our ten-hour (USAA)in ess
ability. Several conpanies in India, including Inlosys,
day weekend. This arrangement days and enjoy a TBM India, andd Agilent Inlia, also allow flextine.
t ore provicles te ben-
tine for thhose who want to
efit of balance work Technology at Work
through wecken travel. IHowever, tlhe and
familylife
lavs may be a drawback lor longer NCw technologies and electronic comnerce ar: Iere to
work
social tivities
employees witl nany stiay a l are clanging tlu: face of work cenvironents,
mily or

the four-day workweek has

oI
Weekday
both ben- evenings. THence, dramatically in sorne cascs. Mauny governnent jos expect
to clange, aud even disappear, witlh the advent of c-gov-
efts and linitations
erunent using Internet technology. As forces for change,
Flextime is a third altermative work
new teclologies are a double-cdged sword that can be
Dattern. Flextime, in which employces
ISed to improve job performance or to ereate stress. (On
can set their own daily work schedules, the positive sicle, inodern technologies are helping to
has been applied in numerous ways in revolutionize the way jolbs are designed and the way work
work organizations and can lead to ro- gets lone. The virlual oflice is a mobile platlorm of
duced absenteeism. (Companies in computer, tclecomnunication, and inlormation tecol-
highly concentrated urban
ouy and services that allows mobile workforce mnembers to
areas, like Houston, conduct husiness virtually anywhere, anytine, globally.
Los Angeles, and While virtual olfices have benelits, thcy may also lead

New York City, may to a lack of social conection or to lcchnostress

allow employees to Technostress is stress caused by new and al-

set their owWn daily Vancing technologies in the workplace, nost olten
work schedules as job sharing
start
long as they Arn allernative work pltern in which
their eight hours Inore than one person oCCUpies a

atany thirty-min- Single jotb

flextime
An alternative work palterm that enables
Cmploycs to set thGir own daly work

Schedules.

virtual office
A mobilo plattorn of computer, teie
COmnuncation, and intormation tech

1ology ar d services

technostress
Ihe stresS Caused Dy new arid ätvanc

ing techr1oiogies iri trhe workplace

291
 Skill Development
tlhe
inlormation technologies. For example. the widespread often seen as source
work system design are
forum for rumors Problems in However
er
use of electronic bulletin boards as a with technostress."
those dealing
and anxiety frustration for sources o
of layotfs may cause feelings of uncertainty of are not the only
bulletim and technical problems
electronic Some experts
(technostress). However, the s a m e system information
technologes.
and in new
boards can be an important source of inlormation technostress
skills demanded
by new tech-
betveen the
thus reduce uncertainty for workers. see a growing gap employees in jobs using
and the skills possessed by
New information technologies enable organiza- nologies technical skills are important
even Although
tions to monitor employee work performance, these technologies.0 programs, the larg.
in many training
is not aware of the monitoring." and are emphasized and
when the employee to is actually
service-oriented,
of the economy
These ew technologies also allow organizations est sector skills. Managers also need
is elec- interpersonal
tie pay to performance because performance service jobs require be effective in their
can help of nontechnical skils to
tronically monitored.67 Three guidelines a wide range and the design of
of discussion of jobs
make electronic workplace monitoring, especially
should
work.71 Therefore, any
the importance
of incumbent skills and
First, workers work must recognize
performance, less distressful. work. Organizations
demands of the
introduction of the monitoring sys- abilities to meet the
participate in the skills ot their emplovees
standards should be s e e n must consicler
the talents and
tem. Second, performance ettorts. The two issues of
records should be used to engage in job design
as Third, performance
fair. when they interrelated.
to punish the performer.
In
employee skill development
and job design are

improve performance, not of the

that allow for virtual information requirements for jobs
the extreme, n e w technologies The knowvledge and
such
work in remote locations take employees beyond future are especially bigh.
monitoring.6

BY THENUMBERS
work
6 patterms people follow in designing
characteristics
5 core job
Don Chadwick and Bill
1994 year Aeron chair developed by
Stumpf of Herman Miller
foundational study of JCM
470 participants in the
1970s start of telecommuting
20,000-30,000 average number of bees in a colony

292 Organizational Processes and Struclure

napterr

> Jobs and the

In Review
1 Differentiate Design of Work
between job and work.
AJoo Is an
employee's specific work and task activities in an organization. Work is etortu,
oUveactivity resulting in a product or a service. Ajob is composed
Oa
Key T e r m s
lasks, each of which is an assigned piece of work to be done in a specinc
di especially important human endeavor because
person to reality. it has a poweru
job
t of Specified work and task activities
A set d DisCuss the traditional
that engage
an individual in an
UOu joo
approaches to job desig
design differentiates and intearates tasks, improves productivity, and nces

being. Approaches to job design that were developed during theeina

organization.

emplo twentieth
work y are job enlargementjob rotation, job enrichment, and the job characteristics theory
that has
Mental or physical activity
pro

dll approach offers unique benefits to the the employee, or bon, ut each
tive results.
also has
organization,
limitations and drawbacks
meaning of work

The way a person inerprets and under ldentify and describe alternative
approaches to job deSIgn._
stands the value or Work as part of life.
AIlErnative approaches to job design have emerged over the past couple of decades; tne
work simplification SOclal intormation-processing model, ergonormics and the interdisciplinary framework o
Standardization and the narow, explicit MICnael Campion and Paul Thayer, the international perspectives of the Japanese,
sDecification of task activities for workers ana Scandinavians, and the health and well-being aspects of work design. Healtny Work
Germans,
enables individuals to adapt, function well, and balance work with private life activities
job enlargement

Amethod of job design that increases the

number of activities in a job to overcome JOB DESIGN APPROACH POSITIVE OUTCOMES NEGATIVE OUTCOMES
the boredom of overspEcialized work. (DISCIPLINE)
job rotation MECHANISTIC APPROACH Decreased training time Lower job satisfaction
A variation of job enlargement in which (mechanical engineering) Higher personnel utilization Lower motivation
levels Higher absenteeism
Workers are exposed to a variety of spe-
Lower likelihood of error
calized jobs Over time.
Less chance of mental
Overload
cross-training LOwer stress levels
A variation of job eniargement in which
Workers are trained in different specialized MOTIVATIONAL APPROACH Higher job satistaction Increased training timme
Higher motivation Lower personnel utilization
tasks or activities. (industrial psychology)
Greater jobinvolvement levels
Greater chance of errors
job enrichment Higher job performance
Greater chance of mental over-
Designing or redesigning icbs by incorp Lower absenteeism
oad and stress
them
ratingmotivational factors
Less physical efort Higher financial costs because
BIOLOGICAL APPROACH
Job Characteristics Mde Less physical fatigue of changes in equipment or
for understanging person-job (biology) jOb environment
Aframework Fewer health complaints
the interaction oi co1e jod di- Fewer medical incidents
Iit through
mensions With critical psycndogical siate Lower absenteeism
Higher job satisfaction
within a person.

PERCEPTUAL MOTOR Lower likelihood of error Lower job satisfaction

Job Diagnostic Survey {JDS) Lower motivation
Lower likelihood of accidents
Ihe survey instrumernt designed to APPROACH
Less chance of mental stress
measure the elements in the Job (experimentalpsychology) Decreased training time
Characteristics Model. Higher personnel utilization
levels
engagement fron Elsevier Science
ne expression of oneself as one pertorms Organizational Dynanmics,
winter/1987 Copyrignt © 1987, with permission
sOURCE: Reprinted from
n work or other roles.

>> 293
 rth
1,T1g (Orgai/atior
contemporary IsSUe
social information-processing (SIP)
4derlify arid descrbe
model deign of work work patterns
A fTIOel tist ugg'15 that t e itnortarit telecommuting,
ailernative
tech
design issues include
designed to provide
opportunities and
and
ob tactors defAnd i part ori wtiat otrIrs Contemporary job
Work is relationaly desinn
approaches to the
Toll a perI atout the ob nostress, and skill
development.
Companies use
these and otner esign
increase flexibility for
employees.
contiouting to a
beter balance of worie
rk
ergonomics business wnile
manage a growing
The scenCe of adaptng work and working of work as ways to
Condilions to the employee or worker and family life for employees
a Heaithy On

lean production You? I s

Your Vork ErivirorirTert
What a b o u t read the text section on "ork
,
Using cornmitted employees with ever environment is a healthy one,
work
expancding responsibilities to achieve zero To determine whether your tour steps. Answer each question in tha
the following
waste, 100 percent good product, deliv then complete
Design and Well-Being,"
ered on tine, every tirne. five steps "yes" or "no.
sociotechnical systems (STS) Control and Influence
Giving equal attention to technical and so-
Step 1. influence over the pace of your
work?
Do you have slow?
Cial considerations in job design. neither too fast nor too
response times
Are system and goals?
in your work assignments
technocentric Do you have a say on your pertormance appraisal?
to comment
Placing technology and engineering at the Is there an opportunity for you
center of job design decisions.

Step 2. Information and Uncertainty work?

anthropocentric information to complete your
Do you receive timely
Placing hurnan considerations at the cen- information for your work assignments?
.Do you receive complete
ter of job design deCIsions. for changes that affect you at work?
Is there adequate planning information
job sharing to all the you need at work?
Do you have access
An altenative work pattern in which more
than one person occupies a single job.
Step 3. Conflict at Work
clearly and consistently?
Does the company apply policies
flextime clear and unambiguous?
An alternative work patten that enables Are job descriptions and task assignments
employees to set their own daily work Are there adequate policiesand procedures for the resolution of conflicts?
open, participative one?
schedules. Is your work environment an
virtual office Job Scope and Task Design
Step 4.
activities and/or assignments?
Is there adequate variety in your work
A mobile platforrn of computer, telecom-
munication, and inforrnation technology on your work?
Do you receive timely, constructive feedback
and services. s your work important to the overall mission of the company?
technostress
Do you work on more than one small piece of a big project?
The stress caused by new and advancing
technologies in the workplace. Scoring:
Count the number of "yes" answers in Steps 1 through 4:

f you have 10 to 16 "yes" answers, this suggests that your vwork enviranment is a psychologi-
cally healthy one.

If you have 7 or fewer "yes" answers, this may suggest that your vwOrk environmen is not as
psychologically healthy as it could be.

34<