ZJC

1.1
 #.Health and Safety (Rules, Regulations, Acts)
- Workshop safety and health is sometimes called occupational safety and health (OSH).
- It is concerned with the prevention of accidents, injuries and diseases in the workplace and the
protection and promotion of health among workers.
- The maintenance of safety and health in the workshop is classified into three categories namely:
i. rules,
ii. regulations and
iii. acts.

i) Rules governing health and safety.

- Rules governing safety and health Workshop rules are important.

- They are codes of behaviour whose purpose is to protect the worker from injuries and other health
related problems.
- Rules provide instructions on how to carry out workshop activities correctly to improve efficiency.
- There are many rules that should be observed when working in a workshop.
- Some of them are given below:

When entering workshop

1. Read and obey all safety signs.
2. Leave bags outside or in a place allocated for storing them to avoid disturbances.

When leaving the workshop

1. Return tools to the storeroom and put them in their storage racks.
2. Clean up the work area and the workshop.

Clothing and footwear

1. Wear appropriate safety protective equipment.
2. Remove all loose-fitting clothes, necklaces and other jewellery.

Behaviour
1. Avoid horseplay and any other hurried movements when in the workshop.
2. No food should be taken while working in the workshop.
3. Practice good hygiene, always remember to wash hands wi\th soap before and after working.
4. Avoid carrying too many tools or materials at once.
5. Seek help when lifting heavy objects or when carrying long pieces of timber.
6. Do not talk to or distract a person using sharp tools or machines.

Working procedures
1. Avoid working alone in the workshop; in case of an accident you need a partner to help.
2. Follow the correct working procedure for each operation.
3. Hold your workpiece in a cramp or vice when working on it.
4. When in doubt ask your teacher for clarifications.
5. Keep all hands behind the cutting edges tools and machines.
 Accidents
1. Report all injuries or accidents no matter how small.
2. Do not use any naked flames.
3. When a fire breaks out, remain calm and inform your teacher.
4. Know where the emergency stop button is. This stops processes immediately should anything go
wrong when working with wood working machines.

Machinery usage
1. Ask permission before using any machine.
2. Receive training in the use of a machine before using it.
3. Only use the machine for the operation that it was designed for.
4. Do not use a machine with faulty parts.
5. Do not tamper with or attempt to repair any tool or machine.

Housekeeping
1. Sweep the workshop after each lesson.
2. Store your project and tools in a storeroom.
3. Clean all spillages from the workshop floor.
4. Do not clutter the work bench or workshop floor with tools or work pieces.

ii) Regulations governing health and safety

- Regulations governing safety and health Workshop regulations are codes of behaviour that are
enforced by the law.
- They ensure that people work in a safe and healthy environment by setting and enforcing standards
that are to be followed by all stakeholders that use workshops.
- Regulations also provide regulation of the conditions of work in workshops, supervision of the use of
tools and machinery as well as precautions against accidental injury to persons who work in
workshops.
 There are several regulations that govern safety and health at the workplace in Zimbabwe and these
include;

1. Buildings that are used as workshops should have a wide access door that allows easy evacuation of
workers when an accident happens.
2. The workshops should have enough ventilation.
3. Workshops should have non-slippery floors. 4. Enough lighting should be installed in a workshop.
5. Workers should not be exposed to hazardous substances, fumes and high noise levels.
6. Where woodworking machinery is used, emergence circuit stop buttons should be fitted in the
electricity circuit.
7. A perimeter boundary should be marked around all woodworking machinery.
8. Workshops should have fire extinguishers.
9. People working in a workshop must practice good housekeeping.
10. Workplaces should be free of clutter.
11. Receive training before using any tool or machine.
12. Personal protective equipment should be worn at all times when working in a workshop.
 13. Hazardous substances should be stored in their original containers in lockable units.
14. All materials should be properly stacked using methods that do not pose danger.
15. A workshop should have a First Aid kit. Only people who have been trained should administer First
Aid.

iii) Acts governing safety and health

 The Factories and Works Act chapter 14.08 of 1996 in Zimbabwe, the National Social Security
Authority (NSSA) and the Zimbabwe Occupational Health and Safety Council are responsible for
ensuring that companies comply with the gazetted acts and regulations that govern safety and health
in the workplace.
 Occupational safety and health is generally regulated by;
 The Factories and Works Act of 1976 as amended in 1996,
 The NSSA accident prevention and workers compensation scheme notice number 68 of 1990,
and
 The protection from smoking (public health, control of tobacco) regulation Statutory
Instrument 264 of 2002.
 There are other regulations that govern specific sectors, for the woodworking industry, the major
regulations governing safety and health at the workplace are:
a) the Factories and Works Act 1976 as amended in 1996
b) section 18 of the factories and works (machinery) regulations, 1976.
 The Factories and Works Act chapter 14.08 of 1996 has several provisions which woodworking
factories are required to follow.
 These provisions are listed below:

1. All premises that are to be used as factories should be registered with the government.
2. All plants and machinery should be inspected by a government inspector for compliance to safety
before they are used.
1. A register of such inspections should be kept at the premises.
3. All workshops should be accessible from the outside as work is done inside.
4. No worker should be forced to work on any job or machine unless safety precautions have been
taken care of.
5. An employer should provide written instructions on safety measures in a manner or language
understood by the majority of workers.
6. All workers should be trained on safety at the employer's expense.
7. Personal protective equipment should be provided free of charge. These should be worn at all
times.
8. Each factory should have First Aid equipment. First Aid should only be administered by a qualified
person.
9. An accident register should be kept at the premises.
10. Inquiries should be carried out for any accident that occurs at the premises.
11. Workers should not be exposed to high noise levels.
12. Materials should be stacked using methods that do not pose dangers to workshop users.
13. Dust extractors should be installed in workplaces where a lot of fumes or dust is produced.
14. Storage of dangerous substances in workplaces should be prohibited.
 #.CAREERS IN HEALTH AND SAFETY
- There are many occupational health and safety careers in woodworking industries that one can
pursue.
- The following occupations can be found within health and safety;
Environmental Health Officer, Safety Officer, Factory Inspector, First Aid Personnel and Fire
Technician.

Jobs in occupational Health and Safety

- Environmental Health Officer

- Environmental health officers are also called public health inspectors or environmental health
technicians.
- They are employed by the ministry of health and child welfare or by a local government to monitor
public health in communities including those of companies that operate within given communities.
- They can also be employed by a company to monitor environmental health issues within the
company as well as monitoring the company's compliance to legislations on public and environmental
health.

Duties and responsibilities of Public Health Officers

- Ensuring that workplaces and communities comply with the requirements of legislations
relating to environmental health.
- Implement measures that protect the public and workplaces from diseases.
- Inspecting facilities that prepare food to the public.
- Inspecting the standards of sanitary facilities including ablutions.
- Educating communities about public health risks and the need to maintain a safe environment.
- Teaching communities about communicable and notifiable diseases.
- Monitoring and implementing waste management initiatives within communities and workplaces.

- Safety Officers

- Safety officers are sometimes called safety engineers.

- They are mainly concerned with the prevention of injuries and accidents within the workplace.
- They perform various roles in order to ensure that workers are free from possible injuries that may
occur within the workplace.
Duties and responsibilities of safety officers
 - Designing working procedures that minimize chances of injuries and accidents.
- Inspecting the conditions of plants, equipment and work stations for potential danger and taking
necessary steps to mitigate danger.
- Monitoring noise levels within the workplace and taking appropriate action where the noise levels
exceed the recommended decibels.
- Investigating accidents and emergencies and keeping records of accidents that occur within the work
place.
- Coordinating safety programmes related to the safe use of plants, equipment and facilities Ensuring
that workers, plants and equipment comply with the requirements of legislations.
- Training workers on health and safety procedures and correct unsafe acts or conditions within the
work place.
- Ensuring that there are safety messages at each work station.
- Reviewing and approving all sub-contractors safety plans.
- Training and carrying out safety drills and exercises on how to manage emergency situations.
- Overseeing the installations, maintenance of machines as well as the disposal of hazardous
substances.

- Factory Inspectors

 Factory inspectors are people who inspect factories, machinery and operations within the workplace
for compliance with government regulations.
 They are employed by the government and do not have interest in the company they inspect.
 The National Social Security Authority (NSSA) has a department called a factories and works
inspectorate department which carries out regular inspections in workplaces for compliance with the
requirements of the Factories and Works Act.

Duties and responsibilities of a Factory Inspector

The duties of the factory inspector are outlined in the Factories and Works Act.
 Inspecting the workplace to determine whether its operations, facilities and equipment and
substances comply with the safety requirements as outlined in the Factories and Works Act and other
acts related to safety in the workplace.
 Examining plants, machinery and equipment to determine whether they are safe.
 Directing any equipment or substance he or she may deem to be dangerous to be destroyed.
 Inspecting the quality of products produced by a company to determine whether they meet the
stipulated by law.
 Looking into accident records and prescribing preventive measures.

- First Aid Personnel

 First Aid personnel are persons who have been trained and appointed to administer First Aid to
injured workers.

Duties and Responsibilities

  Giving immediate lifesaving treatment to the injured before they are attended to by medical
personnel.
 Taking care of the First Aid kit and ensuring that it has adequate supplies.
 Maintaining the First Aid room. Training workers in basic First Aid procedures.
 Maintaining First Aid records.

- Fire Technicians

 A fire technician at a workplace performs similar duties to those of fire brigade personnel.

Duties Responsibilities of Fire Technicians

 Ensuring that the workplace is protected from fire hazards by developing fire prevention measures.
 Conducting fire drills aimed at training workers about what to do in the event of a fire outbreak.
 Inspecting, testing and repairing fire extinguishers, smoke detectors, sprinklers and water hoses.
 Carrying out investigations on the causes of fire outbreaks.

Activity 1.2
Work as a class

1. Organise an educational tour to the nearest NSSA office and research about the duties of the
factories and works inspectorate.

2. Use MS Word to list the duties of Factory Inspectors.

3. Discuss the duties of the Factory Inspector.

4.
*Duties and work for the factories and work inspectors*
OBJECTIVES
- To ensure that all workplace facilities, installations, equipment and machinery comply with the
laid down statutory provisions
- Ensure that industry adheres to and observes the national legislation
- Set and establish standards on Occupational Safety and Health (OSH) practices with regard to
equipment, installations and operational standards.
KEY ACTIVITIES
 To inspect and commission factories, buildings, machinery, equipment and installations
 Investigate occupational accidents
 Approve new building plans, additions or alterations
 Carry-out tests on boilers, pressure vessels and electrical equipment
 Monitor compliance with set limits.
 Ratify competency of certain designated people in industry as prescribed legally eg
Responsible persons.
 Enforcing adherence to national occupational safety and health legislation and thus prevent
workplace accidents through registration and control of factories, supervision of the use of
machinery and enforcing precautions against accidents to persons employed on structural
work.
What Does a Factory Inspector Do?
- A factory inspector is a professional who examines elements of a factory or plant's operations
to ensure safety, quality, and compliance with regulations.
- Factory inspectors can be employed by many different organizations, and can have varying
areas of expertise.
- The main job of any factory inspector is to help improve the safety of a factory and its products
for both workers and consumers.
- Factory inspectors became common in the late 19th century, when many governments
enacted the first laws regulating procedures within factories.
- Some of the first government-employed inspectors attempted to root out the use of child
labor; in the United Kingdom, the 1833 Factory Act became one of the first to mandate the
creation of inspector positions to ensure that children under the age of nine were not used for
factory labor.
- As government regulation of manufacturing expanded, the number of inspectors increased
vastly throughout the world.
- A modern factory may now undergo government inspection for health compliance, safety
preparedness, labor law adherence, environmental standards, and quality assurance.
- Though a great many factory inspectors are employed by the government, many also work for
insurance agencies and labor unions.
- A factory inspector can be a great boon to either of these organizations, as he or she can
perform regular inspections to ensure that a manufacturing plant adheres to insurance or
union standards.
- Violations to insurance standards can result in increased rates or even a loss of coverage.
- Union violations can lead to union worker strikes, fines, or other punitive actions by labor
unions.
- A factory inspector may also be employed by a manufacturing business.
- In order to avoid fines, sanctions, and strikes caused by various regulatory violations, factory
 management may find internal inspectors extremely useful.
- A dedicated inspector, trained in all the regulations a factory may face, can ensure that the
company is compliant with standards before they undergo an external inspection.
- Internal inspectors may also examine issues such as production efficiency and uniform quality
assurance, making sure that the products created at a plant are managed effectively and in line
with internal quality standards.
- The training necessary to become a factory inspector may vary by position.
- While there are few training courses leading directly to the field, some factory inspectors have
training as engineers, mechanics, or quality assurance professionals.
- Much of the training for a factory inspector is done on the job, though an inspector may also
spend considerable time studying and understanding regulatory rules in their industry.
- To ensure that all workplace facilities, installations, equipment and machinery comply with the
laid down statutory provisions.
- Ensure that industry adheres to and observes the national legislation Set and establish
standards on Occupational Safety and Health (OSH) practices with regard to equipment,
installations and operational standards.

WORKSHOP SAFETY
- Workshop safety involves the action of preventing and controlling any type of danger front harming or
injuring people working in the workshop.
- It involves the observation of rules and regulations that protect people from harm and injuries as well
as illnesses.

Reasons for observing health and safety precautions

- The following are reasons for observing health and safety precautions
 To reduce accidents, injuries, diseases an
 To keep us informed about dangerous health and safety conditions.
 To help us identity sources of accidents, injuries and illnesses
 To protect our tools and equipment from damage

Common accidents that occur in workshops

- These include cuts abrasions, bruises, burns, noise induced hearing loss, allergies, eye injuries, chest
problems, sprains, strains beck and neck aches itching rashes skin blisters, lung infections, fractures
and electrocution

General workshop rules and regulations

- There are several general workshop safety rules which you must observe in order to reduce accidents.
2. Do not enter the workshop without the permission of the teacher.
3. No bags are allowed inside or they are placed at a proper designated point.
4. Obey all the safety rules, warning signs and safety diagrams displayed in the workshop.
 5. Practice good housekeeping habits by keeping your workspace tidy and free from obstructions.
 The workshop floor should be clean and tidy.
 You should clean up spilled liquids immediately.
6. You should also wash your hands after handling glue, varnish, paint and thinners. Toxic substances
like chemicals
7. Avoid fooling around, horse play or indulging in reckless behaviour.
8. Move slowly and in an orderly way in the workshop, do not dash or run.
9. Consider all substances or liquids as harmful unless you have adequate information about them.
10. You should also not eat or drink when working in the workshop
11. Report all accidents, cuts and injuries to the teacher nomatter how minor.
12. Report any damage to tools, electric sockets, work benches and machines to your teacher, a
broken tool may cause accidents.
13. Seek help when lifting or carrying heavy objects or carrying long places of timber to reduce
the risk of muscular skeletal disorders
14. Remove all loose fitting clothes, rings, jackets and ties.
15. You should tuck in all loose clothing and the long hair so that they do not interfere with your
work or get caught in moving machine parts
16. Wear personal protective equipment (PPE).
17. When in doubt ask your teacher about the correct procedure of working
18. Note the location of the first aid kit, line extinguisher and emergency exit.
19. This will enable you to act quickly if an accident
20. Store all flammable liquids like thinners in closed containers away from any source of heat
or fire
21. Know where the emergency stop button in the workshop is located
22. Always remove tripping hazards like off cuts on the ground.

Personal protective equipment (PPE)

- Always wear appropriate personal protective equipment when working in the workshop.
- Personal protective equipment can be divided into the following groups
 eye protection,
 head protection,
 respiratory protection
 body protection,
 hand or arm protection,
 foot protection and
 ear protection

- Eye protection equipment protects the eyes and safety glasses, safety goggles and face shields.
- Head protection equipment protects the head and the helmet is generally worn.
- Respiratory protection equipment include dust masks and respirators
- Body protection equipment includes aprons, dust coats, overalls and worksuits.
- Hand protection equipment includes gloves,
- Foot protection equipment includes the safety shoes or any steel capped shoe.

End of unit exercise

 1. Define the following terms in relation to health and safety in the workshop
a) Workshop safety
b) Accident
2. Write any three reasons why you should observe workshop safety rules and regulations
3. Suggest any five ways of preventing accidents when working in a school workshop
4. Match each category of personal protective equipment in column A with an appropriate example in
column B

Column A Column B

Eye protective equipment Earplug

Respiratory protective equipment Safety shoe
Head protective equipment Helmet
Foot protective equipment Eye shield
Ear protective equipment Dust mask

6) State one use of the personal protective equipment

TOOL SAFETY

- Tools are essential in workshop activities and they help us make artefacts.
- However, the tools can be dangerous if safety precautions are not taken during their use.
- In order to reduce cuts and injuries from hand tools, you should observe the following rules and
precautions
1. Select and use the correct tool for the job. An inappropriate tool increases the chances of an
accident.
2. Do not use a tool without a handle
4. Wear personal protective clothing related to each tool you are using
5. Do not use a tool if the handle or surface has splinters, burrs, cracks or splits and avoid performing
"make-shift repairs to tools.
6. Place tools that are not being used in the bench well, do not leave them hanging on the edge of the
benchwell.
7. You should also use sharp tools since dull tools may lead to injuries
8. Avoid testing the sharpness of the cutting edge of your tools by using your thumbs.
9. Pass sharp tools handle first
10 Cut in the direction away from your body when using sharp tools like chisels, knives and owls.
 All hands should be behind the cutting edge of the sharp tools
11. Secure your work piece with cramps and vices when working on them with hand tools
12. Do not work with oily or greasy hands
13. Do not lean a sash cramp or piece of timber against a workbench, cupboard or wall

Safe carrying of tools

 1. Avoid carrying too many tools at once
2. Do not carry sharp tools like chisels, gouges and knives in your pocket.
3 Always carry sharp tools by your side with the cutting edge pointing up
4. Do not carry tools in a way that interferes with using both hands
5. Do not swing your arms excessively when carrying sharp tools

Safe storage of tools

- You should store tools in a tack, tool box or storeroom when they are not in use.
- The method used should ensure that the tools are safe from damage caused by falling or bumping into
each other
- The most common tool rack for a small workshop is a wall mounted rack with pegs and hooks for
hanging the tools.
- When storing the tools for a long time remember to apply a thin coat of oil to protect them from
rusting

End of unit exercise

1. Write two precautions that you should observe when cutting using tools with sharp cutting edges
2. State the reason for applying oil on tools that are to be stored for a long time
3. Why is it important to store tools that are not being used in the bench wall rather than on the
bench top?
4. Explain how you should pass on a sharp tool such as a chisel to your friend
5. Describe one safety method of storing tools.
6.

#.Emergency Safety
First Aid and fire fighting equipment
- One should be able to identify the various emergency safety equipment that are found in the
workshop as this will enable them to act quickly fan accident happens.
- The basic emergency equipment includes:
iv. the First Aid Kit,
v. fire-fighting equipment like fire extinguishers, fire blanket, fire bucket, fire hose
- Some workshops also have a spill kit which contains chemicals used to clean spillages.

iv) First Aid Kit

- The First Aid Kit is contained in the First Aid Box.
- The First Aid Box is identified by:
 a red cross on a white background,
 a white cross on a red background,
 a white cross on a green background or
 a green cross on a white background
- The First Aid Kit contains basic medicines and accessories that are used to treat wounds.
 - It may include gloves, bandages antiseptic ointment and disinfection rinse.
- These items should be in good condition and not have expired

v) Fire Fighting Equipment’s

c) Fire extinguishers
- A fire extinguisher contains chemicals that are used to put out a fire.
- There are many different types of chemicals used in fire extinguishers.
- Each type of fire extinguisher will extinguish a particular type of fire.
- Fires are classified into groups or classes and there are four groups of fires:
Class A: fire caused by wood, cloth paper and packing materials
Class B: fires caused by flammable liquids like petrol, paraffin, oil, thinners and paint
Class C: fire from electrical faults on cables, wiring, switches and electronic equipment.
Class D: fire from combustible materials like magnesium, potassium and sodium
- Fire extinguishers should be inspected regularly to find out whether the contents have not expired

d) Water Hose
- This contains a reel of water hose which lets out water at high pressure to extinguish fire.

e) Fire Blankets
- These are blankets that are used to extinguish fire on people.
- The blanket is wrapped around the person to block oxygen from reaching the

f) Fire Buckets
- These contain sand which can be used to extinguish fire

g) Fire Buckets
- These contain sand which can be used to extinguish fire

h) Spill Kit
- A spill kit contains chemicals and other materials that are used to clean various spills in the workshop.
- It may contain absorbants, acid neutralisers or caustic neutrals and disinfectants.
- The most basic absorbent is a piece of cloth,they may include other materials such as a foam rubber
mat, absorbent pillow, socks and pads.
- Acid or caustic neutralisers are chemicals that are poured on acidic chemicals to reduce their harmful
effects.
- They absorb and solidify acids and change colour when they complete the neutralisation process.
- Disinfectants are chemicals he bleaching agents that are applied to a surface to kill micro-organisms.
- The most common examples of dsinfectants found in Zimbabwe are Harpic Guard, and Jik

First Aid procedures

- Accidents that occur in the workshop may result in major or minor injuries.
- Major injuries will require the attention of a qualified medical practitioner.
- Minor injuries may require the administration of First Aid.
- When you have been involved in an accident do the following:
i. Stop working and stop equipment that may pose further danger.
 ii. Immediately notify your teacher and remain calm
iii. Do not move the person unless he or she is in danger
iv. Tell your teacher any unusual signs and symptoms such as swelling, itchiness or bleeding,
DO NOT touch a bleeding person's blood with bare hands, use surgical gloves when administering
First Aid.
v. Do not administer First Aid, Only a trained person should give First Aid
 Go to a health provider to seek medical

- 3. Get permission from your teacher to use the fire extinguisher, water hose or sand bucket to
extinguish the fro

Fire drill
- There are specific actions that should be taken in the event of a fire, a major or minor fire
- Action taken during a fire out break
Remain calm, alert the teacher and other people in the area to leave.
Avoid smoke and fumes
Close doors to confine the fire to one room
Leave the building, in the case of a story building use the stairway rather than the elevator.
If your clothes are on fire, you should drop to the ground and roll over, if another person is on fire,
push them down and cover them with a blanket coat or rug. Make sure the person does not run,
running will only increase the fire
Call the fire brigade or seek help from elders

End of unit exercise

1. a) Name any three fire-fighting equipment

b) List the four categories in which fire extinguishers can be grouped
c) State the type of fire that can be extinguished by each category
2. What are the contents of the following fire fighting equipment?
a) Fire bucket
b) Water hose
c) Spill kit
3 a) Why it not recommended to run when one has caught fire?
i) Identify any three things that are stored in a First Aid box.
j) Explain the procedures taken when administering First

#. CLASSIFICATION OF TIMBER

TIMBER is a natural product of solid wood from a tree which has been sawn to sizes suitable for
building and construction purposes.
Timbers are used fo making a variety of furniture in homes and offices and for tool bodies
a living tree has 3 main parts.
i. roots -they are embedded in the soil, support the entire tree. They also absord water and
mineral salts from soil whhich are transmitted through th spwood of the trunk and branches into leaves
ii. trun- it supports the crown and it is from the trunk that the logs that are converted to
commercial sizes of timber ar obtained
iii. crown – leaves process the solution of water and mineral salts into food for the tree.
-The growth of the tree takes place at the tips of the branches, in its roots and around its circumference or girth
it becomes taller and taller as new buds produce growth at tips of the branches and thicker as layers of wood
(cambium layers) are added to the perimeter of the tree

STRUCTURE OF A TREE
● tree trunks have 5 separate layers to them.
● They are the outer bark, inner bark (phloem), the cambium cell layer, sapwood, and heartwood.
● Each layer has their very own purpose, but overall, the trunk’s primary job is to protect and support
the tree.
 CROSS – SECTION OF A TREE TRUNK

1. Outer Bark
● Like a shield, a trunk’s outer bark is there to protect the tree from its outside surroundings, including
inclement weather, wildlife, pests, and more.
● It also controls moisture, by both preventing excess moisture in the rain and snow, and retaining
sufficient moisture levels during dry seasons.
● It also provides insulation in cold weather and protects against sunburn in the summer.

❷ Phloem (Inner Bark)

● The phloem, or inner layer of bark, is where food and nutrients are passed through the tree
● This layer has a very important job, but a very short lifespan.
● It eventually dies, turns to cork, and becomes part of the outer layer of bark!

❸ Cambium Cell Layer

● The cambium cell layer is interesting because it is the part of the trunk that grows.
● Each year, this layer produces more bark and wood as a reaction to the hormones being passed down
from the leaves along the food pipeline.
● These hormones are called auxins, and they are very important because they stimulate new cell
growth!

❹ Sapwood
● Sapwood is new wood, and serves an important role as the tree’s water pipeline, delivering water to
the entire tree.
● As new sapwood is created, the inner cells lose their vigor and turn to heartwood.

❺ Heartwood
● Heartwood is the most inner part of the trunk.
● It plays an important role in balance, stability, and security for a tree.
● Technically, heartwood is dead, but it does not atrophy or decay (unless the outer layers are
jeopardized).
● It is made up of a hollow, needle-like cellulose fibers that are joined together by a glue-like chemical
called lignin.

Additional Parts of a Tree Trunk:

THE PITH - is made of soft, spongy parenchyma cells, which serve the purpose of storing and
transporting nutrients throughout the tree.
THE MEDULLARY RAYS - are cellular structures found in only some tree species., and appear
perpendicular to the growth rings.
THE GROWTH RINGS - also known as Dendrochronology, appear one at a time, once per year, darker
in the fall and lighter in the spring and summer.

#.TIMBER FELLING
- Felling is the cutting down of trees into sections called logs.
- These trees are felled when they have reached maturity as they will attain the required structural
strengths required.
- Trees are fell during winter season and there are many reasons given for recommending winter felling
of trees.
- The reasons include:
 Hardwood trees shed their wood in winter. These trees are therefore less likely to
experience a heavy impact when they fall. This reduces the chances of defects called shakes
which occur when the fibres of the wood separate.
 The reduced numbers of leaves on hardwoods during winter makes it easier to strip
the tree trunk of its branches.
 Sap and moisture in the timber is low during the winter period and this reduces the
chances of decay as well as discolouration of the sapwood as would occur during the wet
season when the tree is full of moisture and sap.
 Winter seasons decrease the chances of rapid growth and reproduction of fungi, most
insects and wood worms that feed on the sapwood are dormant during winter.
 The time taken to dry timber is reduced.

In timber felling, tree trunks are processed into logs. A log is part of the tree (trunk) where timber
boards are cut from. After the process of felling timber, logs are the taken to a sawmill where they are
broken down or converted to produce timber boards.
This process of converting logs into boards is called timber conversion.

#. TIMBER CONVERSION
- This is the breaking down of a log into timber of marketable sizes.
- This is a process which happens soon after felling when the timber is still wet so as to reach the
desired quality of timber.

Reasons for converting logs

 Logs are converted to provide boards of various sectional sizes and lengths.
 Conversion also allows boards to dry faster.
 The quality of boards can also be seen so that it can be graded before seasoning.

Methods of conversion
- There are three main methods of conversion used in Zimbabwe for commercial timber processing and
these are:
1. through and through,
2. quarter sawing and
3. tangential sawing.
- The choice of a method to use when converting timber depends on the following factors:
 The machinery and technology available.
  The girth or diameter of the log.
 The condition of the log in terms of whether it has structural defects or not.
 The proportion of the heartwood to the sapwood.
 The required appearance of the grain.
 The amount allowed for wastage.
 Structural requirements of the boards.

THROUGH AND THROUGH SAWING/PLAIN SAWING

- The through and through method of conversion is the most common method used because of its
many advantages.
- The method is also called live sawing, slab sawing or slash sawing.
- It involves cutting the log into parallel cuts along the grain.
- The boards produced during the initial process called breaking down or rough sawing will contain bark
on both edges which is called waney edge.
- To remove this bark, the converted boards are processed further by trimming the edges to produce
boards with square edges, this process is called re-sawing.

Advantages of the through and through sawing

- It is a quick method since the log does not have to be turned during cutting.
- The method is suitable for the mass production of timber.
- A lot of timber is produced from the log, thereby minimising the amount of waste.
- A greater number of boards produced have a width that is closer to the diameter of the log.
- Knots that occur on the boards are round or oval and usually do not affect the strength of the board
since they have no weakening effect.
- The method is simple and less expensive than other methods of conversion.
- The method produces boards of uniform sizes.
- Plain sawn timber can have a decorative growth ring figure on the face of the board called flower,
flame figure, fiery grain, or cathedral window pattern.

Disadvantages of the through and through sawing

- The boards produced through this method have longer annual rings.
 The largest shrinkage in boards takes place along the ale annual rings.
 This means that the boards produced using this method will experience a lot of
shrinkage and distortion.
 The width board produced by this method becomes smaller after drying.
- The boards will most likely warp.
- This is caused by the tension in the tangential grain.

Diagram of Warping in a board converted by the through and through method

- The boards produced will have a lot of sapwood.
vi. This exposes the timber to insect and fungal attack
- Plain sawn timber tends to absorb more to moisture from the air than quarter sawn timber.
- This can result in a lot of unwanted working in timber.
- The method produces boards with waney edges.
- Waney edge is a technical term which means the edge contains bark.

QUARTER SAWING
- The quarter sawing method is sometimes called the radial sawing method.
- It derives its name from the way the log is cut during conversion.
- In this method the log is first cut into four quadrants called quarters. One board is cut off the quarter

Advantages of quarter sawing

- The boards produced through this method are stable.
- They shrink less in width than plain saw boards.
- They also have less chances of warping.
- The boards have a higher resistance to moisture penetration.
- The chances of surface checks are reduced in quarter sawn boards.
- The boards exhibit decorative figures (flecking) on their grain caused by rays, in oak these are referred
to as silver grain.
- The boards have good paint penetration properties.

Disadvantages of quarter sawing

- The method takes time to convert timber because the log has to be turned for every cut.
- This results in high labour and manufacturing costs.
- It requires highly skilled labour and specialised equipment.
- The method produces a lot of waste because every cut made produces saw dust, this results in low
yields.
- Since the log is first cut into quadrants, the maximum width of the boards is equal to the radius of the
log.
- Nailing in the face will most likely result in splitting.
- The board takes longer to season.

Uses of quarter sawn boards

- Boards obtained from quarter sawn boards can be used in furniture and decorative panelling.
- The boards are also used in making floor boards because of their stability and ability to wear evenly.
- Quarter sawn boards are also used in making musical instruments like guitars and pianos.

TANGENTIAL SAWING
- Tangential sawing is also called back sawing.
- In this method, the cut of the saw is made at a tangent to the annual rings to produce a board with
annual rings that meet the wider face for at least half its width.
- The figure produced as a result of the tangential cut is also called or crown grain.
- Where the centre of the log which contains the pith is left, the piece is called the dog board.

Advantages of Tangential sawing

- The heartwood and softwood can easily be separated.
- Boards can take nails without splitting because of the position of the annual rings.
- Boards season quickly. If the pith is decayed it can be boxed out.
- There is little wastage.
- Knots appear circular and do not affect the strength of the board.
- The method produces boards with flame figure.

Disadvantages of Tangential sawing

- Boards produced using this method are prone to cupping.
- The method is slow as the board has to be turned through 90° after each cut.
- Boards produced by this method tend to shrink in width.

Uses of tangentially sawn boards

- Tangentially sawn boards are suitable for making beams and joints.
- They can withstand large loads when placed on their edges.

Moisture content

- Although the moisture content of freshly converted board is 100%, engineers consider any timber
with a moisture content that is above 25% as green timber.
- Moisture content in timber is calculated as the difference between the wet weight of timber and the
dry weight of timber.
- There are two formulae used by engineers to calculate the moisture content of wood.
vi) One formula called the wet weight or green basis moisture content formula relates the
final weight to the wet weight.
vii) The second formula relates the final weight to the dry weight and is called the dry weight,
dry basis or oven dry moisture content formula.
- The wet weight moisture content formula is:
 MC = w – D x 100%
W
- The dry weight moisture content formula is

MC = w – D x 100%
D

The dry weight formula is the most common formula used on kiln dried timber.
#. SEASONING OF TIMBER
-after the logs have been converted or logs have been reduced to planks, half , there still need to
remove the excess moisture from the timber.
-half of the weight of the freshly converted timbers consists of moisture or sap

HOW DO WE REMOVE THE EXCESS MOISTURE FROM THE TIMBER

-Timber boards go through the process called timber seasoning to remove the excess moisture in
timber.
-DEF:timber seasoning is defined as the process of removing the excess moisture from timber.
- it is also defined as the process of reducing the moisture content in timber to the required amount
of moisture
-Moisture content is the amount of water in timber.
-the moisture content of timber after seasoning should be between 10% and 20% of the dry weight
of the timber
-moisture content is calculated as:
moisture content(mc)=

-Seasoning is a way of conditioning timber by pre-shrinkage before use.

-it is essential to remove the excess moisture from the timber to allow shrinkage to take place in
timber before it is used.

ADVANTAGES OF SEASONING TIMBER

- The wood has greater strength
- Increased stability when timber is in use
- The wood has better resistance to decay
- Wood takes paint and other finishes well
- Adhesives hold better when used on well seasoned timber
- Corrosion of ferrous meatal (nails,screws,bolts) is reduced

There are two main methods of seasoning timber which are;

1. air seasoning and
2. artificial seasoning
[Link] SEASONING

- This is a traditional way of drying timber

-in this method the boards are stacked out in the open with thin roof over them for protection against
the direct sun and rain
-The stacking strips, sticks or skids should be placed between the timber boards to facilitate free
circulation of air and they should be about 25mm in section
-they should be placed not more than 600mm apart, to reduce sag in the boards between the
supporting points and should be placed vertically above each other.
- both ends of the timber boards are painted to prevent them from rapid drying than the rest of the
board which would result in the board splitting at the ends.
- the stack should be place well above the ground
-the stack should be supported on brick piers of about 500mm above ground level, this helps reduce
reabsorption of ground moisture by the boards.
-air seasoning takes between 1 and 2 years to dry depending on timber sections or thickness
-air seasoning can reduce timber moisture to a moisture content of between 15 and 20% of the dry
weight.
ADVANTAGES OF NATURAL SEASONING
 Timber is harder than artificially dried timber
  It is sweeter to work with hand tools and takes a better finish
 It is cheap and there are no running costs
 Easy to build
 No skilled labour needed
DISADVANTAGES OF NATURAL SEASONING
- Wood is liable to be stained by soot and other chemicals in the air
- Danger of fungoid attack
- Danger of wood worm attack
- It takes long time to dry
- The varying humidity of the air
- Moisture content can to be reduced below 15%
- Danger of fire

KILN SEASONING (ARTIFICIAL METHOD)

-this is the mechanical way of drying timber, it uses machines

 -The timber is placed in large kilns (ovens) where temperatures, humidity and drying rates are controlled
There are 2 types of kiln: i). Compartment Kiln &

I. ii). Progressive Kiln

COMPARTMENT KILN
Timber is stacked similar to that in natural seasoning only it is on a trolley which runs on rails.
The kiln is closed before steam jets in the walls, ceiling and floor release heated steam.
The timber is allowed to heat up but not dry out.
The relative humidity of the kiln is reduced (controlled
(controlled)while
)while the heat is maintained. (This allows
moisture in the wood to evaporate gradually)
Fans circulate the air around the kiln.

Air vents allow moist wet air out and fresh air in .

Advantages of Kiln Seasoning

-Quicker due to higher temperatures, ventilation and air circulation
-Achieves a lower moisture content
-Provides greater degree of control during the drying process
-Allows more precise rates of drying
-Allows uniform circulation through the stack
-Control over moisture content and rate of drying can be achieved
-Artificial defects can be controlled

Disadvantages of Kiln Seasoning

-It is expensive
-Requires supervision by a skilled operator
-Is dependant on energy

#.Entrepreneurship Skills
What is entrepreneurship?
- Entrepreneurship refers to the process of starting and running an activity as a business in order to gain
profit.
- A person who starts and runs this business is called an entrepreneur.
- An entrepreneur is usually the sole owner and manager of the business.
- Entrepreneurship involves;
 Creation of new and unique business ideas. Identifying and exploiting new opportunities to
produce new products, processes or markets.
 Risk taking where as an entrepreneur you should not be afraid to take chances of incurring
losses.
 Innovation where it involves doing something new or different to meet the requirements of your
customers.
- Key factors for becoming an entrepreneur are that you need to have the following to become an
entrepreneur;
- Motivation
- This is the most important factor. You should have enough zeal and interest to venture into your type
of business to keep it going.
Strategy
- You should have a clear strategy of how you are going to do business.
- Some strategies that you can use include;
i. Uniqueness of ideas. Your product should stand out from those of your competitors.
ii. Know your customer (KYC).
- You should be aware of your customers and how you can gain their attention as well as keep
their interest.
Proactive traits
- You should be able to identify and utilize opportunities that may arise.
Perseverance
- You should continue doing business even when business is low.

Activity
1. In groups, identify entrepreneurs in your area.
2. State the nature of businesses done by these entrepreneurs.
3.

Qualities of an entrepreneur

- An entrepreneur should possess the quality of innovation.

- Other qualities of an entrepreneur are as follows:
- Ability to set goals and objectives for the business and ensuring that they are met.
- Ability to take risks. An entrepreneur is not afraid to take risks. He or she is prepared to engage
into business in-spite of the uncertainties involved.
- Self-discipline: An entrepreneur aims at achieving the set goals and objectives:
- Strong work ethics.
- Courage and Curiosity
- Confidence and Open mindedness
- A self-starter and has determination and perseverance for success.
 Business entrepreneurship skills

- Running a business requires both technical and soft skills.

- Soft skills among both managers and subordinates can improve work performance and productivity,
and enhance relationships in a work place.

Soft skills
- Soft skills are personal skills that define how a person relates with other people and they are
sometimes called interpersonal skills.
- They are different from hard skills or technical skills which are acquired by training.
- There are many soft skills that are important in a business.
- These include leadership, team building, and innovation.

Leadership
- Leadership involves supervising and directing workers in a business towards achieving goals.
- A good leader possesses the following interpersonal skills:
- Ability to resolve and manage conflicts
- Ability to delegate duties among workers
- Motivation
- Supervision
- Project management
- Decision making
- The type of leadership style used by a leader will determine the success or failure of a business.

Team building
- Team building involves creating a spirit of cooperation among members within organisation.
- Members in a business will work together and put their ideas together on how to improve
profitability.
- When every member's ideas and opinions are heard, they are going to feel part of the business.
- This will increase their morale. Workers who feel they are part of the team usually stay longer in an
organisation, therefore, the business will be able to retain skilled work.
- To promote team work, every worker's idea should be heard irrespective of their weaknesses.

Innovation
- Innovation is the ability possessed by a leader to come up with new ideas that will solve an existing
problem that exists within a business or community using very little resources.
- A leader should be able to think about a problem, analyse it and evaluate information so as to come
up with solutions.

EXERCISE

1. What are soft skills?

 2. Define innovation.
3. Write any five interpersonal skills that a leader should possess.
4. Explain any two benefits derived from team building.
5. Explain the difference between soft skills and technical skills.

Business ethics

- When running a business, it needs to be run morally following lawful procedures in order to succeed.

What are business ethics?

- Business ethics describe how society expects an entrepreneur to behave when conducting his or her
business.
- It means that an entrepreneur has to do the right things all the time when conducting his or her
business.

Importance of business ethics

- Practicing good business ethics is important for an organisation because of the following reasons;
- It keeps the business working within the boundaries of the law, ensuring that they are not committing
crimes against their employees, consumers at large, or other parties.
- It improves the organisation's image and reputation.
- It protects an organisation from making bad decisions that may lead to the demise of the business.
- Customers like to be associated with businesses with good ethical trading reputations.

Business ethics soft skills

- The following skills are expected from an entrepreneur: humanity (Unhu, Ubuntu), gentleness,
kindness, friendliness, fairness and honesty.
Humanity (Unhu/ Ubuntu)
- Unhu or Ubuntu refers to good ethical human behaviour or conduct.
- It deals with how people should relate to each other.
- It promotes virtues such as compassion, tolerance and harmony.
Gentleness
- Gentleness is the virtue of doing good with the least possible harm to others.
- It is a virtue that restrains one from anger and it includes kindness, consideration and amiability.
Kindness
- Kindness is a quality of being friendly, considerate and generous.
Friendliness
- Friendliness is being open, warm and inviting toward customers you don't know well.
Fairness
- Fairness involves treating people honestly, justly and respecting the rules of society and rights of
others.
- It is the act of being impartial and objective.
Honesty
- Honesty is the absence of lying, cheating and theft when conducting business.
 End of unit exercise
1. Explain the meaning of the following business ethics:
a) Fairness
b) Honesty
c) Respect
d) Compassion
e) Courtesy
2. Differentiate workplace ethics from marketing ethics.
3. Suggest some of the marketing ethics that should be implemented by an entrepreneur.

Marketing

- Businesses manufacture products with the intention of selling them to make a profit.
- They need to lure customers to buy their products by engaging in marketing.
What is marketing?
- Marketing refers to the activities that a business does in order to get customers and maintain a good
relationship with them.
- It is aimed at creating customer interest in the products and connecting people to a business
enterprise's products so that they may buy them.
- Marketing includes promoting, advertising, selling and distributing the product to the customer.

Marketing strategies
- Marketing strategies are methods used by an entrepreneur or business enterprise to lure customers to
buy their products.
- One of the strategies used is to make use of what is referred to as the 7Ps or the marketing mix.
- The 7ps stand for product, promotion, price, place, process, physical evidence and people.

Product
- A product is what the entrepreneur sells.
- It includes all the features, advantages and benefits that customer enjoy from buying the product.
- In order to make people develop interest in the product produced by a business, the entrepreneur
should make sure that the product is unique, beautiful and of good quality.
- The product should meet the expectations of the people to which it will be sold, this is called market
segmentation.
- The products should be branded in order to associate them with the business enterprise.

Promotion
- This is a process of making the public aware of the products' existence to the market.
- Promotion can be achieved through advertising, exhibitions, price reductions, discounts and public
relation initiatives.

Price
- The prices of the product should be competitive enough to lure customers.
- Depending on the location of the market, some customers may take a product that is cheap to be of
poor quality.

Place
- This refers to places where the product is sold.
- They include direct selling, sending sales persons to meet people, telemarketing, use of catalogues
and social media.
- The product should be made available to customers using the easiest method.

People
- The people are those in the business from the front line staff to the manager.
- The entrepreneur should employ, train and keep only those people with the skills to do the job.
- The people involved in selling or creating the product should be trained in customer care.

Process
- These are the stages taken during the manufacturing and delivery of the product to the customer.
- It includes the time taken between placing an order and delivery of the goods.
- The process should be simple and if possible automated to enable speedy delivery of the product to
the customer.

Physical evidence
- These are things that customers see when they interact with a business.
- They include the physical environment, the packaging, branding, staff dress code and code of conduct.
- The entrepreneur should make sure the design and layout of the work place and reception area is user
friendly.
- Brochures and all materials used in advertising the products should be well designed.

EXERCISE

1. Define the term marketing strategy.

2. What is meant by market segmentation?
3. Explain the following components of a marketing mix:
a) Product
b) Promotion
c) Price
d) Place
e) Process
f) Physical evidence
4. Name any one method that can be used to promote products.
5. Write some of the things considered when dealing with physical evidence in the marketing mix.

End of topic exercise

Question 1
 a) Define the term entrepreneurship.
b) Describe any three qualities of an entrepreneur. c) Explain the meaning of the term business ethics.
d) List any five-business ethics that an entrepreneur should practice.

Question 2
a) State five factors that are considered when ordering wood for a given project.

Question 3
a) State any three factors considered when costing an artefact. b) What formula is used to calculate
the cost of an artefact?

Question 4
a) Explain the meaning of the term marketing as it relates to a wood furniture enterprise. b) What
marketing strategies can a wood furniture enterprise use to market its products?

Marketing strategies

- The marketing of goods and services produced by an organisation is important.

- The process is meant to entice potential customers into buying products produced by a business
organisation.
- There is need to adopt certain strategies when marketing products. When adopted, the strategies will
lead to successful marketing, which will eventually increase customers.
- Marketing strategies are plans that are used to make customers know about the products being sold
by a business.
- Marketing strategies are important to any business enterprise and they are also used to make
customers buy products from the business.

Elements of marketing strategies

- A marketing strategy will generally have these three elements; market segmentation, marketing
activities and marketing plans.

Market segmentation
- This is the grouping of customers into groups based on needs, class or location.
- Goods are then created that will meet the needs of these groups of customers.

Marketing activities
- These are activities that are carried out by a business to make customers know about the products.
- One of the activities is to carry out promotions and promotion is one of the 7Ps of the marketing mix.

Marketing plan
- A marketing plan is a document that contains a list of activities and actions outlining how a business
will execute their marketing strategy in a given year. It outlines how the business organisation will
 advertise and promote its product.
- A marketing plan also lists the timelines of when tasks will be completed and key performance
indicators.

Promotion
- Promotion is a marketing activity derived from the 7Ps of the marketing mix.
- It consists of methods that are used to make customers know about the existence of a business
enterprise's products.
- Promotion is also done to increase the knowledge of existing customers about the features of the
products made by a business enterprise.
- The methods used to promote products are shown in the spider diagram below
Advertising
- This involves using the various types of media to tell customers about the products. It can be done
through the radio, television, newspapers, magazines, internet and social media.
Sales promotion
- This involves the use of discounts, special offers, competitions, prizes and free samples to attract
customers.
Personal selling
- This is when sales persons are used to talk to customers either directly or through phones, emails or
letters or WhatsApp chats to create personal relationships with customers.
Social responsibility
- This is when a business engages in charity work to increase their visibility in the market.
Direct marketing
- This involves going direct to the intended customer to sell the products.

#. WOODWORKING HAND TOOLS

EVERY WOODWORK SHOP MUST BE ADEQUATELY EQUIPPED WITH A REASONABLE QUANTITY
AND VARIETY OF TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT FOR WORK TO BE DONE EFFECIENTLY.
TOOLS ARE GROUPED INTO VARIOUS CLASSES
i. HOLDING AND SUPPORTING TOOLS’SIZE
ii. MEASURING TOOLS
iii. TESTING TOOLS
iv. MARKING TOOLS
v. GEOMETRICAL TOOLS
vi. PERCUSSION AND IMPELLING TOOLS
vii. BORING CUTTING TOOLS
viii. SHAVING TOOLS
ix. PARING CUTTING TOOLS
x. ABRADING TOOLS
xi. SCRAPING CUTTING TOOLS
 HOLDING AND SUPPORTING TOOLS

[Link] WORK BENCH

It is essential piece of apparatus in the workshop

it is used to support the workpiece from time of setting out the job through to the end of all
bench work operations
it is in the form of a heavy table with a well at the centre of the top surface to accommodate
some of the tools required.
A complete work bench must be fitted with a wood vice and a bench stop

2. BENCH VICE

it has a large capacity for holding work and is both strong and easily adjusted.
Larger vices give the best service and extra large jaws do less damage to workpiece from
the metal jaws are faced with hardwood or plywood cheeks of about 12mm thickness.
It is used to hold jobs while carrying out the various operations e.g planing, sawing and chiselling
it is also used to hold and support small glued jobs while the glue is setting
BENCH HOOK
it is also known as a cutting or sawing board
it is made of wood
the board is about 260 x 219 x 21mm
it is used for holding small pieces of wood while sawing with a tenon or dovetail saw
it is also used when chiselling
it also protects the work bench from saw and chisel cuts

SASH CRAMP
 this is a large clamp and sizes ranges from 600 to 2000mm
 it is used for drawing up and holding parts of jobs together during gluing

G-CLAMP
 it is made of steel
 sizes ranges from 50 to 304mm
 it is used for holding and supporting small pieces of work during assembly
 it is also used for securing work to the bench while working e,g sawing or chiselling.
BENCH HOLDFAST

✔ it is made of steel
✔ it incorporates a grab and screw mechanism
✔ it is used for holding jobs firmly onto the bench
✔ it is mostly used when planing for mouldings and rebates

MEASURING AND TESTING TOOLS TOOLS

TAPE MEASURE
✔ it is only used for measuring
✔ short tapes are used to make inside and outside measurements
✔ long types are mostly used on external measurements
✔ do not drop the tape and avoid scratching the blade or scale
✔ do not twist or fold the blade of the tape
STEEL RULE
➢ it is made of spring steel or cast steel
➢ sizes vary fro 150 to 2m in length and 3 to 35mm in width

➢ they are graduated both sides in millimeters and centimetres

➢ it is used for measuring
➢ it is used for checking straightness or flatness
➢ it is used a guide
➢ steel rules should be kept on a suitable rack when not in use

FOLDING RULE

➔ they are available either in wood or in metal

➔ the best quality rules are made of boxwood with brass hinges and end plates
➔ it is mostly used by carpenters and cabinet markers
➔ it is used to take measurements in confined spaces
#[Link] TOOLS
THE LEVEL

TRY SQUARE

 It consists of two parts at right angle to each other

 it is used to test internal and external angles for squareness
 it is used to guide the pencil or marking knife when marking out for joints
 the blade can also be used as straight edge

MITRE SQUARE
 It is also called a mitre set
 it consists the same parts as of a try square
 it is used for marking and testing angles of 45 degrees
COMBINATION SQUARE OR SET
● This tool is a combination of the try square and mitre square
● it is also known as the adjustable try square

SLIDING BEVEL
 It has same parts as a try square
 it is mostly used for marking out angles other than right angles
 it is also for duplicating angles and setting out and testing bevels, mitres and dovetails

#4. GAUGES
-It consists of the
i. marking gauge
ii. mortice gauge
iii. cutting
iv. pencil gauge

MARKING GAUGE
➔ It is made of wood (boxwood/beech)
➔ it is used to mark lines parallel to a face or edge of work piece
➔ it is mostly used when gauging for width and thickness

MORTICE GAUGE
➔ Construction is similar to that of a marking gauge except that the mortice gauge has a movable spur
apart from the fixed one
➔ it is used for cutting a pair of parallel lines to a given face ,edge or end
CUTTING GUGE

 Designed similar to a marking gauge except that it has a cutting blade instead of a pointed
spur.
 It is used for marking or cutting lines parallel to the end of a work piece, across the grain
 it is also used to cut small rebates and veneers of up to 3mm in thickness

PENCIL GAUGE
● the most simplest gauge
● it consists of block of wood , 80 x 40 x 15mm, with rebate of the required width across one
end
● it is mainly used when marking out for chamfers and bevels

#[Link] OUT TOOLS

PENCIL
• it is used for marking out boards for sawing
MARKING KNIVES

• they sometimes called bench knives

• the blade is made of steel and has a hardwood handle
• they are used on metal ,glass and other similar materials
• they used for marking across the grain where one would later cut with a saw
•
DIVIDERS AND COMPASSES
• they are made out of tool steel
• dividers have metal tips to both legs and compasses have a pencil point on one side
• dividers and compasses are used for marking arcs and circles
• they are also used to transfer measurements and to step off repweated divisions of even spaces
or distances along a straight line

#[Link] TOOLS
STRAIGHT EDGE
• They are available either in wood or metal
• it is used for testing wood surfaces for flatness and straightness usually after a process like
planing
• it is also used for drawing long and straight lines

WINDING STRIPS
• also known as winding sticks
• they have perfectly straight and parallel edges
• they are made of hard wood
• they are used in pairs to test surfaces and frames for flatness and trueness
•
SQUARING RODS
• they are made of wood and hardwood is the most preferred
• they are used ti test for squareness especially where internal diagonals are supposed to be
equal
•
CALIPERS
• two types that are mostly used are the inside and the outside calipers
• inside calipers are used for testing internal diameters
• outside calipers are used for testing external diameters

HOUSING JOINT
• A Housing Joint is used for fixing shelves and partitions into cabinets and book-cases for
example.
• The Housing is cut across the Grain to a width normally equal to the thickness of the shelf or
partition it is to receive.
 Marking Out
1. Prepare the timber to size and mark Face Side and Face Edges
2. Mark the Housing across the face of board using a pencil and a Try Square held against the
Face Edge and mark half way down each edge holding the Try Square against the Face Side .
3. Use a Marking Knife and a Try Square held against the Face Edge to scribe along the edges of
the Housing.
4. Use a Marking Gauge held against the Face Side to scribe the depth of the Housing Sawing the
Housing
5. Use a Chisel to Pare away waste and cut a 'Vee' groove to guide the saw.
6. 'G' Cramp the board to the bench top and, if needed clamp a length of timber along the edge
of the Housing to rub the saw against and guide it. Also if needed, a piece of suitable thickness
timber can be clamped to the bench at the rear of the Housing to serve as a 'depth stop' when
sawing.
7. Use a Tenon Saw (/[Link]/Tenon_Saw) carefully to cut along the edges of the Housing.

Cutting the Housing

8. 'G' Cramp the board to the bench top and, using a Chisel and Mallet remove waste from one
half only .
9. Turn the timber around and complete waste removal from the Housing.
10. Holding a Chisel with one hand on the handle and one on the blade, Pare away any remaining
waste and finish to the lines.

Note: When Paring with a Chisel it improves control if the knuckles or rear of the hand
gripping the blade are also pressed against the work-piece.

Dovetail Housing Joint

The Housing can be cut with one or both edges angled inwards - as with a Dovetail Joint . This
is especially useful on larger bookcases for example, where there might be significant
sidewards forces tending to pull the shelf out of the Housing.
The timber is prepared and joint marked out as usual.
'G' Cramp the board to the bench top and, if needed clamp a length of timber, with its edge
planed to the Dovetail angle, along the edge of the Housing to rub the saw against and guide
it.
Mark and scribe the shoulders on the shelf and cut with a Tenon Saw .
Using a Chisel with one hand on the handle and one on the blade, Pare away the waste to
create the Dovetails on the shelf ends. i

Stopped Housing Joint

For reasons of aesthetics, it is often preferred if the Housing does not show at the front edges
of a cabinet for example.
Prepare the timber and mark out the joint as usual.
Start by clearing away waste at the end of the Housing to make space for the end of the Tenon
Saw when cutting the joint.
Mark, scribe and cut out a notch at the end of the shelf using Tenon Saw and Chisels .
 Using a Router
It is now common practice to cut Housing Joints using a Router .
The timber is prepared and joint marked out as usual.
'G' Cramp the board to the bench top and either, clamp a scrap timber fence across the board
at a suitable distance from the Housing location, or clamp on a Router Template to guide the
cutter.
Dovetail Housings are similarly cut using a Dovetail shaped Router Cutter

Safety Point! Students may only use a Router when they have been trained and assessed and the
assessment shows that they are competent, and are under appropriate supervision by specifically trained staff

THE THROUGH DOVETAIL JOINT; HOW TO MARK OUT THE TAILS

Dovetails are used to join two pieces of wood together across their width, the beauty of the
arrangement being that the joint will resist mechanical pull in one direction.
A through dovetail joint is often thought of as a high point in a woodworking project, mainly because
it’s usually always ‘on show’ for all to see.
How To's Product Guides Community Videos The dovetail joint is tricky to cut, but not that tricky and
a few practice sessions will usually see even a relative newcomer making a reasonable stab at it.

You only have to look at some of the stuff the Japanese do to appreciate that there’s a vast amount of
joinery which is infinitely more complex.
This entry covers marking out and cutting a simple through dovetail joint in oak; the type of thing that
would be suitable for a small box or drawer. The angles marked for this dovetail joint are 1:8 which is
suitable for hardwoods. An angle of 1 :5 or 1:6 is better for softwoods.

What you'll need

tools and equipment
dividers
marking knife
rule
square
cutting guage

materials
2x joint material-90x 10mm
 Step 1 The prerequisite for accurate work is the sound preparation of the timber. Each piece should
be prepared flat and true with the ends planed dead square. The first step is to mark the shoulder
lines with either a cutting gauge or knife and square
.
Step 2 The shoulder line should be fractionally bigger (0 .5mm) than the thickness of the wood to
allow for a little overhang when the joint goes together.
Mark out the two ‘half-pins’ at the edges on the first piece of wood.
The ‘pins’ are the bits of wood between the tails so there are two half-pins; one each side.
The general rule is that they measure half the thickness of timber plus around a mm, so the two dots
on the shoulder line are 7mm in from each edge

Step 3
The two dots which mark the corners of the half pins are now converted into a 1:8 slope at each side,
the result of which is that there’s now one large dovetail in the middle of the wood.
A black biro has been used here for clarity; a sharp 4H pencil will produce a finer line, however it may
be more difficult to see.

Step 4
Mark out the single large dovetail at 90° on the end grain.

Step 5
When the marking out is finished, the width of the pins along the shoulder line should be wider than
the chisel that will eventually be used to clean them out.
Thus if it's intended that a 6mm chisel be used, the base of the pin should measure 7mm.
There should be roughly one dovetail each 25mm or so across the width.
There's no hard and fast rule so it’s up to the woodworker to use his or her judgement to decide how
many are needed.
The wood here is 92mm wide and as a consequence I’m going to have three dovetails.
There are a number of ways to do this, but the easiest is to use a pair of dividers.
Set them to around 28mm and ‘step out’ across the end grain, starting at the right hand side.

Making a Cross Halving Joint

Learning Objectives Pupils should learn:
that gluing to end grain makes a weak joint
that there are standard wood joints that avoid gluing to end grain only
that standard wood joints may be adapted for particular purposes
to measure accurately using a steel rule,
to use a try square, marking gauge, pencil and marking knife
to use a tenon saw, coping saw and bevel edged chisel
 glue timber using PVA glue
clamp timber using a G-cramp.

Resources Each pupil will need:

2 pieces of softwood 160 x 45 x 22

work station on a woodwork bench fitted with a woodwork vice
pencil, marking knife, try square, marking gauge, tenon saw, bench hook, bevel edged chisel.

Activity
1. Students are given two pieces of timber (2 off 160 x 43 x 22) and go to their benches to mark a line
around one end of both pieces of timber using a try square and marking knife.
2. Students measure 150mm from the line and mark around the other end of both pieces of timber.

3. Students measure 150mm from the line and mark around the other end of both pieces of timber.

4. 3. Students mark the face side and face edge on both pieces of timber, then mark lines along the centre
line of the sides, parallel to the face edge on both pieces of timber using a marking gauge

5. 4. Students use marking knives to finish marking out their joints and then cut them using a tenon saw
and a coping saw.

5. Students pare away the waste wood and assemble their joint.

49
BENCH PLANES
THEY ARE 3 TYPES OF BENCH PLANES COMMONLY USE
i. JACK PLANE
ii. TRYING PLANE
iii. SMOOTHING PLANE

THE JACK PLANE

• JACK PLANES varies in length between 355 and 406 mm and is commonly used in the
workshop when preparing timber
• it is used for the general preparation of work
• it is set to give a fairly coarse shaving
• the body and sole are made of cast iron and the handles are of hardwood
TRY/TRYING/JOINTER PLANE
• its length varies from 457 and 609 mm
• It is used for planing a true surface on long lengths of timber
• the long length of the sole of the trying plane spans the hollos and removes the bumps to
produce a true surface
SMOOTHING PLANE
• its length varies from 240 to 260 mm
• it is used to give work a final finish before scraping or glasspapering.
• It is set for a fine shaving