Experiment 1: To determine resistivity of two / three wires by plotting a graph for potential

difference versus current.

Aim

To determine resistance per cm of a given wire by plotting a graph of potential difference versus
current and hence determine its resistivity.

Apparatus

A metallic conductor (resistance wire), a battery eliminator, a one-way key, a voltmeter of

appropriate range, an ammeter of appropriate range, connecting wires, a piece of sand paper, a
meter scale, and a screw gauge.

Theory/Formulae Used

According to Ohm's Law, the potential difference (V) across the ends of a conductor is directly
proportional to the current (I) flowing through it, provided the physical conditions (like
temperature) remain constant. V∝I V=IR Where R is the resistance of the conductor. If 'l' is the
length of the resistance wire and 'A' is its cross-sectional area, then the resistivity (ρ) of the
material is given by: ρ=lRA The area of cross-section A=π(2D)2=4πD2, where D is the diameter
of the wire. So, ρ=4lRπD2Error! Filename not specified.

Procedure

1. Clean the ends of the connecting wires with sandpaper to ensure good electrical
contact.

2. Set up the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram (voltmeter in parallel, ammeter in
series, rheostat for varying current).

3. Ensure that the positive terminals of the voltmeter and ammeter are connected to the
positive terminal of the battery.

4. Note the range and least count of the ammeter and voltmeter. Check for any zero error.

5. Insert the key and adjust the rheostat to obtain a small current. Note the ammeter and
voltmeter readings.

6. Gradually increase the current by moving the rheostat slider and note down at least five
sets of readings of current (I) and potential difference (V).

7. Remove the key when readings are not being taken.

8. Measure the length of the resistance wire using a meter scale.

 9. Measure the diameter of the resistance wire at several different points (at least 5) using
a screw gauge. Take readings in two mutually perpendicular directions at each point.
Calculate the mean diameter.

Observations

1. For Ammeter and Voltmeter:

 Range of Ammeter = _____ A

 Least Count of Ammeter = _____ A

 Zero Error of Ammeter = _____ A

 Range of Voltmeter = _____ V

 Least Count of Voltmeter = _____ V

 Zero Error of Voltmeter = _____ V

2. Table for Potential Difference (V) and Current (I):

S. No. Ammeter Reading (I) (A) Voltmeter Reading (V) (V) R=IV (Ω)

3. For Length of the wire:

 Length of the resistance wire (l) = _____ cm = _____ m

4. For Diameter of the wire using Screw Gauge:

 Least Count of Screw Gauge = _____ mm

 Zero Error of Screw Gauge = _____ mm

Linear Scale Circular Scale Observed Diameter (N +

S. No.
Reading (N) (mm) Reading (n) n x L.C.) (mm)

1
2

Mean Observed Diameter (D) =

_____ mm = _____ m

Calculations

1. Plot V-I Graph: Plot a graph with V on the y-axis and I on the x-axis. The graph should be
a straight line passing through the origin.

2. Calculate Resistance (R) from graph: Choose two points (I1,V1) and (I2,V2) on the
straight line. Rgraph=I2−I1V2−V1 (Ω)

3. Calculate Resistance (R) from table: Calculate the mean of the calculated R values from
the observation table. Rmean=N∑R (Ω)

4. Calculate Area of Cross-section (A): A=4πD2 (m$^2$)

5. Calculate Resistivity (ρ): Using the mean resistance (or resistance from graph, if
preferred): ρ=lRmean×A (Ω m)

Result

1. The V-I graph is a straight line, verifying Ohm's Law.

2. The resistance per cm of the given wire is _____ Ω/cm.

3. The resistivity of the material of the given wire is _____ Ω m.

Precautions

1. All connections should be neat, clean, and tight.

2. The voltmeter and ammeter should be of appropriate range.

3. The key should be inserted only while taking readings to avoid unnecessary heating of
the wire.

4. The rheostat should be adjusted smoothly.

5. The diameter of the wire should be measured accurately at several points and in
perpendicular directions.
Sources of Error

1. The resistance of connecting wires may not be negligible.

2. The ammeter and voltmeter may have zero errors.

3. The wire may not have a uniform cross-section.

4. Heating of the wire due to prolonged current flow may change its resistance.

Experiment 2: To find resistance of a given wire / standard resistor using a metre bridge.

Aim

To find the resistance of a given wire / standard resistor using a metre bridge and hence
determine the specific resistance (resistivity) of its material.

Apparatus

A metre bridge, a galvanometer, a resistance box, a Leclanché cell (or battery eliminator), a
jockey, a one-way key, the given resistance wire, a screw gauge, a meter scale, set square,
connecting wires, and sandpaper.

Theory/Formulae Used

A metre bridge works on the principle of Wheatstone's bridge. When the bridge is balanced, the
ratio of resistances in the two arms is equal to the ratio of the lengths of the wire in the
corresponding arms. QP=SR For a metre bridge, if R is the known resistance from the resistance
box and X is the unknown resistance, and l is the balancing length from the left end (where R is
connected), then the length of the other part of the wire is (100−l). XR=100−ll Therefore, the
unknown resistance X=R(l100−l) (Ω)

The specific resistance (resistivity) ρ of the material of the given wire is given by: ρ=LX×A Where
A is the area of cross-section of the wire and L is the total length of the wire whose resistance X
is being measured. A=4πD2, where D is the mean diameter of the wire. So, ρ=4LXπD2 (Ω m)

Procedure

1. Clean the ends of the connecting wires with sandpaper.

2. Set up the metre bridge circuit as shown in the diagram. Connect the unknown
resistance wire (X) in the right gap and the resistance box (R) in the left gap.

3. Connect the galvanometer and jockey as shown.

4. Insert the key and take out some resistance (say, 2 Ω) from the resistance box.
 5. Touch the jockey gently at the left end (A) and then at the right end (B) of the metre
bridge wire. The galvanometer should show deflections in opposite directions. If not,
check the connections.

6. Slide the jockey gently over the wire until the galvanometer shows zero deflection. Note
the balancing length l from the left end.

7. Repeat the experiment for at least four more different values of resistance from the
resistance box.

8. Measure the total length (L) of the resistance wire using a meter scale.

9. Measure the diameter (D) of the resistance wire at several different points (at least 5)
using a screw gauge. Take readings in two mutually perpendicular directions at each
point. Calculate the mean diameter.

Observations

1. For unknown Resistance (X):

Resistance from Balancing

100−l X=R(l100−l)
S. No. Resistance Box Length (l)
(cm) (Ω)
(R) (Ω) (cm)

Mean Unknown Resistance (X) = _____

ΩError! Filename not specified.

2. For Length of the wire:

 Total Length of the resistance wire (L) = _____ cm = _____ m

3. For Diameter of the wire using Screw Gauge:

 Least Count of Screw Gauge = _____ mm

 Zero Error of Screw Gauge = _____ mm

 Linear Scale Circular Scale Observed Diameter (N +
S. No.
Reading (N) (mm) Reading (n) n x L.C.) (mm)

Mean Observed Diameter (D) =

_____ mm = _____ m

Calculations

1. Calculate Mean Unknown Resistance (X): Xmean=N∑X (Ω)

2. Calculate Area of Cross-section (A): A=4πD2 (m$^2$)

3. Calculate Resistivity (ρ): ρ=LXmean×A (Ω m)

Result

1. The resistance of the given wire is _____ Ω.

2. The specific resistance (resistivity) of the material of the given wire is _____ Ω m.

Precautions

1. All connections should be neat, clean, and tight.

2. The jockey should be touched gently on the wire and not rubbed, as rubbing can change
the uniform thickness of the wire.

3. The key should be inserted only while taking readings to avoid unnecessary heating of
the wire and battery polarization.

4. The galvanometer should be highly sensitive.

5. The resistance from the resistance box should be chosen such that the balancing point is
near the middle of the wire (between 40 cm and 60 cm) for maximum accuracy.

Sources of Error

1. The ends of the metre bridge wire may have some resistance (end errors).
 2. The wire may not be of uniform cross-section.

3. The galvanometer may not be sensitive enough.

4. The resistance box plugs may not be clean, leading to contact resistance.

5. Heating of the wire due to prolonged current flow may change its resistance.

Experiment 3: To verify the laws of combination (series) of resistances using a metre bridge.

Aim

To verify the laws of combination (series) of resistances using a metre bridge.

Apparatus

A metre bridge, a galvanometer, a resistance box, a Leclanché cell (or battery eliminator), a
jockey, a one-way key, two resistance wires (or standard resistors) r1 and r2, connecting wires,
and sandpaper.

Theory/Formulae Used

1. Individual Resistance: Using the metre bridge principle, the unknown resistance X=R(l100−l)
(Ω)

2. Series Combination: When two resistances r1 and r2 are connected in series, their equivalent
resistance (RS) is given by: RS=r1+r2 (Theoretical value)

Experimentally, RS(exp)=R(lS100−lS), where lS is the balancing length for the series combination.

Procedure

1. Clean the ends of the connecting wires with sandpaper.

2. Set up the metre bridge circuit.

3. To find r1:

o Connect resistance r1 in the right gap of the metre bridge.

o Take out a suitable resistance (R) from the resistance box in the left gap.

o Find the balancing length l1 by sliding the jockey.

o Calculate r1=R(l1100−l1).

o Repeat for 2-3 different values of R and find the mean r1.

4. To find r2:
 o Replace r1 with r2 in the right gap.

o Repeat step 3 to find r2.

5. To find RS(exp) (equivalent resistance of series combination):

o Connect r1 and r2 in series in the right gap of the metre bridge.

o Take out a suitable resistance (R) from the resistance box in the left gap.

o Find the balancing length lS by sliding the jockey.

o Calculate RS(exp)=R(lS100−lS).

o Repeat for 2-3 different values of R and find the mean RS(exp).

Observations

1. For Resistance r1:

Resistance from Balancing r1=R(l1

100−l1
S. No. Resistance Box (R) Length (l1) 100−l1)
(cm)
(Ω) (cm) (Ω)

Mean r1 = _____ ΩError! Filename

not specified.

2. For Resistance r2:

Resistance from Balancing r2=R(l2

100−l2
S. No. Resistance Box (R) Length (l2) 100−l2)
(cm)
(Ω) (cm) (Ω)

Mean r2 = _____ ΩError! Filename

not specified.

3. For Series Combination (RS):

S. No. Resistance from Balancing 100−lS RS(exp)=R(lS

Resistance Box (R) Length (lS)
 (Ω) (cm) (cm) 100−lS) (Ω)

Mean RS(exp) = _____ ΩError!

Filename not specified.

Calculations

1. Theoretical Value of Series Resistance (RS(theo)): RS(theo)=Mean r1+Mean r2 (Ω)

2. Compare Experimental and Theoretical Values: Calculate the percentage difference:

Percentage Difference = RS(theo)RS(exp)−RS(theo)×100%Error! Filename not specified.

Result

The experimental value of the equivalent resistance in series combination is _____ Ω, and the
theoretical value is _____ Ω. Since the experimental and theoretical values are in close
agreement (or within limits of experimental error), the law of combination of resistances in
series is verified.

Precautions

1. All connections should be neat, clean, and tight.

2. The jockey should be touched gently on the wire and not rubbed.

3. The key should be inserted only while taking readings.

4. The galvanometer should be sensitive.

5. Resistance from the resistance box should be chosen such that the balancing point is
near the middle of the wire.

Sources of Error

1. End errors of the metre bridge.

2. The resistance wires may not be of uniform cross-section.

3. Heating of the wires may change their resistance.

4. Contact resistance at the terminals.

Experiment 4: To verify the laws of combination (parallel) of resistors using a meter bridge.

Aim
To verify the laws of combination (parallel) of resistances using a metre bridge.

Apparatus

A metre bridge, a galvanometer, a resistance box, a Leclanché cell (or battery eliminator), a
jockey, a one-way key, two resistance wires (or standard resistors) r1 and r2, connecting wires,
and sandpaper.

Theory/Formulae Used

1. Individual Resistance: Using the metre bridge principle, the unknown resistance X=R(l100−l)
(Ω)

2. Parallel Combination: When two resistances r1 and r2 are connected in parallel, their
equivalent resistance (RP) is given by: RP1=r11+r21 RP=r1+r2r1r2 (Theoretical value)

Experimentally, RP(exp)=R(lP100−lP), where lP is the balancing length for the parallel

combination.

Procedure

1. Clean the ends of the connecting wires with sandpaper.

2. Set up the metre bridge circuit.

3. To find r1:

o Connect resistance r1 in the right gap of the metre bridge.

o Take out a suitable resistance (R) from the resistance box in the left gap.

o Find the balancing length l1 by sliding the jockey.

o Calculate r1=R(l1100−l1).

o Repeat for 2-3 different values of R and find the mean r1.

4. To find r2:

o Replace r1 with r2 in the right gap.

o Repeat step 3 to find r2.

5. To find RP(exp) (equivalent resistance of parallel combination):

o Connect r1 and r2 in parallel in the right gap of the metre bridge.

o Take out a suitable resistance (R) from the resistance box in the left gap.

o Find the balancing length lP by sliding the jockey.

 o Calculate RP(exp)=R(lP100−lP).

o Repeat for 2-3 different values of R and find the mean RP(exp).

Observations

1. For Resistance r1:

Resistance from Balancing r1=R(l1

100−l1
S. No. Resistance Box (R) Length (l1) 100−l1)
(cm)
(Ω) (cm) (Ω)

Mean r1 = _____ ΩError! Filename

not specified.

2. For Resistance r2:

Resistance from Balancing r2=R(l2

100−l2
S. No. Resistance Box (R) Length (l2) 100−l2)
(cm)
(Ω) (cm) (Ω)

Mean r2 = _____ ΩError! Filename

not specified.

3. For Parallel Combination (RP):

Resistance from Balancing RP(exp)

100−lP
S. No. Resistance Box (R) Length (lP) =R(lP100−lP)
(cm)
(Ω) (cm) (Ω)

Mean RP(exp) = _____ ΩError!

Filename not specified.

Calculations
 1. Theoretical Value of Parallel Resistance (RP(theo)): RP(theo)=Mean r1+Mean r2Mean r1
×Mean r2 (Ω)

2. Compare Experimental and Theoretical Values: Calculate the percentage difference:

Percentage Difference = RP(theo)RP(exp)−RP(theo)×100%Error! Filename not specified.

Result

The experimental value of the equivalent resistance in parallel combination is _____ Ω, and the
theoretical value is _____ Ω. Since the experimental and theoretical values are in close
agreement (or within limits of experimental error), the law of combination of resistances in
parallel is verified.

Precautions

1. All connections should be neat, clean, and tight.

2. The jockey should be touched gently on the wire and not rubbed.

3. The key should be inserted only while taking readings.

4. The galvanometer should be sensitive.

5. Resistance from the resistance box should be chosen such that the balancing point is
near the middle of the wire.

Sources of Error

1. End errors of the metre bridge.

2. The resistance wires may not be of uniform cross-section.

3. Heating of the wires may change their resistance.

4. Contact resistance at the terminals.

Experiment 5: To determine resistance of a galvanometer by half-deflection method and to

find its figure of merit.

Aim

To determine the resistance of a galvanometer by the half-deflection method and to find its
figure of merit.

Apparatus

A Weston type galvanometer, a battery eliminator, a high resistance box (R), a low resistance
box (S) (shunt), two one-way keys (K1,K2), connecting wires, and sandpaper.
Theory/Formulae Used

1. Resistance of Galvanometer (G) by Half-Deflection Method: When a resistance R is

connected in series with the galvanometer and the circuit is closed, a deflection θ is observed.
Ig=kθ (where k is the figure of merit) Ig=R+GE So, kθ=R+GE (Equation 1)

Now, a shunt resistance S is connected in parallel with the galvanometer, and R is kept constant.
The total current from the battery remains approximately the same, but it divides between the
galvanometer and the shunt. If the galvanometer deflection becomes θ/2, then the current
through the galvanometer is Ig/2. The current through the shunt is Is=Ig−Ig/2=Ig/2. Since the
potential difference across the galvanometer and shunt is the same: (Ig/2)×G=(Ig/2)×S This
implies G=S.

More accurately, using the current division rule: Current through galvanometer with shunt: Ig′
=IS+GS If Ig′ is half of the original current Ig (without shunt), then: Ig/2=IS+GS Also, I=R+G+SGSE
(Total current from battery) From the half-deflection condition, the resistance of the
galvanometer (G) is found to be equal to the shunt resistance (S) that causes the deflection to
become half of the original deflection. G=SError! Filename not specified.

2. Figure of Merit (k): The figure of merit (k) is the current required to produce a unit deflection
(1 division) in the galvanometer. From Equation 1: k=(R+G)θE (Ampere/division) Where E is the
EMF of the cell, R is the series resistance, G is the galvanometer resistance, and θ is the
deflection.

Procedure

1. Clean the ends of the connecting wires with sandpaper.

2. Set up the circuit as shown in the diagram. Connect the high resistance box (R) in series
with the galvanometer and the battery. Connect the low resistance box (S) in parallel
with the galvanometer, along with key K2.

3. Ensure all connections are tight.

4. To find G:

o Insert key K1 only (keeping K2 open). Take out a high resistance (e.g., 5000 Ω to
10000 Ω) from R such that the galvanometer shows a large, even deflection (e.g.,
30 divisions). Note this deflection θ.

o Now, keeping K1 inserted, also insert key K2. Take out resistance from the shunt
box (S) until the galvanometer deflection becomes exactly half of the initial
deflection (i.e., θ/2).
 o Note the resistance taken out from the shunt box (S). This value of S gives the
resistance of the galvanometer G.

o Repeat the process for 2-3 different initial deflections (by changing R) and find
the mean value of G.

5. To find k:

o For each set of readings taken for G, note the EMF (E) of the battery (if known,
otherwise assume a standard value like 1.5V for a Leclanché cell, or measure
with a voltmeter).

o Use the formula k=(R+G)θE to calculate the figure of merit. Find the mean k.

Observations

1. For Resistance of Galvanometer (G):

 Range of Galvanometer = _____ divisions

 Number of divisions on either side of zero = _____

Initial Shunt
Resistance Resistance of
Deflection Resistance (S)
S. No. from R (R) Galvanometer (G
(θ) (Ω) for θ/2
(Ω) = S) (Ω)
(divisions) deflection

Mean G = _____ ΩError! Filename

not specified.

2. For Figure of Merit (k):

 EMF of the cell (E) = _____ V (or use the value from the battery eliminator)

Resistance Deflection (θ) Resistance of Galvanometer k=(R+G)θE

S. No.
from R (R) (Ω) (divisions) (G) (Ω) (Mean G from above) (A/division)

2
3

Mean k = _____
A/division

Calculations

1. Mean G: Calculate the mean of the G values from the table.

2. Mean k: Calculate the mean of the k values from the table.

Result

1. The resistance of the given galvanometer by half-deflection method is _____ Ω.

2. The figure of merit of the galvanometer is _____ A/division.

Precautions

1. All connections should be neat and tight.

2. The resistance R should be high enough to protect the galvanometer from large
currents.

3. The shunt resistance S should be adjusted carefully to get exactly half deflection.

4. The keys should be inserted only when taking readings.

5. The EMF of the cell should be constant.

Sources of Error

1. The EMF of the battery may not be constant.

2. The resistance box plugs may not be clean, leading to contact resistance.

3. The galvanometer pointer may not be perfectly balanced at zero.

4. The resistance of connecting wires may not be negligible.

Experiment 6: To find the frequency of AC mains with a sonometer.

Aim

To find the frequency of AC mains with a sonometer.

Apparatus

A sonometer, a horse-shoe magnet, a step-down transformer (12V AC), a non-magnetic wire

(e.g., brass or steel), a set of slotted weights, a meter scale, a plumb line, and a rubber hammer.
Theory/Formulae Used

The frequency of the vibrating string (f) on a sonometer is given by the formula: f=2l1μT Where:

 l is the length of the vibrating segment of the wire (m)

 T is the tension in the wire (N) (T=Mg, where M is the suspended mass and g is
acceleration due to gravity)

 μ is the linear mass density of the wire (mass per unit length) (kg/m)

When an AC current flows through the sonometer wire placed in a magnetic field (produced by
the horse-shoe magnet), the wire experiences a periodic force. If the frequency of this force
matches the natural frequency of vibration of the wire, resonance occurs, and the wire vibrates
with maximum amplitude. The frequency of the AC mains is twice the frequency of the applied
AC voltage if the force is due to the interaction of the current in the wire and a permanent
magnetic field. However, typically, the frequency of vibration of the wire will be equal to the
frequency of the AC mains (fmains).

At resonance, the frequency of the vibrating wire is equal to the frequency of the AC mains. So,
fmains=2l1μTError! Filename not specified.

Procedure

1. Set up the sonometer with the non-magnetic wire stretched over the two bridges.

2. Measure the total length of the wire and its mass to calculate the linear mass density
(μ=lengthmass).

3. Connect the sonometer wire to the secondary coil of the step-down transformer.

4. Place the horse-shoe magnet in the middle of the wire, such that the wire passes
between its poles.

5. Hang a suitable mass (M) from the free end of the wire to provide tension (T = Mg).

6. Switch on the AC supply to the transformer. The wire will start vibrating.

7. Adjust the distance between the two bridges (length l) until the wire vibrates with
maximum amplitude. This is the resonance condition.

8. Note the length l of the vibrating segment.

9. Repeat the experiment for at least three different suspended masses (M), noting the
corresponding resonant lengths (l).
 10. Measure the diameter of the wire using a screw gauge to calculate its cross-sectional
area and verify the linear mass density.

Observations

1. For Linear Mass Density (μ):

 Length of the wire used = _____ m

 Mass of the wire used = _____ kg

 Linear mass density (μ) = LengthMass = _____ kg/m

2. For Frequency of AC Mains:

 Acceleration due to gravity (g) = 9.8 m/s$^2$

Suspended Mass Tension (T = Resonant Calculated Frequency

S. No.
(M) (kg) Mg) (N) Length (l) (m) (f=2l1μT) (Hz)

Mean Frequency of AC
Mains (f) = _____ Hz

Calculations

1. Calculate the tension T = Mg for each suspended mass.

2. Calculate the frequency f=2l1μT for each set of readings.

3. Calculate the mean frequency.

Result

The frequency of the AC mains is found to be _____ Hz.

Precautions

1. The sonometer wire should be uniform and free from kinks.

2. The bridges should be sharp and perpendicular to the wire.

3. The suspended mass should be sufficient to keep the wire taut.

4. The horse-shoe magnet should be placed exactly in the middle of the vibrating segment.
 5. The length 'l' should be measured accurately.

6. The AC voltage should be low (e.g., 6-12V) to avoid excessive heating of the wire.

Sources of Error

1. Non-uniformity of the sonometer wire.

2. Errors in measuring the length of the wire and its mass.

3. Friction in the pulley.

4. Errors in determining the exact resonance point.

5. The magnet may not be placed exactly at the center.