FORENSIC

CHEMISTRY AND
TOXICOLOGY
 FORENSIC & FORENSIC CHEMISTRY
Forensic – comes from the Latin word “forensis” meaning –forum

Forensic Science – application of scientific methods to criminal cases. In

particular, forensic science deals with the analysis of evidence in criminal
cases.

Forensic Chemistry is defined as that branch of Chemistry which deals with

application of chemical principles in the solution of crimes.,

Forensic Chemistry plays a very important part in the speedy investigation and
in the administration of justice
 FORENSIC CHEMISTRY

That branch of chemistry, which deals

with the application of chemical
principles in the solution of problems
that arise in connection with the
administration of justice.
Forensic Chemistry is the
application of chemical science or
chemistry in solving or proving the
crime in the court of law. Chemical
science is being used for the
analysis of pieces of evidence found
at the scene of a crime.
 TOXICOLOGY
Toxicology is the combination of
chemistry and physiology (the
science of life) that deals with
drugs, poisons and other toxic
substances and how these
substances effect living
organism.
 STAGES IN THE PRACTICE OF FORENSIC
CHEMISTRY

1. Collection or reception of the specimen to be

examined;

A. sufficiency of the specimen;

B. standard for comparison
C. maintenance for individuality;
D. labeling and sealing
2. Actual examination of the specimen:

a. Scrutinize, document complete description

of external appearance, manner of collection
and secured;

b. Take photographs if possible; and

3. Communication of results – a written report

is made by the chemist.

4. Court appearance – oral evidence is done if

the case is brought to court.
 EVIDENCE
Rule 128 -It means
sanctioned by the law
of ascertaining in a
judicial proceeding the
truth respecting a
matter of fact.
EVIDENCE - refers to information
or facts that help establish the
truth or existence of something.
a.
 THREE MAJOR CLASSIFICATION OF
EVIDENCE

1.Direct Evidence – evidence which directly establishes

the main fact of an issue. It is simply that which the
senses perceive. Any fact to which a witness testifies
based on what he saw, heard, smelled, touched or
tasted.
2. Indirect/ Circumstantial Evidence – one which tend to
establish a fact by proving another fact. A kind of
evidence which seeks to establish a conclusion by
inferences from proved facts. An evidence which
establishes a fact or circumstances from which the court
may infer another fact at issue
3. Real Evidence – comprises tangible objects
introduced at a trial to prove or disprove a fact in
issue. The evidence speaks for itself. It requires no
explanation, merely identification. (PHYSICAL
EVIDENCE)

Object or Real Evidence are group into 3

A. Those exhibited to the court or observed by it

during the trial
B. Those which consists of the results of inspection
of things or places conducted by the court or
outside the court.
C. Those which consists of the results of
experiments ,test or demonstrations.
SCIENTIFIC EVIDENCE – an evidence
wherein scientific knowledge is
necessary. It is an evidence based on
or conforming to the principles and
techniques of science.
 SIX GOLDEN RULES IN THE PRACTICE OF
FORENSIC CHEMISTRY

1. Go Slowly
2. Be thorough
3. Take note
4. Consult others
5. Use imagination
6. Avoid complicated theories
THE MICROSCOPE
 What is a
Microscope

A microscope is a laboratory
instrument used to examine objects
that are too small to be seen by
the naked eye. Microscopy is the
science of investigating small objects
and structures using microscope.
BLOOD & BLOODSTAIN
ANALYSIS
 BLOOD AND BLOOD STAINS

BLOOD

Has been called the circulating tissue of the body. It is

referred to as a highly complex mixture of cells,
enzymes, proteins, and inorganic substances. It is the
red fluid of the blood vessels. Blood is opaque. On the
treatment with either, water or other reagents becomes
transparent lake color. It is finally alkaline
 BLOOD

Is a constantly circulating tissue of the

body. Consist of formed elements
suspended in a liquid called plasma.
The formed elements are the red
blood cells or erythrocytes, the white
blood cells or leukocytes and the
blood platelet The average person has
about 5 liters (more than a gallon) of
blood.
BLOOD COMPOSITION
 Two (2) Main Components of
blood
•1. Plasma (55% of blood content) – fluid portion of blood composed
principally of water.
• 2. Suspended solid cells (45% of blood content)
•
•a. Red blood cells (erythrocytes)
•b. White blood cells (leucocytes)
•c. Platelets (thrombocytes)
 Red Blood Cells (RBCs) Or erythrocytes, give
blood its distinctive color. Produced in our bone
marrow, they carry oxygen from our lungs to the
rest of our bodies and take carbon dioxide back
to our lungs to be exhaled. There are about one
billion red blood cells in two to three drops of blood.
White Blood Cells Or leukocytes, are one of the
body’s defenses against disease: some destroy
bacteria and others create antibodies against bacteria
and viruses or fight malignant disease. But while our
own white cells help us stay healthy, they can be
dangerous to someone who receives donated blood.
That’s because leukocytes may carry viruses that
cause immune suppression and release toxic
substances in the recipient
 Platelets Or thrombocytes, are small,
colorless cell fragments in our blood whose
main function is to stick to the lining of blood
vessels and help stop or prevent bleeding.
Platelets are made in our bone marrow
Significance of Blood and
Bloodstains

•Blood and bloodstains are

very vital as evidence in
crimes of violence.
 THE FOUR TESTS FOR BLOOD

Preliminary
Test

Blood Grouping Confirmatory

Test Test

Precipitin
Test
 THE EXAMINATION OF BLOOD IN
CHRONOLOGICAL ORDER

THE FOUR TESTS FOR BLOOD:

1. Preliminary Test – Determines whether the stain contains
blood or another substance. Determines whether visible
stains do or do not contain blood. It is used to demonstrate
the presence of blood.
2. Confirmatory Test – Determines whether bloodstain really
contains blood. Test that positively identifies blood.
3. Precipitin Test – Determines whether blood is a human or
non-human origin, and if non- man, the specific animal
family hu from which it originated.
4. Blood Grouping Test – Determines the blood group of
humans
 The Preliminary Test

1. Benzidine Test or Benzidine Color Test

2. Phenolphthalein Test (also known as “Kastle Meyer
Test”)
3. Guaiacum Test (Van Deen Test, Day’s or Schonbein’s
Test)
4. Leucomalachite Green Test
5. Luminol Test
 Positive is an Intense blue
color
Benzidine Test or
Benzidine Color Test
Is an extremely
sensitive test that can
be applied to minute
stain even when very
old and decomposed
stain. The positive
result only indicative
that the blood maybe
present
Limitations:

- A Negative Test requires no further

examination.

- A Positive Test needs Confirmation before a

stain may be identified as blood.
Phenolphthalein
Test or (Kastle-
Meyer Test)– A
Phenolphthalein
solution is used to
show the possible
presence of blood
based upon a
peroxidase reaction of
hemoglobin which
produces a pink color
Guaiacum Test (Van
Deen or Day’s) One of
the first presumptive
tests for blood
developed. It relied on
guaiacum (a resin
isolated from trees) in
combination with
hydrogen peroxide.
LEUCOMALACHITE TEST
Is a presumptive test for blood. The
leucomalachite green presumptive test
for blood is a catalytic test which is
based on the peroxidase-like activity
of hemoglobin. A positive test result
indicates the presence of blood but
does not confirm the presence of
blood.
LUMINOL TEST
Luminol
is an organic compound
which, when oxidized, emits
light — a phenomenon
known as
chemiluminescence. A
chemical compound, known
as Luminol, is used in
solution or sprayed onto
suspected surfaces. This
compound gives a strong
blue fluorescence when
viewed with a UV light.
 Confirmatory Test

Find out the actual proof that a stain is really a blood

specimen
1.Microscopic Test
Examiners first have to look for the intact RBC’s. They are
readily seen in cases where blood is fresh or clotted.
However, RBCs are no longer visible
 2. Microchemical or Microcrystalline Test or Microcrystal
Assay Test For Blood
A chemical test that results in the distinctive morphological
development of microscopic crystals as a sign of blood
confirmation. These microscopic heme crystals can easily
be seen from a standard microscope

TWO MAJOR DISADVANTAGES OF MICROCRYSTAL ASSAY

TEST
• It is less sensitive than presumptive test, and
• Can’t define whether the blood is human or no
Precipitin Test
BLOOD GROUPING/TYPING

• Could be a good evidence to prove whether a

particular child belongs to a father or a mother; in
the case of disputed parentage this could be very
useful

• Blood typing is a method to tell what specific type of

blood a person has
Methods of Blood Typing

A. Direct or Forward Typing

- Antigens A and B will always react with its specific antibody

in the serum causing agglutination
SEMEN AND SEMINAL STAINS
SEMEN AND SEMINAL FLUID

A viscid whitish fluid of the male

reproductive tract containing
spermatozoa suspended in
secession of accessory glands.
 PARTS OF SEMEN
1. Seminal Fluid – has the characteristic alkaline odor, it is viscid,
gelatinous and sticky. Becomes more liquid in character when exposed
to air for one and a half hour due probably to enzyme reaction. Slightly
alkaline in reaction

2. Formed Elements Cellular

a. Spermatozoa or Sperm Cell
b. Epithelial Cells
c. Crystal of Choline and Lecithin
• to 3.5 cc is the normal quantity of seminal fluid in single
ejaculation
• 400 to 500 million is the total number of spermatozoa
contained in a single ejaculation
 CASES WHEREIN EJACULATION HAS
NO SPERMATOZOA

1. Aspermia – A condition wherein males have no

spermatozoa at all in their seminal fluid.
2. Oligospermia – a condition whereby males have
abnormally low sperm counts or with few spermatozoa
 LOCATION OF SEMEN AND
SEMEN STAIN AS EVIDENCE
1. AS FRESH
a. vaginal contents of the victim
b. rectal contents of the victim
2. AS WET OR DRIED CONDITION
a. hair
b. skin around the genitals
3. AS DRY STAINS
a. underclothing
b. bed clothing
 SEMEN AND SEMINAL STAINS
EXAMINATION
There are four examinations for seminal stains or seminal fluid in the form
of stains namely:
1. Physical Examination
2. Chemical Examination
a. Florence Test
b. Barberio’s Test
c. Acid-phosphates Test
3. Microscopic Examination
4. Biological Examination
Florence Test This test was discovered by Dr.
Florence in the year 1886. When Florence reagent
(PotassiumIodide + Iodine+Water) is applied to the
slide it produces rhomboidal shape dark crystals of
choline periodide.

Barberio’s test was invented by Barberio in the year

1905. When the questioned stain is allowed to react
with picric acid it leads to the formation of yellow
needle shaped spermine picrate crystals, including
the presence of seminal stain.
HAIR AND FIBERS
Hair is the outermost
covering of the different
parts of the body with the
exception of the palm of the
hand and the sole of the foot.

Fiber is the smallest

unit of a textile material
that has a length many
times greater than its
diameter.
 STRUCTURAL PARTS OF THE HAIR

a.Inner Aspect (the hair shaft)

1.Cuticle. Inner most part which is

scale-like in appearance. consists
of overlapping scales, with the
free ends of the scales directed
toward the tip of the shaft.
2. Cortex. Is made up of keratin
molecules aligned parallel to the
length of the shaft. In the cortex
is the pigment that makes hair
black, brown, yellow, or red. The
absence of pigment makes hair
gray or white.
3.Medulla. The central core of a hair
shaft is a row of cells like a canal
B. Outer Aspect:
• 1. Tip – the distal end portion of the
hair
• 2. Shaft – portion of the hair above
the surface of the skull
3. Root – portion that is embedded in the
skin
In the case of human hair, the
following can be determined:

q the race of the person the hair

originated from – Negroid,
Mongolian and Caucasian
q the area of the body surface that
the hair originated – head, face,
chest, axilla and pubic regions
1.
In the case of human hair, the
following can be determined:
q how hair was removed – naturally or
forcibly
q whether the hair was cut with dull or
sharp instrument or was crushed or
burned
q usually examination will not permit
conclusive determination of age and
sex
 SIGNIFANCE OF HAIR AS
Hair transfer mayEVIDENCE
occur during any
physical contact of the
perpetrator with the victim.
Examination of hair is useful in the
crimes of violence such as homicide,
sexual assault and aggravated
assault where physical contact
may have occurred.
CLASSIFICATION OF TEXTILE FIBERS

TWO DIVISIONS OF FIBER:

1. Natural fiber
2. Synthetic or artificial fiber
 SYNTHETIC FIBERS

1. Organic fiber
a. Cellulosic ( example rayon/artificial silk
b. Non-cellulosic ( examples nylon, casein fiber,
resin fiber
2. Inorganic fiber
a. mineral fiber ( examples glass fiber wool, glass
rock, and slag wools
b. metallic fiber ( examples fine wire filament,
steel wool, tinsel threads.
 TEST FOR FIBERS

1. Burning test or ignition test

2. Fluorescence test
3. Microscopic test
4. Chemical test
a. staining test
b. dissolution test
DRUG ANALYSIS AND
FORENSIC
TOXICOLOGY
 DRUG- is a chemical substance that brings
about physical, physiological, behavioral
and/ psychological change in a person
taking it. All medicine are drugs, but not all
drugs are medicine drug.
 MEDICINAL DRUGS- a substance which when
taken into the human body cures illness and/
or relieves signs/ symptoms of disease.
 DANGEROUS DRUGS- a substance affecting
the central nervous system which when
taken into the human body brings about
physical, emotional or behavioral changes in
a person taking it.

 CLASSIFICATION OF DRUGS
ACCORDING TO ORIGIN:
 NATURAL DRUGS-are active ingredients, secondary metabolic
products of plants and other living systems that may be isolated
by extraction.
 SYNTHETIC DRUGS-are artificially produced substances, synthesized
in the laboratory for the illicit market, which are almost wholly
manufactured from chemical compounds in illicit laboratories.


ACCORDING TO INTERNATIONAL CLASSIFICATION:

 Narcotics substance
 Psychotropic substance
 Designer drugs

 CLASSIFICATION OF DRUGS
ACCORDING TO PHARMACOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION
(EFFECTS):
 STIMULANTS-are drugs which increase alertness of
physical disposition. (example: amphetamine,
shabu)
 HALLUCINOGENS- are drugs which affect sensation,
thinking, self-awareness and emotion. Changes in
time and space perception, delusions (false
beliefs) and hallucinations may be mild or
overwhelming, depending on dose and quality of
drugs. (example: ecstasy, Lysergic Acid
Diethylamide, marijuana)

 CLASSIFICATION OF DRUGS
ACCORDING TO PHARMACOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION (EFFECTS):
 DEPRESSANTS- are drugs which depress or lower the functions of the
Central Nervous System.
TYPES OF DEPRESSANTS:
NARCOTICS- a drug which induces sleep or stupor and relieve pain
• Something that soothes, or causes a sensation of mental numbness
• This includes opium, opiates, heroine, morphine, and codeine
TRANQUILIZERS- a substance that reduces anxiety, ease tension and
relax muscles.
SEDATIVE AND HYPNOTICS- calm the nerves, reduce tension and induce
sleep.
Ø INHALANTS- these are any liquid, solid or mixed substance that has
the property of releasing toxic vapors or fumes. (example: solvent,
gasoline, kerosene,, paint, thinner)
 TOXICOLOGY
•Toxicology is a scientific study of poisons, their nature,
properties, effects and detection and the treatment in case of
poisoning.
•
Frequently, toxicological examinations are requested in cases of
sudden and unexplained deaths. The internal organs and
contents obtained during the medico-legal autopsy are the
usual specimen submitted, as well as the suspected source of
the poison such as food, drinks or medicine. If not fatal, the
vomits, blood and urine of the victims are examined.
Importance of Toxicology
• To verify if it is a case of poisoning
• To be able to treat as the occasion demands
• To forward justice
•

•The reason for the application of Toxicology is to determine

the presence of volatile, non-volatile and metallic
poisons in cases of alleged poisoning.
 Poison
Poison is a substance that when introduced into or absorbed by a living
organism causes death or injury.
•

Types of Poisons
• True poison – is one that still poisons no matter how diluted it is.
E.g. Hydrogen Cyanide (HCN) used in production of acrylic
fibers, synthetic rubber, and plastics
• Corrosive poison – is one which by contact with it chemically produces
local destruction of tissues.
E.g. Nitric acid (HNO3), mercuric chloride-acid poison used as
herbicides.
•
 Entrance and
Elimination of Poisons
•Poison may enter the They may be eliminated
•body through: by:
•
Mouth Emesis
•Skin Respiration
•Nose and Eyes Feces
•Rectum and Vagina Urine
•Hypodermically Milk
•Intravenously Sweat, Saliva and Tears
 Antidotes
Antidote is any agent that neutralizes a poison or otherwise counteracts
or opposes its effects.
•

Physiological antidote, symptomatic (antagonist) is an agent that acts

upon the system so as to counteract the effects of the poison. E.g. (chloral
for strychnine convulsions)
Emetics – is an agent that causes vomiting.
Cathartic – is an agent that produces intestinal evacuation
Demulcent – is an agent that forms a protective film; soothes and protects
the parts where demulcent is applied.
Precipitants – are substances that prevent absorption of poisons by
precipitating them and rendering them insoluble.
 Causes of Death in
Poisoning

•Cardiac failure
•Respiratory failure
•Shock to the nervous system
 DNA ANALYSIS

•DNA or Deoxyribonucleic acid is a chemical

substance found in all cells whose composition
has been passed on from parent to their
children. All cells in the body have the same
DNA composition except individual egg and
sperm cells.
 Biological evidence that
can be submitted for DNA
Analysis:
•a) blood and bloodstains
•b) semen and seminal stains
•C) hairs with follicle or root
•D) saliva or buccal swab
•E) bones and organs
•F) tissues and cells
•G) Other, less common, sources of DNA evidence
include partially decomposed tissue and bone, teeth,
and envelopes and postage stamps previously
moistened with saliva.
 How DNA Analysis is used
to identify with accuracy
the perpetrators of crime
•Human tissues such as hair strands, bloodstain,
saliva, and other body tissues are often left in the
crime scene. By proper collection, preservation
and examination through DNA test of such pieces
of tissues, their owner can be identified.
•
The Supreme Court, in a recent case has made a
pronouncement on the admissibility of the DNA test
result.
GUN POWDER AND OTHER
EXPLOSIVES
 TWO KINDS OF GUN POWDER

1. Black powder – which is consist of or made of 15% of

C, 10% of S and 75% of KNO3 or NaNO . When
black powder explodes
2.

2. Smokeless powder – which consist of cellulose nitrate or

glyceryl nitrate combined with cellulose nitrate and some
stabilizers.
Gunshot residue, also known as cartridge
discharge residue, "gunfire residue", or
firearm discharge residue, consists of all of
the particles that are expelled from the
muzzle of a gun following the discharge of a
bullet
A test to determine
whether a person
fired a gun or not
with his bare hands.
FACTORS THAT AFFECT THE PRESENCE AND AMOUNT
OF GUNPOWDER RESIDUE

1. Length of the barrel of the gun

2. Type and cal. of ammunition
3. Wind velocity
4. Direction of firing
5. Distance of firing
6. Nature of firing
7. Humidity
History of Paraffin Test/Dermal Nitrate/DPA Test

• Originated from Cuba when Dr. Gonzalo Iturrios first used paraffin for
collecting gunpowder residues from discharged firearm.

• In 1933, Teodoro Gonzales of Criminal Identification Laboratory,

Mexico City introduced the test in the USA. In this test, the hands
were coated with a layer of melted paraffin. After cooling, the
casts were removed and treated with DPA (5% DPA in 60% sulfuric
acid)
 SUBSTANCES GIVING FALSE POSITIVE RESULT:

1. Fertilizers
2. Explosives
3. Tobacco
4. Urine
5. Certain cosmetics
6. Food sample
7. cigarette
 METHODS OF EXAMINATION

1.Paraffin Test -A test to determine whether a person

fired a gun or not with his bare hands

Positive result – deep blue specks develop when nitrates

come in contact with DP reagent
.
 Is paraffin test result a conclusive
evidence? Why?
NO. It is just a corroborative evidence which intends to support
the testimony of eyewitness/es. There are instances wherein a
person who actually discharged a firearm would still give a
negative result to the paraffin test because of several factors.
Explosives

- Substances capable of exerting an intense pressure on

its surrounding
- Due to sudden increase in volume of substances
 CLASSIFICATION OF EXPLOSIVES
1. PROPELLANT OR LOW EXPLOSIVES – Are combustible materials containing within
themselves all oxygen needed for their combustion that burn but do not explode and
function by producing gas that produces explosion.

Examples: Black powder, smokeless powder, firecrackers, and pyrotechnics

2. PRIMARY EXPLOSIVE OR INITIATORS – Explode or detonate when they are

heated or subjected to shock. They do not burn. Sometimes they do not even
contain the elements necessary for combustion. The materials themselves explode
and the explosion results whether they are confined or not.

Examples: Mercury fulminate, lead azide

3. HIGH EXPLOSIVES – Explode under the influence of the shock of the explosion of
primary explosive.

Examples: Ammonium nitrate, TNT (Trinitrotoluene), dynamite, nitroglycerine, picric acid,

plastic explosives.
Improvised explosive device (IED)
Glass and Fractures
 GLASS AND GLASS
FRACTURE
•Glass is an inorganic substance in a condition which
is continuous with, and analogous to, the liquid state
of that substance, but which, as the result of
reversible change in viscosity as to be, for all
practical purposes, rigid.
•
•Glass is normally a fused mixture of silica usually
in the form of natural sand and two or more alkaline
bases such as soda, lime, or potash.
Glass is a hard ,amorphous material made by
melting sand,lime,and sodium oxide.
Common type of thing carried
away evidence in:
a. Burglary
b. Vehicle hit and run cases

- A criminal gets glass on his

clothing and not know it.
Common type of thing carried
away evidence in:
a. Burglary
b. Vehicle hit and run cases

- A criminal gets glass on his

clothing and not know it.
 Glass fractures
•Glass fractures may be caused by excessive exposure
to heat or caused by impact of a blunt instrument
or object, or caused by projectiles.

Types of Glass fracture:

•
•Radial Fractures
•Concentric Fractures
•Conchoidal Fractures
 2 Kinds of Glass Fractures

a. Radial Fractures

- Primary fractures
- Resemble spokes of wheel
- Radiating outward from the point of impact
b. Concentric Fractures
- Secondary Fractures
- Circles around the point of impact

- Connecting to one radiating crack to others

- Forming triangular pieces