c

c
c
c
Chapter Five Review
c
c
c
c C h e c k Yo u r U n d e r s t a n d i n g 13. What are examples of mainstream
c 1. Define multiculturalism in your society’s adoption of Aboriginal
c own words. cultural values? What is the
c significance of these examples for
c 2. Is your community highly
multicultural or are certain groups Aboriginal peoples in Canada?
c
c noticeably larger than others? 14. Name at least ten Aboriginal
c Explain how you reach this people who you believe have made
c
c conclusion and factors that significant contributions to their
c contribute to your community’s communities and mainstream
c character. society. Describe briefly the
c reasons for each of your choices.
c 3. Define assimilation in your own
c words.
c Reading and Writing
c 4. How do stereotypes form? 15. Using the Statistics Canada Web
c 5. What harm can stereotypes do? site, create a profile of your own
c community. Present your data
c 6. How does language contribute
c to stereotypes? using words, graphs, and charts
c in a PowerPoint™ or overhead
c 7. What roles do the mass media play presentation.
c in reinforcing stereotypes?
c 16. National Aboriginal Achievement
c 8. Without using stereotypes, write a Award winners vary from Douglas
c description of Aboriginal peoples. Cardinal, a world-renowned
c architect, to Joe and Josephine
c 9. Define discrimination in your
c own words. Crowshoe, ceremonial Elders from
c the Piikani First Nation. The
10. How does discrimination differ from
c numerous categories for awards
c prejudice and stereotypes?
celebrate achievement in almost
c 11. What are different levels and types
c every walk of life. Find a local
c of discrimination? First Nations, Métis, or Inuit person
c 12. What is institutional discrimination? who you think is a good role model
c for youth. Use the profiles on the
National Aboriginal Achievement
Métis architect Douglas Cardinal’s Awards Web site as a model to write
dramatically curved designs are apparent a profile of the person. You may
in buildings around the world, including need to request an interview with
Alberta’s Grande Prairie Regional College the individual to get the information
and the Canadian Museum of Civilization you need. Create a class Web site
in Gatineau, Quebec. He has won an of your role model profiles.
international reputation for excellence in 17. Express your own experiences with
design and won a National Aboriginal stereotypes or discrimination in a
Achievement Award in 1995. poem, short story, or essay.

Joe and Josephine Crowshoe were instrumental

in preserving their Piikani oral tradition,
ceremonies, and language. They were widely
recognized as cultural authorities by those
inside and outside the Aboriginal community.
Josephine, a Holy Woman, was the Keeper of
the Natoas (Sundance) Bundle and Joe was the
Holder of the Blackfoot Short Thunder Medicine
Pipe Bundle. They both won National Aboriginal
Achievement Awards in 1998.

176 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES

Viewing and Representing
18. Create a poster educating people
about subtle forms of discrimination.
19. Describe the weekly programming
of the Aboriginal People’s
Television Network. In what ways
does it reflect Aboriginal cultures?
How does it deal with Aboriginal
issues? What role do Aboriginal
languages play in its programs?
Review a program you think does a
good job of presenting Aboriginal
people without stereotypes.

Speaking and Listening The television series renegadepress.com is a dramatic program on the
20. Research early accounts of First Aboriginal People’s Television Network about a group of multicultural inner-
Nations or Inuit cultures written by city teenagers that operate an online newspaper. The paper deals with issues
explorers, settlers, or missionaries that affect them and their friends, such as contraception, bullying, anorexia,
in Canada. Find examples of how and solvent abuse. The series breaks down many cultural boundaries and
they viewed Aboriginal peoples. stereotypes as it deals with difficult issues.
How did their worldview shape
their ideas and judgements?
Prepare an oral story as if from Going Further
the perspective of a First Nations 23. Brainstorm alternative names and
or Inuit person meeting Europeans symbols for sports teams that
for the first time. How might their currently use Aboriginal stereotypes
worldview impact their impression or cultural objects inappropriately.
of the Europeans?
24. Watch a Western film, preferably
21. In small groups, discuss any from the 1950s, 1960s, or 1970s.
experiences you have had with Re-write a scene in the script to
stereotypes or discrimination. overturn any stereotypical
How did they make you feel? portrayals of Aboriginal people.
What did you do in the situation
or following the situation? How
might individuals handle such LOOKING BACK
experiences with positive outcomes?
Review the Focus Questions on
22. Hold an anti-discrimination day page 158 with a partner and then
at your school. Plan creative ways
answer each on your own in your
to inform other students about the
damage done by discrimination notes. Do you reinforce any
and ways to prevent it. stereotypes in your own thinking
or behaviour? Think critically and
write as honestly as you can
about how you see groups of
people that are different from you.

IN CANADIAN SOCIETY 177

CHAPTER SIX
Communities Today
c
c
c
AS YOU READ c It’s Hard to Be
c
Chapter Five described the cultural composition of Canada c Traditional
c
today and some of the barriers that keep members of some c By Shingoose
cultures, including many Aboriginal peoples, from fully c
c (Curtis Jonnie)
participating in Canadian society. The degree to which these
barriers affect Aboriginal individuals sometimes depends on
c Well, it’s hard to be traditional
c When you’re living right
where they live. Aboriginal people who live in mainstream c
communities, such as urban areas, generally experience cultural c downtown
c People tend to look at you
barriers more often. Those living in rural, primarily Aboriginal c
communities generally experience more cultural acceptance. c funny
Today, more than half of the Aboriginal people in Canada do
c Every time you come around
c
not live on reserves or in other Aboriginal communities. Many c They like to make fun of you
live in urban areas, part of urban Aboriginal communities c when you dance
c
that are growing each year. The existence of these urban c Especially when it rains
communities increasingly challenges traditional ways of c It’s hard to be traditional
thinking about and dealing with Aboriginal issues in Canada. c When you’re living in the
c
As you read this chapter, consider some of the questions c nuclear age
that follow: What factors do Aboriginal people consider when c
c
choosing where to live? What are the potential advantages c For instance,
and disadvantages of city life? What are advantages and c Where do you go when you
disadvantages of life in Aboriginal communities? How might c
c want a sweat?
availability of services affect where people choose to live? c Well, you head down to the
What are effective ways of developing and delivering services c
c YMCA
that address Aboriginal people’s rights and needs? c They got a great steamin’
This chapter begins with a song by Shingoose, a singer/ c sauna there
c
songwriter of Anishinabé heritage based in Winnipeg, Manitoba. c But they look at you weird
His thirty-five-year career in music combines European music c when you pray
styles with themes and issues from his First Nations cultural c
c Instead of rocks they got a
heritage. He often uses humour to depict the conflicts c little box
between his First Nations heritage and urban society. c
c Of electric coils and wires
c And when you throw the
c
FOCUS QUESTIONS c water on and start to sing
As you read this chapter, consider these questions:
c Someone always hollers,
c “Fire!”
n Why do some Aboriginal people migrate to urban areas? c
c
n Why do some Aboriginal people choose to live on c
First Nations reserves, Métis Settlements, and in other c
Aboriginal communities? c
c
n What knowledge and skills are needed for urban living? c
n What services are available for Aboriginal people and c
how effective are they? c
c
n What kinds of issues are involved in the delivery of c
services to Aboriginal people? c
c
c
178 c
c
c
c
 Artist Lance Belanger,
who has Maliseet and
French heritage, created
Culture in Transition
out of microchip circuit
boards, seal fur, and
enamel on canvas.
How do you interpret
his message?
Shingoose

Has anybody seen good old Mother Earth p REFLECTION

around lately?
1. Shingoose’s song uses humour to explore a
That’s ’cause she’s living at the public park serious issue. Summarize the main theme of his
But they’d never let you hunt or trap in there song in a single sentence. What other methods
And it’s always closed at dark could Shingoose have used to get his point
Yes, and all the animals are fair game across? Why do you think he chose music and
But they’re living in a cage humour? In your opinion, does his choice
strengthen or weaken his message?
And if you ever tried to skin one
2. Using the library and the Internet, research
Well, they’d have you on the next front page Aboriginal writers and entertainers who use
humour to present their viewpoints. Find
Chorus examples of stories from Aboriginal oral
traditions that contain humour. Prepare a three
Way before the hippies grew long hair to five page presentation using PowerPoint™,
slides, or overheads that compares traditional
We were wearing braids
and contemporary uses of humour.
But then around the turn of the century
3. Shingoose describes a cultural transition in his
All of us got shaved song, although in a very different way from
(or was it saved? I don’t know) Lance Belanger. What kind of cultural transition
But now long hair is coming back again do you think Aboriginal peoples are experiencing
Just when I got used to it short today? Use song, story, poem, or artwork to
It’s gotten so you can’t tell these days express your ideas.
Whether you’re a girl or a boy

What do you get when you rub two sticks?

You get a raging fire
But it’s just as easy to flick your Bic
And nobody would be the wiser
Oh, it’s hard to stay true to your roots
And only your hairdresser can tell
Whether or not you’re traditional and the
rest can go to…

179
 c
c
c
c
Life in Rural Aboriginal Communities
c
c
total Aboriginal population in
AS YOU READ Canada live in rural areas.
An Aboriginal community is one that is composed of The 633 First Nations reserves,
enough Aboriginal people that Aboriginal worldviews, 8 Métis Settlements, 53 Inuit com-
cultural practices, and languages are an expected, fully munities, and numerous other towns
accepted way of life. This way of life is often distinctly and regions in Canada with high
different from that of mainstream society. Aboriginal populations are diverse
This section looks at the benefits and drawbacks of life in location, level of economic
for Aboriginal people within Aboriginal communities. As you development, social issues, services,
read pages 180–187, think about the aspects of life that you size, attitude, and local politics. These
think make an Aboriginal community different from other differences, combined with indi-
communities in Canada. What aspects of life are the same? vidual personalities and situations,
For First Nations people, Aboriginal communities are create circumstances that either
generally reserves and areas immediately surrounding pull people to stay in Aboriginal
reserves. For Inuit people, they can be anywhere in the communities or push them to leave.
Arctic, where Inuit people form the majority of the Sometimes people feel an internal
population. For Métis people, the Métis Settlements tug-of-war, both pushed and pulled.
in Alberta and certain other towns and rural regions Many who leave eventually return.
across the West have enough Métis population that
Métis cultural practices are common.
RESERVE LIFE
Some reserves are located within cities or close to What draws First Nations people to
urban areas, but most Aboriginal communities are rural life on a reserve? The main benefits
and some are far from major centres of population,
of an on-reserve lifestyle include
particularly in the North. This section will focus on rural
being close to extended family and
Aboriginal communities.
friends and being surrounded by
First Nations culture. Elders pro-

B
efore World War II, nearly all Aboriginal people vide guidance, and others in the
in Canada lived in rural areas. This is because community often help families who
are starting out or in need. Gen-
traditional Aboriginal ways of life involved hunting, erally, the atmosphere is supportive
trapping, fishing, and farming. Today, about half of the and friendships are strong. Being
with people who speak First Nations
languages and feel a sense of pride in
cultural traditions adds richness to
life that may be missing elsewhere.
Life’s pace is also more free and
relaxed in smaller communities. A
rural setting provides peace, quiet,
and closeness to the natural world.
People can fish, hunt, or trap along

The main benefit of life in an Aboriginal

community is being near family and friends
and attending community events and
celebrations, such as this powwow on
the Alexis First Nation reserve.

180 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES

with others who share an under-
standing of the spiritual aspects of
these pursuits. Living in a more
natural environment also allows
people to practise traditional
ceremonies.
Children have fewer restrictions
in rural communities. Sometimes,
people who have left reserves return
after they have children. They want
Drummers helped celebrate a signing ceremony between
their children to develop a deeper EnCana Corporation, Saddle Lake First Nation, and Western
connection to their heritage, family, Lakota Energy Services. The celebration was held at the
and the land. Many communities Keyano-Pimee Exploration Company Ltd. site, which is jointly
have on-reserve schools, particularly owned and operated by the Saddle Lake and Whitefish
at the lower grade levels, that (Goodfish) Lake First Nations. Why do you think many
incorporate the culture and language First Nations use joint ventures with other Aboriginal and
non-Aboriginal organizations to develop their resources?
of those living there.
Reserves sometimes offer other
over $400 million dollars in 2003
benefits, as well. Some pay power or
alone. This is the result of good
heating bills for their Elders. A few
partnerships that are providing
communities provide rent-free or
Aboriginals with job and educational
low-rent housing. Some reserves
opportunities — the means to build
offer employment opportunities in
a sustainable future. It’s time for
on-reserve businesses and industries.
Aboriginals to get busy, the sooner
These businesses are often more
the better.”
culturally sensitive than mainstream
However, resource development
businesses, making it easier for
can have positive and negative
people to find jobs that they enjoy.
consequences for Aboriginal com-
Resource Development munities. For example, in the early
Many reserves in Alberta and else- 1970s, an oil boom in Inuvialuit Dave Tuccaro from the
where in Canada are developing territory brought high wages and a Mikisew Cree First Nation
was included in the
resources on reserve land to create cash economy. Many families moved Financial Post’s “Top 40
employment and economic benefits to towns so their children could under 40,” a listing of the
for their communities. Many Abor- attend school. The boom ended, but country’s most influential
iginal and non-Aboriginal business most families remained in towns. young economic leaders.
leaders believe resource development Today, many young Inuvialuit have He received a National
Aboriginal Achievement
is the key to Aboriginal prosperity. never lived on the land and are Award in 1999 for his
Dave Tuccaro, a member of the missing a vital connection to their contributions to business.
Mikisew Cree First Nation and cultural identity.
owner of eight highly successful In the 1960s, development of oil
businesses, says “In Canada’s north- and natural gas near Hobbema,
ern diamond mines, Aboriginals are Alberta, suddenly increased local
doing hundreds of millions of First Nations’ income and wealth. In
dollars in business, and in the oil fact, the four First Nations in the area
sands, Aboriginal businesses did became the richest in Canada. The

COMMUNITIES TODAY 181

 of the Rocky Mountains. They
established a camp near Nordegg
and pursued a more traditional life of
hunting, fishing, and trapping, away
from the influences of modern life.
Other communities experienced
similar problems with resource
development. Most reserves in
Alberta now manage development
carefully, focusing their attention on
The Siksika First Nation is using provincial and federal economic development re-investing wealth for their commu-
funding as well as oil and gas resource revenue to build Blackfoot Crossing
Historical Park, a World Heritage and National Historic Site. The site is nity’s future. The goal is economic
scheduled to open in 2005. The $29 million project is fully owned and stability, where the community is
operated by the First Nation. The park will have many positive economic not dependent on any single source
benefits for the Siksika reserve, as well as cultural and educational benefits of income. For example, Shell
for other provincial residents, tourists, and Canadian citizens. Canada has been working closely
with the 400 First Nations and Métis
c communities distributed some of the people who live near its Athabasca
c
c money to the people and invested Oil Sands Project at Fort McKay.
c the rest in business ventures and Together they have reached agree-
c
c improvements to the community’s ments on initiatives that deal with
c schools, social services, and med- education, employment, economic
c development, culture, and commu-
c ical clinics.
c However, the sudden wealth nity infrastructure.
c also created social problems in the Another example is the Siksika
c
c community. The high incomes and First Nation, which began the Siksika
c the material goods that the money Development Corporation in 1995.
c
c could buy influenced many The company was created to ensure
c members to abandon traditional that the First Nation would receive
c
c practices and customs. long-term economic benefit from oil
c For some people in Hobbema, and gas exploration and development
c on its land. Alfred Many Heads,
c these changes were not welcomed.
c In 1968, the former chief of the director of the corporation, says that
c Ermineskin First Nation at Hob- the First Nation re-invests much of
c
c bema, Robert Smallboy, led a group its revenue in other businesses to
c of about 125 people to the foothills allow it to diversify from the boom-
owledge c
Kn and-bust oil and gas economy. One
diversification plan is to develop an
enous

Research a First Nation in Alberta that has been industrial park on reserve land.
successful in tapping into resource wealth on their
di g

In reserve lands (lumber, or oil and gas). Write a short Ta x S t a t u s

profile of when development began, how it affected First Nations people who live and
life on the reserve, and how the First Nation managed work on reserves do not have to pay
the development and any economic gains. Overall, personal or property tax. Section 87
has the community benefited from development? of the Indian Act says that the
Explain your answer. “personal property of an Indian or a

182 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES

band situated on a reserve” is tax drawbacks are distinctly part of
exempt. This tax exemption includes reserve life and others a function of
employment income for First living in a rural area.
Nations people with status who live Small communities offer fewer
and work on the reserve for the employment and educational options.
majority of their time. Today, a few Most people who leave reserves do
First Nations have a different tax so to pursue these opportunities
status because of settled land and elsewhere. Some reserve schools
self-government claims. have limited resources and may not
First Nations leaders maintain be able to provide the same course
that their right to tax-free status and extracurricular opportunities as
comes from treaties, not the Indian schools in urban areas. Some may
Act. In the Benoit case, Mikisew First not even be able to keep up with
Nation member Gordon Benoit repairs to their school facilities. A
asserted his right, under Treaty Eight, few rural areas offer post-secondary
to be exempt from federal income tax, options, but they are not usually as
even though he lives and works off- extensive as those in major cities.
reserve. Support for his case included Indian and Northern Affairs
a report from treaty commissioners Canada has a goal of ensuring that
that stated that they had explained to people living on reserves have the
the First Nations that the treaty “did
not open the way to the imposition
of any tax.” In 2003, Benoit lost his Percentage of First Nations People
case at the Federal Court of Appeal, Living On-Reserve
and in 2004 he was denied the
1966
opportunity to appeal this ruling. 1989
2001
Drawbacks of Reserve Life 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
The benefits of reserve life are not
always enough to keep people on What trend do you see in this bar graph? What factors do you think contribute
to this trend? Have you or anyone you know moved to or from a reserve?
the reserve. What some people What were reasons for moving? What effects do you think migration has on
experience as a comforting closeness communities and cultures? Discuss these questions as a class.
of family and friends, others feel as a
lack of privacy. In some cases, the
Employment Rates of People
influences of family and friends are
Aged Fifteen and Over by Place of
not always positive. For example,
Residence and Aboriginal Identity
some people experience peer pressure
to use alcohol or other substances. All Regions Non-Aboriginal
Moving away can give them the
Aboriginal
chance to start a new life away from On-Reserve

old habits. Rural Non-Reserve

It is worth noting that this
drawback, and many of the rest that Urban Non-CMA*

follow, often apply to many rural Urban CMA*

communities, not just reserves or
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
other Aboriginal communities. Some
*CMA: Census Metropolitan Area (population of at least 100 000)

COMMUNITIES TODAY 183

 c
c
c
c
c
c

SELF-GOVERNING COMMUNITIES same basic services as other Cana-

dians. Despite this, in 2000, some
Today, many Aboriginal communities have regained reserves still lacked basic water and
traditional powers of self-determination through land claims sewer facilities. Ten per cent of First
or self-government agreements. They have more control over
Nations communities had no access
aspects of life that reinforce their cultures, such as language,
to electric services, and 12 per cent
education, and economic opportunities in their communities.
These communities can make their own choices about the
were without year-round road access.
future. Most have plans to live alongside mainstream Many families are unable to find
Canadian society — a part of Canada, but culturally distinct. homes on their reserves and are
foced to move or live with other
Other communities are still in the process of achieving
this level of control over their futures. In particular, most First
families. Less critically, some people
Nations reserves still operate under the federal government’s find that reserves offer limited
Indian Act legislation. As you read in Chapter Two, these outlets for recreation and leisure.
communities are working in many ways to increase their Social problems — substance
powers of self-determination. Government attitudes have abuse, gangs, physical violence,
been slowly shifting to support this goal. crime — can also drive people away
from some reserves. Other reserves
In 2004, Minister of Indian and Northern Affairs might suffer corruption, inequalities,
Andy Scott affirmed the federal government’s support or differences of opinion that divide
for Aboriginal self-determination: the community. For example, resi-
I really believe that this [shift to Aboriginal dents may not agree with local
self-determination] is about making available the politics or attitudes towards com-
instruments to the communities that are necessary munity development.
for them to be successful on their own terms. We While some reserves have good
need the First Nations community to bring not only economic opportunities, others rely
value to the decision, but in many cases, to make the on government grants and social
decision. That’s what self-determination is all about…. assistance for 80 per cent or more
The relationship [between Aboriginal peoples and of incoming money. This can
Canadian society] is improving because the Canadian demoralize the people who live
public, generally, is coming to understand two things: there. The desire to pursue better
the entitlement, the contract that is represented by economic opportunities is one of
treaties and various claims that First Nations commu- the main reasons people leave
nities have with the Crown, and, perhaps even more reserves. This is why so many First
important, the public is seeing the resolution of these
Nations leaders stress the impor-
outstanding issues as being important to everyone.
tance of developing more on-reserve
This is a big piece of unfinished business for this economic opportunities.
country. I feel optimistic that we are going to make
great progress, so that while we’re in an uphill Impact of the
journey with lots of baggage, I see the top. C o n t e m p o r a r y Wo r l d
on Reserve Life
p REFLECTION
Life on reserves has changed greatly
in the last few decades, in many
Where does the entitlement that Andy Scott mentions cases improving dramatically. First
come from? Review previous chapters with a partner Nations are gaining more control
and name as many sources of entitlement as you can. over their affairs, and governments
have become increasingly respectful
of cultural needs.
184 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES
 Unfortunately, not all changes young and old. In some places
taking place on reserves are viewed on the prairies, alienated young
as positive by community members. people have formed gangs that
Reserves, like many other rural reinforce their sense of
communities, are experiencing prob- alienation from wider society.
lems that were once found only in • Television. On reserves today,
urban areas. These problems include as in other locations in Canada,
children are drawn to the
• Pollution. Many reserves suffer
ideas and values reflected
from the effects of polluted
on television.
land and contaminated water
due to mining, agriculture, and Self-government provides the
other industries. most promising means of addressing
• Youth at risk. Abuse of alcohol these issues, because it will allow
and other drugs or substances communities to address their prob-
can be a problem that affects lems in culturally appropriate ways.

OLD LANGUAGES ADAPTING TO THE MODERN WORLD

Blackfoot Métis Cree
aisaiksistto (television/movie, kosa pâchi’kun (television)
literally “becoming visible”)
Nakoda
aikkamiksimstaa (computer,
bahborgin (car, literally “covered wagon”)
literally “quick thinker”)
tahnuska tahpi tin (computer, literally
Cree “power needed to work”)
kîwîpahkamâhowin pîhwâpskos (telephone,
literally “tap the line,” referring to the early Saulteaux
telegraph wires) masinâtêpicikan (computer)
pîwâphskos icîkaân (cell phone, literally masinâhtêsicikan (movie)
“unbelievable or extraordinary thing”) otâpân (vehicle)
pîwâpiskatahk (satellite, literally “iron star”)
masinatahikan kâ înîsîmakahk Ts u u T ’ i n a
(computer, literally “smart typewriter”) dat’i shi cha t’i ni (movie, literally
“dancing/phantom/strange images”)
Dene Sù¬iné idini t’uga yii t¬ a¬ i (car, literally “running on
tsi chok hetai (plane, literally “a big boat that’s its own power”)
flying”) dzalagha t¬ a di ta shi (plane, literally
beschene chok (bus, literally “a big wagon”) “flying above/up there”)
eri ‘tis net’i (movie, literally “watching or looking p REFLECTION
at paper”)
Part of a culture’s adaptation to new situa-
Dené Tha’ tions involves an evolution of language as
wok’luitse tani (car or contraption) people use the words they have to describe
the unfamiliar. How can you see this process
Dunne-za
in the examples above? Find an Aboriginal
woosloozhy kyaytanee
language speaker who can help you learn a
(a vehicle, literally “stinky wagon”) word to share with your classmates that
reflects a similar linguistic evolution.

COMMUNITIES TODAY 185

 c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c MÉTIS AND INUIT Aboriginal character because Métis
c COMMUNITIES people and Métis culture form a
c
c Many of the positive attributes of significant part of the community.
c reserve life — closeness to family, For example, St. Laurent, Mani-
c use of Aboriginal languages, cultural toba, has the largest Métis popula-
c
c acceptance — are also true of life in tion in the province. St. Laurent was
c other Aboriginal communities, such among the towns settled by Red
c
c as the Métis Settlements. River Métis people after the 1870
c The Métis Settlements are Red River Resistance. Today, Métis
c
c unique among Métis communities culture is still very much a part of
c because they have collective title to the community. Michif is widely
c
c their land and legislated self- spoken among community members.
c government. However, they are not Life on reserves differs from life
c the only Métis communities in in other Aboriginal communities
c
c Canada. Many Métis people continue because of the Indian Act and treaties,
c to live in or near the Manitoba, which only affect First Nations. For
c
c Saskatchewan, and Alberta towns example, Métis residents of a Métis
c that are part of their cultural history. Settlement are not exempt from
c
c Unlike reserves or the Métis Settle- paying taxes. Neither are Inuit
c ments, such communities are not residents of an Inuit community.
c
c restricted to people with particular In many other respects, rural
c Aboriginal ancestry. They have an Métis and Inuit communities face
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c In 2004, St. Laurent, Manitoba, was recognized Individuals such as Clarence Houle, shown
c by the Smithsonian Institute in Washington, DC, here logging with his horses on the Paddle
c
c for its vibrant French Métis culture. Prairie Métis Settlement, can be free in an
c The community is one of ten Aboriginal Aboriginal community to choose more
c communities in North America profiled in traditional ways of making a living. Selective
c the Smithsonian’s new exhibit. logging using horses is an ecologically sound
c method of harvesting. It leaves the forest
c
c ecosystem intact.

186 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES

many of the same challenges as rural
First Nations communities. For
example, like reserves, Métis and
Inuit communities face pollution,
contaminated water, and social issues.
In 2002, Inuit villagers in northern
Quebec reported over 600 sites
where mining and exploration equip-
ment and materials, including toxic
chemicals, had been left in their
territory. Modern communications technology means that even isolated communities
In the 2001 Aboriginal Peoples such as Grise Fiord, which is Canada’s most northern civilian settlement, can
Survey, Statistics Canada found that be connected to television and Internet services by satellite. How do you think
water quality problems were a these connections affect life in isolated communities?
particular problem for Inuit com-
munities in northern Quebec. In
that region, 73 per cent of Inuit Two contemporary world luxuries that have negatively
people reported that their water was impacted Inuit people are the widespread use of
contaminated at certain times of the televisions and video games. These luxuries have had
year. Across the Arctic, 34 per cent a significant impact on social customs. For example,
of Inuit people reported water the pastime of visiting family and friends and social
quality problems. In comparison, fundraising events such as family movie nights are
no longer popular. Children, in particular, are “glued
about 19 per cent of other Aborig-
to the tube.” But so are adults. When I visit someone
inal people in rural areas outside the today, the television is nearly always on in the
Arctic reported water quality background and sometimes homeowners even
problems. It is important to note, continue to watch while we visit, so it is very difficult
however, that this survey did not to sit and chat. Traditions of socializing have almost
include First Nations people living died and people have become sedate and inactive,
on reserves, where water problems contributing to poor health.
are more common. — Edna Elias, (Kugluktuk, Nunavut) Barrhead, Alberta
Throughout their traditional
territories, Inuit people now have
land-claims agreements that give
them post-secondary education, LOOKING BACK
health care benefits, and hunting What are the main benefits of
rights. These benefits are in many living in an Aboriginal community?
ways similar to treaty rights received What benefits do reserves offer
by First Nations. To continue that other Aboriginal communities
receiving their land-claims benefits, do not? What are some of the
Inuit people must maintain a link drawbacks of life in an Aboriginal
with their home region. If they lose community? If you have expe-
this connection for a period of ten rience of living in an Aboriginal
years, they lose their benefits. community, write your own list of
benefits and drawbacks.
As yet, Métis people have few
benefits compared to First Nations
and Inuit peoples.

COMMUNITIES TODAY 187

 c
c
c
c
Urban Communities
c
c
Arctic. Most of these people live in
AS YOU READ urban centres, such as Yellowknife,
While many Aboriginal people continue to live in Montreal, Ottawa, and Edmonton.
communities where Aboriginal ways of life are dominant,
a growing number of Aboriginal people face a different THE DRAW OF
reality in Canada. Almost half of the 976 305 people in URBAN AREAS
Canada who identified themselves as Aboriginal in the What draws people to a big city? A
2001 Census made their homes in urban areas. city offers more choices — in
For people accustomed to life in a rural or mainly schools and educational programs,
Aboriginal community, urban life can be a shock. With in recreation and leisure opportu-
a partner, brainstorm words and phrases that describe nities, shopping, and other conven-
urban life to you. Are your impressions as a long-term iences and amenities. Some people
resident of an urban area or as a visitor? How might this go to a city looking for excitement
make a difference in your impressions of urban life? or new friends. Others want to join
friends and family who are already

U
rbanization among Aboriginal peoples in Canada living in a city. Some want or need
to be near better medical facilities
has steadily increased since the 1940s. At the
and services. Some people hope to
end of World War II, most First Nations people lived escape from problems in their home
community.
mainly on or near reserves. In 2001, 47 per cent lived on
The exact reasons an Aboriginal
c reserves, 24 per cent in urban areas, individual chooses to live in an
c urban environment vary, depending
c and 29 per cent in rural non-reserve
c locations. This urbanization trend is on what the particular city or town
c true for Métis populations as well. In has to offer, the circumstances of the
c
c 2001, 68 per cent of the Métis popu-
c lation in Canada lived in urban areas,
c Approximate Percentage
c with 29 per cent in rural regions. of First Nations, Métis,
c Inuit people are also drawn to
c and Inuit Peoples by Place
c cities, although not to the same of Residence
c extent as First Nations and Métis
c
c people. About 10 per cent of the
c Inuit population lives outside the
owledge
Kn c 20% Rural
enous

Non-Reserve
The Blackfoot language has several ways of indicating
that someone lives off the reserve: aya’piopiiksi
di g

In (those who are living among naapiikoaksi [Caucasian 50% Urban

30% Reserves
people]), iitsa’pao’takiwa (working on the outside), or Settlements
aisaitapiiksi (those who become outsiders),
aikippitasa’pitapiiksi (those who are temporarily
on the outside), and aisaissksinima’tasaawa (he/she
is going to school on the outside). What do such
phrases reveal about the most common reasons
*Source: Statistics Canada, 2001 Census
for living off-reserve? If possible, find someone who
speaks another First Nations language to explain In contrast to the Aboriginal population, about
how that language would describe similar situations. 80 per cent of the non-Aboriginal population
lives in urban areas.
188 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES
Aboriginal community the person
CITY LIGHTS
comes from, and the individual’s
goals, background, and ability to To p F i v e F i r s t N a t i o n s To p F i v e M é t i s
adapt. Age, marital status, family Populations in Cities Populations in Cities
size, and education all affect people’s 1. Winnipeg 22 955 1. Winnipeg 31 395
2. Vancouver 22 700 2. Edmonton 21 065
choices. The most common reason
3. Edmonton 18 260 3. Vancouver 12 505
Aboriginal people move to urban
4. Toronto 13 785 4. Calgary 10 575
areas is the need to find housing and 5. Saskatoon 11 290 5. Saskatoon 8305
the desire to pursue education, train-
*Source: 2001 Census, Statistics Canada
ing, or employment opportunities.

URBAN CHALLENGES More First Nations and

On top of this, unemployment is five Métis people live in
Not all people who move from a Winnipeg than in any other
reserve to a city stay there. Some to six times greater for First Nations Canadian city. Use the
discover that they prefer rural life people than for non-Aboriginal Internet to research an
after all. Many move back because people living in the same urban area. agency or organization in
they miss family and friends. Many Reasons for this high unemploy- Winnipeg that serves the
move to and from urban areas ment can include lack of training, needs of Aboriginal people.
Write a newspaper article
regularly, as employment or other limited education, discrimination,
reporting what you find.
circumstances change. Others adapt and conflicts with corporate expecta- How do these services
to the urban lifestyle and settle in, tions and values. compare to those in your
raising families who may never Low-paying, low-skilled jobs closest urban area?
know life in any other setting. provide little satisfaction and stability,
Though the experiences of leading to an increased sense of
individuals living in urban centres alienation from the rest of the urban
differ, they face many of the same community. They also do not supply
challenges. These include the phys- enough income to provide a good
ical atmosphere of cities, high cost of standard of living. Data from 2001
living, alienation, difficulty accessing show that about 28 per cent of
services, problems maintaining cul- Aboriginal people living off-reserve
tural identity, and cultural barriers fell below the poverty line, compared
(such as stereotypes and discrimina- to only 13 per cent of non-Aboriginal
tion). Each of these challenges is people. Poverty can create a cycle of
examined in this section. dependence from which it is difficult
to emerge.
Physical Atmosphere
Yet there are signs of hope.
Cities are often crowded, polluted, Population figures show that the
noisy places, with little connection to Aboriginal population is younger
the natural world. Systems of street than the non-Aboriginal population.
addresses, freeways, and public In 2001, the median age for the
transit can seem alien and confusing Aboriginal population in Canada was
to someone from a rural community. 24.7 years, compared to 37.7 years
Unemployment and Poverty for the non-Aboriginal population.
City living is often costly and can The median age is the point where
involve extra expenses for transporta- exactly one-half the population is
tion, parking, education, and services. older and one-half younger.

COMMUNITIES TODAY 189

 c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c This trend will likely continue common values or interests. Urban
c for some time in the future. Because dwellers without good systems of
c
c the Aboriginal birth rate is 1.5 times support can feel isolated and alone.
c higher than that of the non-
c Access to Services
Aboriginal population, one third of
c Urban Aboriginal people do not
c the Aboriginal population in 2001
c receive the same level of services from
was aged fourteen and under. This
c the federal government as First
c compares to 19 per cent of the non-
c Nations people living on reserves
Aboriginal population.
c or Inuit people living in their
c In a few years, this demographic
communities.
c could offer a solution to a forecasted
c Few municipal and provincial
c shortage of skilled labour in Western
agencies provide specific services for
c Canadian cities. Given the right
c Aboriginal populations. Those
education and training opportunities,
c services that are offered tend to be
c young urban Aboriginal people could
c unco-ordinated and inconsistent,
reduce that shortage. Statistics
c with great variations from province
c already show a decrease in Aboriginal
c to province. Sometimes Aboriginal
unemployment. In Edmonton, for
c people have trouble accessing
c example, Aboriginal unemployment
services that are available to other
c dropped from 22 per cent in 1996 to
c Canadians, so they may not get the
c 13 per cent in 2001.
help they need.
c
c Alienation This situation is partly the result
c People who have been raised in of an on-going disagreement about
c
c families where traditional cultural jurisdiction between the federal and
c values dominate, or in communities provincial governments. The federal
c
c where hunting, trapping, and government has assumed responsi-
c fishing remain a central part of life, bility for providing services to First
c generally find it difficult to adapt to Nations people living on reserves,
c
c an urban lifestyle. A city can seem Inuit people, and Métis people living
c like an impersonal place. For in the North. This responsibility
c
c example, people often do not even comes from treaty agreements, the
c know their neighbours. If they do constitutional division of powers, and
ow ledge c
know them, they may share few the federal government’s interpre-
Kn c
tation of these legal responsibilities.
enous

How might a government or business owner use The federal government argues that
demographics to plan for its future labour needs? programs and services for all other
di g

In Brainstorm ideas with a partner and select your Aboriginal people are provincial
best ideas for a class discussion. responsibility. In turn, the provinces
have usually argued that the federal
government has responsibility for
One of the untapped human resources of Canada is all Aboriginal people, no matter
the Aboriginal peoples, and once we are in a position where they live.
to prove that we are and always were hard-working
This disagreement is particularly
people, we will be an asset, and viewed as an asset.
significant for First Nations people.
— Wilfred Collins, Chairman, Elizabeth Métis Settlement
Those who live in urban areas

190 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES

receive far fewer services than those
who live on reserves. For example, Most of us [services that serve urban Aboriginal
First Nations people with treaty people] are always fighting over dollars, to keep our
rights are eligible for free alcohol administration going, to house ourselves, and look after
our administration costs, whether we’re Métis, Treaty,
and drug treatment programs, if
whatever…[W]e give people the runaround now when
they receive treatment on a reserve. they come into the city. Well, you’re Treaty and you’ve
If they live in an Alberta city, such as not been here one year so you go to this place. But, oh
Edmonton, they are not eligible for no, you’ve been here a year already so you go to this
similar programs funded by the place. Well, you’re Métis, you have to go somewhere
province and must return to the else. It’s too confusing for people.
reserve for treatment. —National Round Table on Urban Aboriginal Issues in the
There is an irony inherent in Report of the Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples
this lack of urban access to services.
First Nations people on reserves do
Regina, Winnipeg, Thunder Bay, and
not pay federal income or property
Toronto. Each city, in partnership
taxes. Urban First Nations people do,
with stakeholders, is expected to
but receive fewer services in return.
introduce pilot programs that better
In addition, many urban residents
address the needs of urban Aborig-
face a higher cost of living.
inal populations.
Technically, chiefs and councils
are responsible for band members Maintaining Cultural
who live off-reserve. The Siksika Identity
First Nation, for example, has an Aboriginal people living in urban
office in Calgary that helps its urban areas told the Royal Commission on
residents. For most First Nations, Aboriginal Peoples that maintaining
responsibility for urban members is their cultural identity is essential to
difficult to fulfill. First Nations their sense of happiness and well
leaders find they must deal with being. However, this can be difficult.
local needs first. This often forces Urban life places demands on people
them to put the needs of urban band that can cause them to change their
members on hold. values and way of life. In addition,
Many Aboriginal leaders say
that urban resources for their people There is a strong, sometimes racist, perception that
exist, but these are usually under- being Aboriginal and being urban are mutually exclusive.
funded and unable to deal with the … there is a history in Canada of putting Aboriginal
demand. Administrators of these people “in their place” on reserves and in rural
services sometimes spend more time communities. Aboriginal cultures and mores have
applying for funding than they do been perceived as incompatible with the demands of
serving their clients. industrialized urban society. This leads too easily to
In 2003, in an effort to improve the assumption that Aboriginal people living in urban
areas must deny their culture and heritage in order to
this situation, the federal government
succeed — they must assimilate into this other world.
allocated $25 million over three years
The corollary is that once Aboriginal people migrate to
to the Urban Aboriginal Strategy. urban areas, their identity as Aboriginal people
This program distributes money becomes irrelevant.
to eight major cities: Vancouver,
— Report of the Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples
Edmonton, Calgary, Saskatoon,

COMMUNITIES TODAY 191

 c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c most supports of Aboriginal identity THE URBAN POLICY GAP
c are noticeably absent from many The rising number of urban Abor-
c
c urban areas, such as contact with the iginal people and the difficulties this
c land, Elders, family, spiritual cere- population can encounter reflect an
c monies, and Aboriginal languages. important gap in the policies
c
c Some urban Aboriginal people affecting and services for Aboriginal
c return home frequently, maintaining people in Canada. Most services
c
c their cultural ties. Those who can- offered by the federal government
c not or do not, however, must find for Aboriginal people address the
c
c other ways to maintain their sense needs of those living on reserves. In
c of identity. fact, 90 per cent of the money the
c
c federal government spends on all
Cultural Barriers
c Aboriginal programs and services
c Some Canadians know surprisingly
goes to programming for reserve
c little about their country’s first
c populations (including Indian and
c inhabitants. As a result, they may
Northern Affairs administration
c have stereotyped expectations of
c costs). Only about 47 per cent of the
Aboriginal peoples. This can lead to
c First Nations population benefits
c racism and discrimination. As you
c from any of this money. This is only
learned in Chapter Five, education
c about 30 per cent of the overall
c is the key to breaking down these
c Aboriginal population in Canada.
barriers. Greater cultural under-
c Public policy discussions focus
c standing is particularly important
on issues such as treaties, self-
c for institutions that provide services
c government, reserve housing prob-
c to Aboriginal people.
lems, and land claims. Few solutions
to these issues benefit urban
The Canadian government thought that if they Aboriginal populations. This does
moved the real people (First Nations) into white not mean that reserves do not have
society, the government would not have to live up serious concerns that deserve atten-
to its treaty obligations. ha k’i ji t’si ka aa na gu t’ina tion and funding. However, the
dinati k’aa ha li ni dza ku yi naa, it’i di kaa ¬ i k’a
urban Aboriginal population cannot
gi yi di yi t’¬ishi du ha gi yi la gi yi ni zin.
be ignored or left in limbo forever.
The government’s plan was to eliminate the Part of the problem is that urban
real people. ha k’i ji t’si ka aa na gu t’ina du dinati Aboriginal populations are not well
isti gi di naa ha ta, a na gu gi dis da¬ gi yi ni zin ni t’i.
organized as a collective political
The real people moved into the cities, hoping to power, and few Aboriginal people
find a better way of life, but white society tormented are part of mainstream political pro-
them. dinati gu ja gi diln na ka gu t’sis t’si gi dis naa, cesses. Urban Aboriginal people are
ha t’a, ik’aa ha li gaaw ta za ni aa.
therefore not included in discussions
Unfortunately, First Nations people turned about the policies and institutions
to alcohol and began destroying themselves. that affect them, including self-
gi maa gu t’a, dinati ik’aa ha li tuwa i sila ist’aa government.
gi di zid.
There are signs that this situa-
— Vera Marie Crowchild and Regina Noel, tion may improve in the future. The
Tsuu T’ina First Nation, recounting stories
told by their Grandmother Daisy Otter Assembly of First Nations, for
example, is currently looking at ways

192 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES

to restructure its organization to
better represent the concerns of The story of my involvement in
urban populations. According to the Friendship Centre movement
Chief Phil Fontaine, “We represent goes back to the years of my
all our people, regardless of where childhood, when I was involved
they live, whether it’s in urban in the Li’l Beavers Program at
the Thunder Bay Indian Youth
communities or in reserve com-
Friendship Society. I am originally
munities. But we recognize that we from the surrounding area, from
need to do some things better than Longlac, Ontario, which is
we’ve done up till now, to represent Joseph Dore
approximately three hours north
our members in cities. This is a of Thunder Bay. I am from the Ginoogaming First
serious undertaking. We may have to Nation, which translates to “long lake” in Ojibwa.
re-invent the AFN…so that we can In 2000, I was eighteen and attending high school
effectively represent all our people, in Thunder Bay, when I was approached to attend
whether they’re living in Toronto or the annual general meeting of the Thunder Bay
Winnipeg, or Onion Lake.” Indian Friendship Centre. This is where it all began
for me. I ran for the position of Youth Representative
FRIENDSHIP CENTRES on the Board of Directors, where I served for a one-
As First Nations and Métis people year term. This was the first of many positions I was
began moving to cities in greater to hold in the Friendship Centre movement.
numbers during the 1950s, local vol- I sadly left my home province in 2002 and moved
unteers formed Friendship Centres to Edmonton to be closer to my family. Since May
to assist them. At that time, the 2002, I have been an active member on the
centres functioned mainly as referral executive committee of the Alberta Native Friendship
agencies, connecting individuals to Centres Association. I am also the Alberta
various resources and services to help representative on the Aboriginal Youth Council of the
National Association of Friendship Centres. Being
them adapt successfully to urban life.
involved with the Friendship Centre movement as a
When more and more new youth leader has given me many opportunities to
arrivals showed up throughout the grow personally and professionally. The experience
1960s, the Friendship Centres has involved training in youth leadership, decision
needed to expand their services. By making, policy and procedure development, board
the end of the decade, the centres governance, lobbying, advocacy, and travel.
had joined together in a network, Hard work and a lot of good comes out of good
with provincial and territorial assoc- hard work. Now I’m an employee of the Red Deer
iations providing administrative Native Friendship Centre as the Assistant Executive
support. The Alberta Native Friend- Director. I continue to learn and grow in the
ship Centres Association was incor- Friendship Centre movement. I believe I’ve been
porated in Alberta in 1970. In 1972, able to help many Aboriginal youth to lead healthy
the federal government implemented lifestyles, achieve their dreams, and lead successful
a funding program to support the lives. Friendship Centres definitely helped me
forty Friendship Centres then in achieve my goals.
existence across Canada. In the Spirit of building healthy communities,
Since then, the number of Joseph Dore, Oji-Cree youth
Friendship Centres has more than
doubled, and their services have

COMMUNITIES TODAY 193

 Other Urban Services
Although Friendship Centres are
status-blind, which means they are
open to Aboriginal people of all
Communities such as c greatly expanded. More than one cultures, some urban Inuit people
High Level, Fort c hundred Friendship Centres operate have formed their own version. In
McMurray, and Slave c
c across Canada. Montreal, Yellowknife, and Ottawa,
Lake (shown here), have
c Friendship Centres have been Inuit people have established non-
Friendship Centres. c
Although these c the most stable urban Aboriginal profit organizations that operate
communities are not c organization and have significantly programs such as the Inuit Tunnga-
major cities, the centres c
c helped urban populations in the past sukvingat in Ottawa. Inuit Tunnga-
play significant roles in c few decades. In particular, Friendship sukvingat offers a monthly gathering
their communities. Find c
out the kinds of services c Centres do much to promote with a feast of traditional Inuit
they provide and c Aboriginal cultures and languages. foods, entertainment, and games. It
compare these services c They also increase the non- also offers programs such as student
c
to those offered by c Aboriginal public’s awareness and tutorials, work search assistance,
Friendship Centres in c understanding of Aboriginal cultures. carving lessons, and counselling.
Calgary and Edmonton. c
c They provide a useful model for Other organizations that provide
c other agencies that offer services to services for urban Aboriginal people
c
c Aboriginal clientele. While still include youth centres, housing assis-
c providing referral services, today’s tance agencies, Aboriginal student
c centres at universities, resource
c Friendship Centres also focus on im-
c proving health and equality through centres, health agencies, employment
c various programs. As well, they agencies, head-start (early child-
c
c provide employment training and job hood education) programs, business
c search assistance, organize women’s development associations, addiction-
c
c groups, and serve as a vital cultural recovery programs, women’s shelters,
c connection. Sometimes they serve Aboriginal media, and more. Services
c
stigation people from nearby reserves as well. vary from city to city.
ve c
c
es for In

RESEARCHING FRIENDSHIP CENTRE PROGRAMS

su

Alberta has twenty Friendship Centres, from High Level in the north to Lethbridge in the south.
Is
What needs are met by Friendship Centre programs?

W H AT T O D O
1. Visit www.albertafriendshipcentres.ca to 3. How would these needs be met in rural
find the Friendship Centre nearest to you. or other Aboriginal communities?
2. Research the services and activities 4. Summarize your findings in a report.
provided by the centre. How do these
programs reflect some of the challenges T h i n k i n g A b o u t Yo u r P r o j e c t
discussed in this chapter? Note any If you live in or near an urban area, arrange to
additional needs that have not been visit a local Friendship Centre to talk to staff.
discussed in this book.

194 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES

 URBAN SUCCESS STORIES
The challenges of urban life do not mean success is impossible.
Many Aboriginal people adapt very well to urban living. Former
Assembly of First Nations Grand Chief Matthew Coon Come
was born on a trapline in northern Quebec. MLA Joan Beatty,
Saskatchewan’s Minister of Culture, Youth, and Recreation
(and a former CBC-TV reporter), grew up in Deschambault Lake,
Saskatchewan. She did not go to school or learn to speak
English until she was ten. Celebrated playwright Tomson
Highway, whose Mother tongue is Cree, grew up on a trapline
in northern Manitoba. They, like many other urban Aboriginal
people who have become teachers, engineers, dentists, doctors,
construction workers, business owners, and just about every
other occupation available, have found success in urban centres.
For award-winning musician George Leach, living in
Toronto helps him develop his career. It also provides other
opportunities, including a role in the television series Nikita. Ventriloquist and puppeteer
Toronto is also where his producer and his agent are. Despite Derrick Starlight grew up on
feeling settled in Toronto, he retains ties to his Sta’atl’imx the Tsuu T’ina reserve on the
community in Lillooet, British Columbia. He believes that he edge of Calgary. He now has
an office in Calgary, a touring
needs both societies to succeed, and accepts that problems
show, his own production
exist in both. Whenever he returns to Lillooet, he spends time
company, and a regular spot
listening to the lake and cleanses himself by fasting. on a local Saturday morning
John Bernard, a member of the Madawaska Maliseet First television show.
Nation, is the founder of Donna Cona Inc., an Ottawa-based
computer systems company. Among its many successful projects, Donna Cona
designed Nunavut’s information technology system and brought high-speed
satellite Internet service to many First Nations communities. Nearly half of Donna
Cona’s employees are Aboriginal. Most work at skilled jobs with starting annual
salaries of $60 000. The company’s revenue in 2003 was estimated at close to
$12 million. Bernard believes that none of this could have been achieved had he
remained on the reserve in New Brunswick where he grew up.
“I always knew I’d have to leave if I was to get anywhere,” he said. His sister,
however, remains on the reserve. “She’s happy. I go down there and she’s on top
of the world. And here I am, winning all these awards and all stressed out.”

p REFLECTION
Through family or friends, find an Aboriginal person who has a connection to
a rural Aboriginal community, but who has lived and worked in an urban area.
In person or over the phone, interview the person about their perspective on
the challenges and benefits of urban life. Write a newspaper article about the
person using portions of your interview.

COMMUNITIES TODAY 195

 TA L K I N G C I R C L E

URBAN ABORIGINAL PEOPLE

In your talking circle, discuss your response to the statements that follow and
issues you’ve been reading about in this section. In particular, think about the
role that Aboriginal youth play in urban
communities. As future leaders, what
responsibilities, if any, do you think Aboriginal
youth have to their people? What issues do
you think are most problematic for urban
Aboriginal populations? What are solutions to
these problems? Do you think the trend of
increasing urbanization will continue into the
future, or will more people be drawn back to
rural communities? Why?
Active listening is as much a part of communication
as speaking. During your talking circle, focus on your
listening skills. Try to listen to each participant without
judgment or criticism.

I think the most terrible experience Aboriginal culture in the cities is threatened
for an Indian person in the in much the same way as Canadian
urban setting is racism in culture is threatened by American
the community. That culture, and it therefore requires
diminishes your self- a similar commitment to its
esteem, confidence, protection. Our culture is at
and everything else. the heart of our people, and
You experience W H AT A R E T H E without awareness of
racism every day BIGGEST ISSUES Aboriginal history,
in the stores and FOR URBAN traditions, and ceremonies,
everywhere else ABORIGINAL we are not whole people,
on the street. All PEOPLES? and our communities lost
the other groups their strength. Cultural
discriminate education also works against
against you. the alienation that the cities
— Aboriginal Youth Council hold for our people. Social
of Canada in the Report of activities bring us together and
the Royal Commission on strengthen the relationships between
Aboriginal Peoples people in areas where those relationships
are an important safety net for people who
feel left out by the mainstream.
— David Chartrand, President, National Association
of Friendship Centres (1992)

196 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES

Natives who grew up off the reserve have … We need for all four levels of government —
been looking to reconnect with their federal, provincial, municipal, and
heritage, and they’ve been doing it at Aboriginal — to recognize the new urban
friendship centres. What twenty years ago reality [in Edmonton] and work in concert to
was a place to stop in for coffee and a provide our city’s Aboriginal citizens with all
game of pool has been transformed into a the help they need, from settlement services
social service organization that has also to English classes to affordable housing to
become the bearer and protector of the access to post-secondary education.
fragile Aboriginal culture. Finally, and vitally, we need to ensure
“It’s the only base they have as that such services are, as much
far as a cultural base, and we as possible “status blind” —
try to emphasize that in each that they serve all Aboriginal
of our programs,” [Cathy people who need support,
General, Executive Director not just status Indians, but
of the Niagara Regional also Inuit, Métis, non-status
Native Centre in Niagara-on- Indians, and those of
the-Lake] said. “It’s been blended heritage.
really successful, but we We can’t sustain a system
need ongoing cultural training where people only get
and teaching and we try to services because of who their
inform the non-native community grandparents were. We need to
as well.” make sure services are based on need,
Centuries-old native prophecies tell of a not on purity of bloodlines alone.
strange new people someday rising up to We can’t work together on this city’s future
re-establish the nation. with a social infrastructure based on a
John Hodson, the co-ordinator of the vanished past. We don’t need any more
Aboriginal education program at Brock commissions or inquiries. We need action,
University, believes they’ve arrived — and we need it soon. Neither our city nor
and they’re wearing facial piercings and our Aboriginal community has much time
backward baseball caps. to waste.
He said native cultures were “gutted” — Paula Simons, Edmonton Journal
by residential schools and restrictive
government policies until the 1970s, making
today’s youth the first generation in years p REFLECTION
to be in tune with the ways of the past, Share your own experiences or impressions
enabling them to “walk in both worlds.” of urban life with your classmates.
“Aboriginal people are becoming savvy
in both our own culture and savvy in
maneuvering within the mainstream,” he
said. “So we’re starting to ask ourselves: LOOKING BACK
“What is it our colonial experience has As a class, talk about the challenges
given us?” and the next stage is “OK, that can make it difficult for Aboriginal
what do we want to be?” people who grow up in rural areas to
“It’s like finding a place in modern life for make the transition to city life. How
ideas that are 45 000 years old.” are these challenges currently being
— The Standard, St. Catharines, Ontario
addressed? What challenges remain?

COMMUNITIES TODAY 197

 c
c
c
c
Effective Services for Aboriginal People
c
c
In addition, Aboriginal people
AS YOU READ are entitled to special services and
In the last section, you learned that lack of services is one rights. As stated in the Red Paper
of the biggest problems urban Aboriginal people face. Like (Aboriginal leaders’ response to the
other Canadians, Aboriginal people receive many services government’s 1969 White Paper)
from the federal government. Some services are only for Aboriginal people are “Citizens
Aboriginal people. However, these services vary widely in Plus.” When Canada’s historical
their availability, their accessibility, and their effectiveness. treaties were signed, the federal
Pages 198–205 examine some of the services the government agreed to provide First
federal government provides to Aboriginal people and the Nations with services in exchange
changes being made to how those services are provided. for use of the land they occupied.
In addition, it looks at issues and controversies Among the most important of these
surrounding these services and how they are delivered. services today are post-secondary
As you read, make notes about each controversy and education assistance and non-
consider your own attitude towards it.
insured health care benefits.
Contemporary land-claims
agreements, such as those signed by

F
irst Nations, Métis, and Inuit people in Canada Inuit people, often include similar
enjoy all the rights and benefits available to benefits.
Most of the federal government’s
other Canadians, including programs such as the programs and services for Abor-
Canadian Child Tax Benefit, old age pensions, and iginal people are available to First
Nations people living on reserves.
Employment Insurance. Some of the government’s services
are available to all Aboriginal people,
owledge
Kn including Métis, Inuit, First Nations
enous

people without status, and First

Nations people who live off-reserve.
For a person to be healthy [he or she]
di g

Provincial, territorial, and municipal

In must be adequately fed, be educated, governments sometimes offer ser-
have access to medical facilities, have vices for Aboriginal people, typically
access to spiritual comfort, live in a warm
in response to needs that federal gov-
and comfortable house with clean water
and safe sewage disposal, be secure in
ernment programs are not meeting.
cultural identity, have an opportunity to Governments must consider
excel in a meaningful endeavour, and so many issues when making decisions
on. These are not separate needs: they about Aboriginal programs. They
are all aspects of a whole. must consider, of course, their finan-
— Henry Zoe, Dogrib Treaty Eleven Council, cial responsibility to all Canadians.
Brief to the Royal Commission The cost of services must be kept
on Aboriginal Peoples under control and the effectiveness of
services must be monitored. In
Is health, as described by Henry Zoe, a right? What general, services are more easily
factors might prevent a person from being healthy delivered in areas with larger
as he describes it? What kinds of programs and
Aboriginal populations. Larger
services exist to address this problem?
populations make services more cost

198 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES

effective. Where there are larger M É T I S N AT I O N O F A L B E R TA
concentrations of Aboriginal people,
services can be tailored to meet their The Métis Nation of Alberta is having great success
specific needs. In some cases, with its Aboriginal Human Resources Development
Strategy programs. Three people who have received
Aboriginal organizations can be
help through this program are profiled below.
provided with the resources to design
and deliver their own programs. J e n n i f e r a n d H o l l y M u e l l e r,
In general, services are provided Royal Canadian Mounted Police
in one of three ways. Some programs Jennifer and Holly took the
are delivered jointly by Aboriginal Aboriginal Policing and Security
communities and the government. Program at Grant MacEwan
An example of this is the Aboriginal College with funding from the
Human Resources Development Métis Nation of Alberta Region
Strategy (AHRDS), a program VI. After successfully completing
designed to help Aboriginal people the program, they went on to
obtain and keep employment. complete their RCMP depot
training. Holly is now posted in
AHRDS offers programs in over
Rimbey and Jennifer is posted
400 locations across Canada. Each
at the Piikani Nation Reserve.
program is provided through a local
Aboriginal Human Resources B r a n d o n B u r s e y,
Development Agreement Holder. C o m p u t e r S u p p o r t Te c h n i c i a n
Each agreement holder determines The Region III Métis Employment
the programming needs of the Services in Calgary helped
community it serves. To meet the Brandon access funding for the
needs of the largest possible number Computer Support Technician
of Aboriginal people, AHRDS was Program at SAIT. Brandon not
developed in conjunction with the only completed the program with
Assembly of First Nations, the fantastic marks, he also tutored
Congress of Aboriginal Peoples, the his fellow students. He was hired
by IBM as a consultant and has
Inuit Tapiriit Kanatami, the Métis
had two promotions in his short
National Council, and the Native time with the company.
Women’s Association of Canada.
Other services are provided
directly by the government to Abor-
iginal communities. Aboriginal Busi-
ness Canada is an Industry Canada p REFLECTION
program that assists Aboriginal Research at least one employment or scholarship
entrepreneurs in starting or expand- program or service that you are eligible to receive
ing their own businesses. and report on the program to your class.
Some services are funded by the
government, but delivered by Abor-
iginal communities. For example, the
Athabasca Tribal Council operates
the Mark Amy Treatment Centre
for Addictions. The centre delivers a

COMMUNITIES TODAY 199

 There is great c twenty-eight-day program to First community life and the shortage of
diversity among c human resources mean that most
c Nations members who are struggling
Aboriginal cultures communities are able to handle only
and communities
c with addictions. The program tackles
c the issues of addiction from a First two or three major initiatives at any
across the country. c
For example, consider c Nations perspective. one time. This is one reason why
the different needs of c Whether the government or an Aboriginal services may require
an Inuit community c
c Aboriginal community delivers a significant time to develop.
and a First Nations c service often depends on the charac- As much as possible, the federal
reserve in southern c
Alberta. One-size-fits- c teristics of the community involved. government’s policy of devolution is
all programs do not c A community’s ability to deliver putting Aboriginal services in the
c hands of Aboriginal communities.
work. Government c services depends upon the size of its
programs must have c land base, its geographic location, This requires co-operation among
enough flexibility to c its adherence to traditional values, Aboriginal political leaders and
adapt to local needs. c
c economy, and culture, its local community members, along with
c history, and its human and financial regional, provincial, and national
c
c resources. governments.
c A lack of human resources —
c
c people with the specific skills needed CONTROVERSIES
c to assume control over services — is The existence of services specifically
c for Aboriginal people can be contro-
c a significant problem in many com-
c munities. For instance, there are versial. Some non-Aboriginal people
c approximately fifty Aboriginal physi- hold on to stereotypes that deny the
c
c cians in all of Canada, with even worth of Aboriginal cultures. They
c fewer people trained in health continue to believe that Aboriginal
c
c management. Compounding the people should assimilate and be
c problem, many well-trained Aborig- treated the same as other citizens.
c
c inal people leave their communities Others deny the special status of
c to seek jobs or further education Aboriginal peoples in Canada. These
c people argue that Aboriginal peoples
c elsewhere.
c Many Aboriginal communities are no more entitled to special
c have highly motivated, energetic, services than any other minority
c
c and skilled individuals who provide group. This argument trivializes the
c capable leadership, but this core unique relationship Aboriginal
c
c group is often overworked and over- peoples have with the land that is now
c burdened. The nature of Aboriginal called Canada, a relationship that is
c

200 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES

fundamental to their cultures, values, worry about the consequences of
and spirituality. It ignores their status concentrating power in the hands of
as indigenous peoples. In addition, a small and powerful Aboriginal elite.
the argument ignores historic obli- Others question the government’s
gations that the federal government motives for reducing its role in
accepted in treaties and other agree- Aboriginal communities. They fear
ments with Aboriginal groups. that the long-standing relationship
Another argument proposes that between government and Aborig-
Aboriginal people have changed and inal peoples will be jeopardized, and
are now culturally much the same as that they will lose their services as
other Canadians. This argument a result.
suggests that if this is true, then Another controversy concerns
Aboriginal people should be treated whether services should be status-
the same as other Canadians. blind and open to all Aboriginal
However, this argument rests on a people, or whether services should
fundamental misunderstanding about be specifically tailored for specific
the nature of cultures. It is true that groups of people, such as Métis
some Aboriginal traditions and people or First Nations people with
practices have faded over time, but treaty rights. Those who argue for
all cultures evolve. Aboriginal people status-blind services make the case
cannot be expected to behave as they that this change would result in less
did centuries ago, any more than overlap and more cost-effective
non-Aboriginal people can be. If services. Those who argue against it
other contemporary cultures exist, suggest that cultural identity and
contemporary (including urban) historical rights require that specific
Aboriginal cultures will also exist. groups have specific rights.
Some people fear that Aboriginal
services place an unfair tax burden on D E V O LV I N G S E R V I C E S T O
the average citizen. Such views ignore ABORIGINAL PEOPLES
the important economic, social, and Although some Aboriginal people
moral benefits of encouraging all express reluctance about Aboriginal
communities across Canada to administration of Aboriginal services,
fulfill their potential. The costs of most are highly supportive. Evidence
not improving services may well be suggests that services designed and
far greater. delivered by Aboriginal people to
Aboriginal people are also Aboriginal people are more effective.
divided on the subject of services for In a survey of people who use Friend-
their communities. Some Aboriginal ship Centres, for example, 83 per cent
people find comfort in the status quo said they were highly satisfied with
and resist the idea of fundamental the service they received.
change, such as the devolution of A major problem with services
services to Aboriginal governments for Aboriginal people that are
and organizations. Some argue that delivered by non-Aboriginal govern-
Aboriginal leadership is not yet ments is cultural bias. In the past,
prepared to deliver services. They mainstream governments did not

COMMUNITIES TODAY 201

 The Saskatchewan Urban Native Teacher
Education Program (SUNTEP) is offered by the
Gabriel Dumont Institute in co-operation with
Saskatchewan Learning, the University of
Aboriginal Head Start is an early childhood education program Regina, and the University of Saskatchewan.
funded by the federal government. This photo was taken at the The program ensures its graduates have a
Wii-jii-waaganesag (Ojibway for “our little companions”) Aboriginal solid background in Métis and First Nations
Head Start on Reserve Program at the Pic River First Nation in culture and history. Research the needs this
Ontario. Working with Aboriginal community groups, Head Start program is intended to fit.
programs across the country help teach children to read, eat well,
and speak their traditional languages. Research how this program is
delivered and administered. Decide whether and how improvements Many political leaders believe
could be made. Write a one-page report of recommendations. that government-delivered services
discourage Aboriginal people from
c always deliver and administer their realizing self-determination. Abor-
c
c programs in ways that respected the iginal leaders also feel that it is
c values, traditions, and cultures of important to offer services in their
c
c Aboriginal groups. They did not own languages and in ways that
c take into account the effect their reflect and promote their cultural
c
c programs might have on the people values. For example, non-Aboriginal
c and communities receiving them. health care services tend to focus on
c For example, residential schools, treating the symptoms of problems,
c
c theoretically an educational service rather than the causes. Aboriginal
c to First Nations, instead caused health care methods look at more
c
c enormous social and cultural holistic solutions to health problems.
c dislocation. Even today, govern- Today, governments recognize
c
c ment programs and services for that they cannot develop effective
c Aboriginal people may contain programs and services for Aborig-
c
c unintended cultural bias. inal people without their help in
c One way to ensure that programs designing, delivering, and evaluat-
c are not culturally biased is to listen ing them. However, government
c
c to the people who receive the systems, by their nature, tend to
c services. For example, Aboriginal preserve the status quo. Govern-
c
c people have asked that agencies ment officials may have little
c dealing with Aboriginal communities incentive to encourage Aboriginal
c
c employ more Aboriginal workers communities to develop innovative
c and that they offer services in solutions to their problems. Some
c
c Aboriginal languages. Another solu- may resist change, even with
c tion is to hand over control of significant evidence that suggests
c services to Aboriginal people. the need for change.
c

202 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES

ABORIGINAL SERVICES
FOR ABORIGINAL
PEOPLE
Today, many Aboriginal people are
designing and delivering services
for their own communities. When
individuals and communities are
given the opportunity to conduct
their own affairs, they become more
self-sufficient. Individuals learn
that they have a role to play in
making their communities stronger,
What cultural values
healthier, safer, and more productive. For example, Nunavut Sivunik-
might affect the way
When community members savut is an eight-month college health care is delivered
deliver services, the whole commu- program that helps Inuit youth to to Aboriginal populations?
nity is empowered. Most Aboriginal- make the transition from their home How might more
led services are based on widespread in Nunavut to university in southern Aboriginal health care
Canada. The program teaches stu- workers increase the
community consultation, which
quality of care for
results in programs that address dents about Inuit history, organiza- Aboriginal populations?
needs appropriately. tions, and the Nunavut land-claim

N AT I V E C O U N S E L L I N G S E R V I C E S O F A L B E R TA
Native Counselling Services of Alberta offers several restorative justice and
correctional programs that ensure Aboriginal people are treated fairly and
equally in Alberta’s justice system. One of its correctional programs, the
Stan Daniels Healing Centre, is a service it provides under contract with
Correctional Services Canada. Programming at the centre is guided by
resident needs under the direction of Elders. One successful program at
the institution is the Oskipi Matsuin (Cree for “new life”) program, which
helps residents develop life skills in a culturally sensitive manner.
Native Counselling Services also offers a Criminal Courtwork program,
which counsels Aboriginal people in their rights, court procedure, and
availability of resources to help them. The program costs are shared between Alberta Justice
and Justice Canada. In the 2001–2002 fiscal year, the program had 14 623 clients.
A significant initiative for young offenders is a program called Kochee Mena, which is Cree for
“try again.” The Alberta Solicitor General contracts Native Counselling Services to provide the
service for Aboriginal male young offenders. Kochee Mena is a safe, holistic environment that
provides residents with education (in partnership with the Edmonton Public School Board) and
cultural programs, as well as recreation and independent living education.

p REFLECTION
How do these examples from the Native Counselling Services of Alberta demonstrate the
increasing flexibility that governments are showing in order to address Aboriginal people’s
needs? Why are initiatives in justice important? What kinds of programs might alleviate the
need for so many justice services?

COMMUNITIES TODAY 203

 trained people to communicate
land-claims negotiation status to
local communities. Since settlement
of the land claim, it has become a
college transition program.
In Alberta, one successful service
began in April 2003, when the Alexis
First Nation signed a Community
Métis Child and Family Services heads a program to provide various kinds of
support for Métis children. Here, fiddle instructor Gary Lee gives lessons to Tripartite Agreement that gives it
support children’s cultural education. greater control over policing services.
Under the agreement, two Aboriginal
members of the Royal Canadian
I have been in nursing for thirteen
years and I have recently returned to Mounted Police First Nations Com-
university to complete a baccalaureate munity Policing Service provide
in nursing. Nursing has given me full-time service to the reserve. The
the opportunity to work in areas such two officers work out of a satellite
as Auxiliary, Medical Surgical, office located in the community.
Emergency, and Labour and Delivery. Residents on the Community Advi-
Through further education I now work sory Committee consult with the
in Population Health as a Diabetes officers to ensure that communica-
Educator and Health Promotion Lee Ann Johnson
tions are open and that local policing
Specialist. My education and work issues are addressed. This agree-
experience has helped me grow professionally and
ment provides the community with
develop my self-confidence and self-esteem. Now,
professional, effective, accountable,
I feel like I have more opportunities than I ever
dreamed possible. and culturally sensitive services.
Another initiative involves
I’ve always been a helping person and was drawn
Aboriginal Health Careers, a federal
to the medical profession because I saw that I could
government program designed to
do so much to help people. I never imagined, though,
how much I would learn, because in medicine, you address the shortage of First Nations
never stop learning. Through medicine I have also health professionals. The program
gained self-knowledge about my own health and encourages Aboriginal youth, in parti-
well-being and the importance of preventative health. cular high school students, to pursue
I strongly encourage young people to enter the health training and careers in health care.
profession. It’s a career that can take you so many As part of this program, the
directions with endless opportunities. Opportunities Treaty Seven Tribal Council has
that are waiting for you in your community. worked hard to encourage young
— Lee Ann Johnson, Registered Nurse, people to pursue health careers. For
Kainai Diabetes Program example, the council provides
funding to students to research and
c settlement. It also helps the students develop school projects related to
c adjust to life in an urban environ- health careers. It also offers Nursing
c
c ment. The program was initiated in Incentive Awards, financial awards
c 1985 by the Tunngavik Federation to students who pursue nursing as
c
c of Nunavut. The original program a career.

204 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES

 ues for I
Iss

nv
estigatio
DESIGNING EFFECTIVE SERVICES FOR
ABORIGINAL PEOPLE
n
How should effective services for Aboriginal people be designed
and delivered?

W H AT T O D O
1. With a partner, visit the Government of 7. Create a promotional brochure and Web
Canada Web site (www.canada.gc.ca) to site advertising the service and its goals.
find out more about the various services Include details, such as what the service
that the federal government provides to offers, who qualifies for the service, and
Aboriginal people. how people may access it.
2. Choose one government service that
interests you. Why does the government
offer this service? What benefits, both
direct and indirect, does it offer to
Aboriginal people? What could make the
service more effective?
3. If possible, supplement your research by
interviewing a local person who either
receives services from or works for this
service. What are his or her impressions
of the effectiveness and problems with
the service? LOOKING BACK
4. Prepare similar research on an Aboriginal
service that is delivered by an Aboriginal The examples of services discussed
organization, even if it is funded by the in this section relate specifically to
federal or provincial government. What policing, health, and employment or
are its challenges and accomplishments? economic development. What other
How effective do you believe it is? What services should have Aboriginal
could make it more effective? involvement? As a class, discuss the
5. If possible, interview someone who role non-Aboriginal governments
receives benefits from this service or should play in providing services to
someone who works for it. What are his Aboriginal communities. Why are some
or her impressions of the effectiveness First Nations communities more active
and problems with the service?
than others in designing and running
6. Design a service to be run by Aboriginal their own services? What factors might
people for Aboriginal people. Be sure to
deter some communities from doing
consider some of the challenges and
problems you found in your research so? Why are Aboriginal services for
about the other services you studied. Aboriginal people seen as an important
What particular benefits do you see in goal by both the federal government
having this service run by an Aboriginal and Aboriginal leaders? How does this
community? What problems or issue relate to larger questions, such
challenges might communities face in as Aboriginal self-determination?
creating and delivering this service?

COMMUNITIES TODAY 205

 c
c
c
c
Chapter Six Review
c
c
c
c C h e c k Yo u r U n d e r s t a n d i n g 6. Indian and Northern Affairs Canada
c 1. Why do some First Nations people has a stated goal of ensuring that
c choose to live on reserves? What are people living on reserves receive the
c the major benefits of reserve life? same basic government services as
c other Canadians. What steps is the
c 2. List factors that might make a
c First Nations person choose to government taking to accomplish
c leave a reserve and move to a city. this? In your opinion, has the
c government achieved its goal?
c 3. List factors that can make it
c difficult for Aboriginal people used 7. Why do some non-Aboriginal people
c to life in Aboriginal communities object to special government
c services for Aboriginal people? In
c to make the transition to life in an
urban centre. a table, list some of the arguments
c
c in one column. In the second
c 4. Why might some First Nations column, examine each argument
c people move back to reserves, from an Aboriginal perspective.
c even if they are adapting well to
c life in a city? 8. Many First Nations now take an
c active role in delivering child and
c 5. What are the challenges and family services on reserves. Why
c benefits of developing resources might this be an important area
c in Aboriginal communities?
c for Aboriginal-led initiatives?
9. What factors can affect a
Marvin Francis was a poet, playwright, artist, and theatre community’s ability to deliver its
director who passed away in early 2005. When he was a own services?
child, his mother moved him and his siblings away from 10. What roles do Friendship Centres
the Heart Lake First Nation to help them avoid attending play in the urban community?
residential school. Francis grew up in many locations,
but spent much time in Winnipeg and Edmonton. Reading and Writing
11. Research at least four examples
mcPemmican of services now being delivered
first you get the grease from canola buffalo by Aboriginal people to Aboriginal
people. What needs does each
then you find mystery meat
service address? For each one,
you must package this in
describe why it is appropriate that
bright colours just like beads management of the service is in
let the poor intake their money take their health Aboriginal hands. What differences
sound familiar does it make to the people
chase fast food off the cliff receiving the service?
speed beef 12. Read the poem by Marvin Francis
deer on a bun on this page. It conveys some of
bury in the ground his impressions of life in an urban
environment. “McPemmican”
special this day discusses the fast-food, disposable
mcPemmican “cash those icons in culture prevalent on city streets.
how about a Discuss the poem with a partner and
mcTreaty” summarize what you think Francis’s
point is and how he makes it.
would you like some lies with that?

206 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES

Air Mikisew is owned and operated by As part of its community initiatives around its Athabasca Oil Sands project,
the Mikisew Cree First Nation out of Fort Shell Canada helped construct a new Elders Centre at Fort McKay and agreed
Chipewyan, Alberta. The successful airline to help finance its operation for the first three years.
has a full range of air services, including
fishing charters with its floatplanes. It is also
under contract with the Alberta government to
provide emergency medical air transportation. 16. The Elders Centre at Fort McKay,
pictured on this page, is one way
that resource development has
benefited a local community.
Viewing and Representing Write a newspaper article about
13. Imagine you are the recruiting how resource development has
officer for a newly established affected a local reserve or
First Nations police service. Create settlement. You will likely need to
a poster to attract applicants for interview people living and working
the position of police officer. in the community to get a sense of
Remember to list the qualifications different perspectives on the topic.
for your ideal candidate and to
describe the reasons why people Going Further
might enjoy the job. 17. As a class, arrange a visit to your
local Friendship Centre. Ask a
14. Design a campaign to educate member of the staff to give you a
non-Aboriginal Canadians about tour. Talk to the people who work
treaties, treaty rights, and services there and, if you can, some of the
for First Nations. You might plan people who use the facility. Write a
posters, billboards, radio or report about your visit, describing
television advertisements, or the role the Friendship Centre
press releases. plays in your community.

Speaking and Listening

15. Air Mikisew, featured in a LOOKING BACK
photograph on this page, is just
one of many band- and settlement- Return to the narrative voice
operated businesses in Alberta. in Shingoose’s song on
Research a business run by a local pages 178–179. How does
First Nation or Métis Settlement. this narrative voice compare to
How does the business affect life the voice expressed in Marvin
in the community? If possible, Francis’s poem? Is humour also
interview a spokesperson for the part of Francis’s work? If so,
business to find specific examples explain how. Write your own
of the business’ impact on the
song or poem that describes
community. Give a short (5 minute)
presentation about the company your experiences of urban or
to your class. rural lifestyles.

COMMUNITIES TODAY 207