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Using Flue Gas Desulfurization Gypsum to Remove Dissolved Phosphorus from

Agricultural Drainage Waters

Article in Journal of Environmental Quality · May 2012

DOI: 10.2134/jeq2011.0294 · Source: PubMed

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Journal of Environmental Quality Special Section
TECHNICAL REPORTS
Emerging Technologies to Remove Nonpoint P Sources from Surface Water and Groundwater

Using Flue Gas Desulfurization Gypsum to Remove Dissolved

Phosphorus from Agricultural Drainage Waters
Ray B. Bryant,* Anthony R. Buda, Peter J.A. Kleinman, Clinton D. Church, Louis S. Saporito, Gordon J. Folmar,
Salil Bose, and Arthur L. Allen

High levels of accumulated phosphorus (P) in soils of the Delmarva

Peninsula are a major source of dissolved P entering drainage ditches
that empty into the Chesapeake Bay. The objective of this study was
to design, construct, and monitor a within-ditch filter to remove
dissolved P, thereby protecting receiving waters against P losses from
A large area of intensive poultry production on the
Delmarva Peninsula has been scrutinized for its contri-
butions of nutrients to the Chesapeake Bay. Decades of
chicken litter applications have led to excessive soil phosphorus
(P) levels and are of concern for dissolved P losses (Pautler and
upstream areas. In April 2007, 110 Mg of flue gas desulfurization Sims, 2000; Sims et al., 2000). This legacy P can be a significant
(FGD) gypsum, a low-cost coal combustion product, was used as the
reactive ingredient in a ditch filter. The ditch filter was monitored
source of P entering drainage ditches that empty into streams and
from 2007 to 2010, during which time 29 storm-induced flow rivers that eventually flow to the Chesapeake Bay. University of
events were characterized. For storm-induced flow, the event mean Maryland Eastern Shore (UMES) and USDA–ARS research-
concentration efficiency for total dissolved P (TDP) removal for ers have documented substantial P concentrations in agricul-
water passing through the gypsum bed was 73 ± 27% confidence tural drainage waters derived from these high-P soils (?450 mg
interval (a = 0.05). The removal efficiency for storm-induced flow
by the summation of load method was 65 ± 27% confidence interval
kg-1 Mehlich-3 P). Even when fields receive no further P addi-
(a = 0.05). Although chemically effective, the maximum observed tions, total P concentrations in ditch drainage are 1 to 3 mg L−1,
hydraulic conductivity of FGD gypsum was 4 L s−1, but it decreased with dissolved P accounting for approximately 70% of the load
over time to <1 L s−1. When bypass flow and base flow were taken into (Kleinman et al., 2010). Loads can vary widely in response to pre-
consideration, the ditch filter removed approximately 22% of the cipitation patterns, but annual P losses of 25 kg ha−1 are common
TDP load over the 3.6-yr monitoring period. Due to maintenance
and clean-out requirements, we conclude that ditch filtration using
(Kleinman et al., 2007). Existing conservation practices, such as
FGD gypsum is not practical at a farm scale. However, we propose minimum tillage and edge-of-field grass filter strips, are designed
an alternate design consisting of FGD gypsum-filled trenches to reduce sediment-bound particulate P in runoff and offer no
parallel to the ditch to intercept and treat groundwater before it control over dissolved P losses (Sharpley et al., 2004). Eliminating
enters the ditch. P applications during future cropping cycles (i.e., phytomin-
ing) will do little to reduce P losses in the near term because,
in extremely high-P soils, phytomining is a decadal process that
primarily removes P from the topsoil (van der Salm et al., 2009;
Kleinman et al., 2011). The importance of agricultural drainage
to nonpoint-source pollution of surface waters and the need for
soil and water conservation practices that can minimize P losses in
subsurface flow in the Atlantic Coastal Plain of the United States
and other areas were emphasized by Sims et al. (1998). However,
over the last decade, there has been little success in developing
viable strategies for reducing these losses.
In this study, our strategy for controlling dissolved P losses
was to intercept the flow path and sorb dissolved P, thereby
removing it from agricultural drainage waters leaving the farm.

Copyright © 2012 by the American Society of Agronomy, Crop Science Society R.B. Bryant, A.R. Buda, P.J.A. Kleinman, C.D. Church, L.S. Saporito, and G.J. Folmar,
of America, and Soil Science Society of America. All rights reserved. No part of USDA–ARS, Bldg. 3702, Curtin Rd., University Park, PA 16802; S. Bose, Constellation
this periodical may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, Power Generation, 1005 Brandon Shores Rd., FSRC, 2nd Floor, Baltimore, MD
electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information 21226; A.L. Allen, Univ. of Maryland Eastern Shore, 11868 Academic Oval, 3111
storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. John T. Williams Hall, Princess Anne, MD 21853. Mention of trade names or
commercial products in this publication is solely for the purpose of providing
J. Environ. Qual. specific information and does not imply recommendation or endorsement by
doi:10.2134/jeq2011.0294 the U.S. Department of Agriculture. USDA is an equal opportunity provider and
Freely available online through the author-supported open-access option. employer. Assigned to Associate Editor Gerwin F. Koopmans.
Received 15 Aug. 2011.
*Corresponding author ([Link]@[Link]). Abbreviations: FGD, flue gas desulfurization; ICP–OES, inductively coupled
© ASA, CSSA, SSSA plasma–optical emission spectroscopy; TDP, total dissolved phosphorus; UMES,
5585 Guilford Rd., Madison, WI 53711 USA University of Maryland Eastern Shore.
The drainage ditch itself is the concentrated flow path for water 2:1, is usually spring applied on fields to be planted with corn at
and dissolved P originating from upstream nonpoint source rates equivalent to crop removal of P in accordance with guide-
areas. By removing dissolved P from drainage ditch water by lines set forth in the Maryland P Site Index.
filtration at one location within a ditch, we can protect against In April 2007, one of the larger collection ditches on the
downstream environmental impacts due to P losses from all farm, bounded on both sides by poultry houses and soils with
upstream, nonpoint source areas. Because this previously pro- Mehlich-3 P values averaging approximately 450 mg kg−1, was
posed strategy (Penn et al., 2007; Penn et al., 2010) affords no selected as the construction site for the ditch filter (Fig. 2).
agronomic benefit that could translate to profit, the cost of Within the approximately 17-ha area drained by the ditch, the
establishing and maintaining a treatment system must be kept to only litter application during the study period (2007–2010)
a minimum. In recognition of the cost constraints and in search occurred in 2009. A poultry litter application at the rate of 0.5
of beneficial uses for waste materials, considerable work has been Mg ha−1 that was applied and incorporated before planting had
done to characterize the composition and P sorption character- no discernible effect on P loss. During the study period, high soil
istics of industrial byproducts (Leader et al., 2008; Penn et al., P values controlled dissolved P loss in drainage waters.
2011). For our purpose, we used flue gas desulfurization (FGD) Soils in the drainage area have silt loam surface horizons and
gypsum, also referred to as synthetic gypsum, which has sorption well structured, silty clay loam, argillic, subsurface horizons that
properties that are effective in removing or immobilizing P in favor preferential flow. Below a depth of approximately 50 cm,
water and soil and in poultry, dairy, and swine manures (Moore the argillic horizon transitions to highly permeable, medium, and
and Miller, 1994; Stout et al., 1998; Stout et al., 2000; Clark et coarse sands containing discontinuous clay lenses. Soils are pre-
al., 2001; Dou et al., 2003; Zhang et al., 2004; Penn and Bryant, dominantly poorly drained Typic Endoaquults and Umbraquults
2006; Dick et al., 2006; Penn et al., 2007; Leader et al., 2008; (Quindocqua, Othello, and Kentuck), with small areas of Aquic
Penn et al., 2010; Penn et al., 2011). Perhaps more importantly, Hapludults (Manokin, Glassboro and Woodstown) (Soil Survey
FGD gypsum has a low metal content (Kost et al., 2005), and Staff, 2010). Slopes are 0 to 2%, and elevation is approximately
studies have shown that concentrations of metals in leachate are 2.5 m above sea level.
below levels of concern (Ghosh and Subbarao, 1998; Punshon
et al., 2001; Ishak et al., 2002; Kost et al., 2005). Other stud- Ditch Filter Construction
ies have used calcium (Ca) to effectively precipitate dissolved P Flue gas desulfurization gypsum (110 Mg) and sand (5 Mg)
from runoff, but lime filters (Kirkkala et al., 2011) and crushed were used in the construction of the filter bed (Fig. 3). To avoid
concrete (Egemose et al., 2012) result in high pH values (>11) flooding during large storm events, the gypsum ditch filter was
in the effluent. Flue gas desulfurization gypsum was expected to designed to allow excess flow to spill over and bypass the filter.
be pH neutral. Additionally, several studies have shown the ben- To measure bypass flow during large flow events, a compound
eficial effects of FGD gypsum use as an agricultural amendment V-notch, straight-walled weir was used to block flow and to
(Chen et al., 2001; Clark et al., 2001; Kukier et al., 2001), and establish a hydrologic head above the filtration bed. After the
a research and demonstration effort is underway in the United weir was installed, gabions (rock-filled wire cages) were placed
States to promote acceptance in the agricultural community for behind the weir to hold it in place and to prevent erosion of the
using FGD products (Dick et al., 2006). ditch side walls. A manifold, placed in front of the weir, was con-
The specific objectives of this study were to design, build, and nected to a drain pipe, which routed the filtered effluent under-
monitor the effectiveness of an in-ditch filter to remove dissolved ground around the weir and through a partially buried metal box
P, thereby reducing nonpoint source P losses from upstream agri- that provided access to flow monitoring and sampling equip-
cultural fields. Key considerations included effective sorption of ment. The filter bed consists of six 30-m-long, 10-cm-diameter
dissolved P, filtration of large flow volumes, and minimal adverse tile lines that were encased in cylindrically shaped filter fabric,
environmental impacts due to the release of heavy metals or toxics. attached to the manifold, and sandwiched within a layer of sand
with FGD gypsum above (25 cm thick) and below (10 cm thick).
Materials and Methods A coconut fiber erosion control mat stabilized the surface of the
Study Site bed until vegetation established by natural succession.
This study was conducted on the UMES Research and Analyses
Teaching Farm located near the city of Princess Anne in Somerset
The source of the FGD gypsum used in this study was the
County, Maryland (Fig. 1). The farm, which was formerly a com-
Conemaugh Generating Station, a coal-fired power station owned
mercial poultry farm, was acquired by UMES in 1993. It lies
and operated by Reliant Energy near New Florence, Pennsylvania.
in the heart of the poultry producing area and has some of the
As received from the power station, the FGD gypsum was com-
highest soil P values on the Eastern Shore in close proximity to
prised of uniform silt-sized particles, and it was used in the construc-
the Chesapeake Bay. The fertility index values shown in Fig. 1
tion of the filter without physical modification. Samples of “fresh”
are equivalent to soil test values by the Mehlich-3 method for
FGD gypsum that was used to construct the filter in April 2007 and
available P. Soil test values by other methods were converted to
samples of the “spent” gypsum that were taken from the filter bed
Mehlich-3 equivalents. Mean values for each county represent
in January 2011 were digested following USEPA standard method
the mean for only those fertility index values that exceed 150.
3050b (Kimbrough and Wakakuwa, 1989). The digests were ana-
The farm typifies ditch-drained agriculture in the area; a corn
lyzed by inductively coupled plasma–optical emission spectroscopy
and soybean rotation with a winter wheat cover crop is grown
(ICP–OES) (Varian 730-ES Axial ICP Spectrometer) for the fol-
under no-till. Poultry litter, which typically has a N:P ratio of
lowing elements and detection limits (mg L−1): Al (0.01), As (0.01),
Journal of Environmental Quality
Fig. 1. Location of study area and mean Maryland P fertility index values (equivalent to Mehlich-3 P values) by county. UMES, University of
Maryland Eastern Shore.

Ca (0.1), Cd (0.01), Cu (0.01), Fe (0.01), Hg (0.01), K (0.1), Mg and the summation of load method (USEPA, 2002). Erickson et
(0.01), Mn (0.01), Mo (0.01), Na (0.1), Ni (0.01), P (0.01), Pb al. (2010) describe both methods in detail and provide examples.
(0.1), Na (0.1), Ni (0.01), S (0.1), and Zn (0.01). American Sigma
900Max automated samplers were used to take water samples from Storm Flow Separation
the ditch upstream of the filter and from the collection pipe that Data were summarized by individual storm events, which
routed the filtered effluent around the weir and discharged it to the necessitated separating storm flow from base flow. For longer
ditch downstream of the filter. A shaft encoder was used to detect duration storms (rainfall lasting at least several hours), a semi-
a rise in water level during a flow event and trigger the automated log separation technique (Hall, 1968) was used. This approach
samplers to begin drawing samples at 2-h intervals during and after assumes that the point at which storm flow stops appears as the
the event. Water samples were filtered (0.45 mm) immediately after beginning of a straight line when the hydrograph is plotted on a
collection, and pH was measured
at the UMES Nutrient Analysis
Laboratory. Samples were stored
in a cold room and shipped on ice
to the USDA–ARS Water Quality
Laboratory at University Park,
Pennsylvania for ICP–OES analysis
for the same elements and detection
limits reported above. Phosphorus
measured by ICP–OES in the filtered
water samples is hereafter referred to
as total dissolved P (TDP). Filtered
samples were also analyzed using the
ICP–OES equipped with a hydride
generator to provide detection limits
for determinations of mercury (Hg)
and arsenic (As) of 0.001 mg L−1,
suitably below the drinking water
standards of 0.002 and 0.01 mg L−1,
respectively. Dilutions of 1000 mg
L−1 National Institute of Standards
and Technology traceable standards
for Hg and As were used to develop
standard curves for these analyses.
Analyses of long-term performance
were calculated by the event mean Fig. 2. The flue gas desulfurization gypsum ditch filter was installed on a major collection ditch drain-
ing 17 ha. The average Mehlich-3 soil test value is approximately 450 mg kg-1. The “gypsum curtain” is a
concentration efficiency method second-generation design.

[Link] • [Link] • [Link]

 (0.26%), and P (0.03%). All other impurities were pres-
ent at <0.01%. Although precipitation as CaPO4 is
the mechanism for P removal by gypsum (Penn et al.,
2011; Stoner et al., 2012), Fe and Al oxides present as
impurities in the FGD gypsum may remove phosphate
by adsorption. In this discussion, we use the term “P
removal” to include both mechanisms of removing
TDP from solution. Before decommissioning the ditch
filter, we present a preliminary assessment of the envi-
ronmental impacts of using FGD gypsum for filtration
in terms of the fate of Hg (2.7 × 10−5%) and As (1.9
× 10−3%), which are the elements of environmental
concern that were originally present as impurities in
the FGD gypsum. A more thorough analysis of these
and other environmental impacts is planned when the
ditch filter is decommissioned and we can destructively
sample the gypsum bed.

Chemical Efficiency during Storm Flow

Fig. 3. Clockwise from upper left: 110 Mg of flue gas desulfurization (FGD) gypsum A total of 31 storm-induced flow events occurred
was used in construction; a weir impedes ditch flow and measures overflow (white from April 2007 to December 2010. With the excep-
arrows show direction of flow); six 10-cm tile lines (30 m long) attach to the manifold
in front of the weir; tile lines embedded in sand are sandwiched in FGD gypsum tion of two events on 23 Apr. 2009 and 29 May 2009
above and below; and filtered effluent is routed underground around the weir and when we experienced equipment failure, water chemis-
through flow and concentration monitoring instruments before release downstream. try and flow data were collected for all storm-induced
semi-log scale. This straight line was then projected back to the flow events. Storm event date, volume of flow passing
time of the hydrograph peak. Another straight line was used to through the filter bed, flow-weighted mean concentrations, loads
connect the projected line with the stream flow hydrograph at of TDP in the influent and effluent, and percent removal of TDP
the time the stream flow began to increase. The area below the for storm events are reported in Table 1. Assessing the efficiency
two lines was assumed to be base flow. The area above the pro- of the ditch filter during storm events is important because a
jected lines and below the stream flow hydrograph was assumed large proportion of TDP loss occurs during storm events. For
to be storm flow. storm-induced flow, the event mean concentration efficiency
For storms of shorter duration (those in which rainfall lasted for TDP capture for water passing through the gypsum bed was
no more than a couple of hours and in which stream flow rates 73 ± 27% confidence interval (a = 0.05). By the summation of
returned to prestorm values 1 or 2 h after rainfall ceased), base load method, we calculated a removal of 65 ± 27% confidence
flow was assumed not to increase during the storm. Consequently, interval (a = 0.05). Erickson et al. (2010) provide a rationale
the base flow was given a constant value during the storm and for choosing one method over the other depending on assump-
was then subtracted from the stream flow to produce storm flow. tions and the desired interpretation of the results. In our case, the
results obtained by the two methods are in close agreement and
Results and Discussion serve to reinforce the outcome.
At a head of 50 cm above the surface of the gypsum bed, water
The success of the gypsum filter as a strategy for removing
passed through the gypsum bed at a rate of approximately 2.5
TDP from agricultural ditch drainage waters was assessed in
L s−1 during the first year of operation. The filtration rate was
terms of “chemical efficiency,” “system efficiency,” and “environ-
approximately 2 L s−1 in the second year, but in Year 3 the filtra-
mental impact.” Chemical efficiency refers to the amount of P
tion rate dropped to slightly less than 1 L s−1. In Year 3, storms
removed from water that passed through the FGD gypsum filter
with low flow breached the weir. We observed this decrease in
bed. System efficiency is defined as TDP removed as a propor-
filtration rate over time and suspected sealing due to deposition
tion of TDP that entered the ditch and either passed through the
of silt on the surface of the filter bed. In August 2010, we tilled
FGD gypsum filter bed or over the weir in bypass flow. System
the surface of the gypsum bed, and flow rate through the filter
efficiency is therefore dependent on the hydraulic conductivity
increased to 2.7 L s−1, approximately the same as during the first
of the gypsum bed because it determines the ability of the filter
year of operation.
to process large volumes of water during storm events. System
Flow rate determines the residence time of water passing
efficiency is assessed in terms of efficiency of P removal during
through the gypsum bed (i.e., the time available for P removal by
storm events and in terms of overall efficiency of P removal,
precipitation or adsorption to occur). After June 2009, removal of
including intervals of base flow between storm events.
TDP was consistently above 90%, corresponding to the reduced
Expressed as a percentage of the total cations (by weight) that
filtration rate and longer residence time as described above. There
were determined by ICP–OES as listed above, a digested sample
was a weak inverse correlation between percent removal of TDP
of the “fresh” FGD gypsum used to construct the filter contained
and flow rate through the gypsum bed (R2 = 0.36; p = 0.005),
55.3% Ca and 38.2% sulfur (S) (total = 93.5%). Impurities
indicating that other factors, such as antecedent moisture condi-
include Na (3.55%), Fe (1.32%), Mg (0.77%), Al (0.54%), K
tions in the gypsum bed, play a role in determining the efficiency
Journal of Environmental Quality
of P removal. Total dissolved P in the effluent was high during the proved that the design of the ditch filter could withstand extreme
December 2008 event after a 6-mo dry spell. Under initially dry flow events, 93% of the storm flow topped the weir and bypassed
conditions, some time is required for the gypsum to become wet the gypsum bed. Only 7% of the storm flow passed through the
and dissolve sufficiently to support a high concentration of dis- gypsum bed. The maximum ditch flow rate during this event was
solved Ca to react with the dissolved P. Furthermore, animal bur- 215 L s−1, whereas the maximum filtration rate of the gypsum
rows and root channels can provide conduits for flow that bypasses bed was 4 L s−1. The remainder of 2007 was relatively dry, and
the filter bed and routes water directly to the buried drain tiles. 100% of storm flow in the June, July, and August events passed
Although the surface of the filter bed was obscured by vegetation, through the filter bed. Beginning in 2008, precipitation events
we speculate that high levels of TDP in the effluent during three returned to normal, and storm events produced bypass flow over
successive storms in April 2009 may have been due to the presence the weir in all but two of the remaining storm events. The dura-
of burrows that allowed bypass flow through the filter bed but tions of the 29 storm-induced flow events ranged from 10 to 130
which later became clogged. The October 2010 event occurred h, with an average duration of 50 h.
after tilling the surface of the filter bed in August, and the level of By the summation of load method, system removal of TDP
TDP in the effluent from that event was similar to levels observed was 9.2 ± 3.7% confidence interval (a = 0.05) during storm-flow
during 2007 when flow-through rates were greater. events. Obviously, the hydraulic conductivity of the gypsum bed
limits its ability to filter drainage during higher-flow storm events.
System Efficiency during Storm Flow
After construction of the ditch filter, the area received 84 Overall System Efficiency
mm of precipitation within 30 h (18 Apr. 2007 event). This was Continuous flow monitoring throughout the study allowed
the second largest ditch flow event, with 7879 × 103 L recorded calculation of the total amount of TDP removed during storm
during the monitoring period (Table 2). Although this event flow and base flow. After storm flow, the ditch filter functioned
Table 1. Flow volumes of water passing through the gypsum filter bed and total dissolved phosphorus removal (chemical efficiency) for individual
storm events.

Storm event Chemical efficiency based on concentration Chemical efficiency based on load
Filtered flow
date Influent TDP† Effluent TDP Removal Influent TDP Effluent TDP Removal
L × 103 ——— mg L−1 ——— % ——— kg ——— %
13 Apr. 2007‡ 16 0.056 0.032 42 0.001 0.001 54
18 Apr. 2007 571 1.576 1.073 32 0.811 0.503 38
6 June 2007 2 0.171 0.012 93 0.001 0.001 100
30 July 2007 57 0.879 0.289 67 0.129 0.027 79
22 Aug. 2007 97 1.000 0.700 30 0.098 0.064 35
8 Feb. 2008 158 0.200 0.136 32 0.031 0.025 21
20 Feb. 2008 366 0.365 0.330 10 0.220 0.210 42
28 Apr. 2008 340 0.578 0.266 54 0.229 0.116 49
9 May 2008 148 1.581 0.405 74 0.319 0.104 67
16 May 2008 87 0.576 0.241 58 0.154 0.028 82
5 June 2008 315 1.721 0.310 82 0.540 0.106 80
5 July 2008 170 1.843 0.255 86 0.314 0.050 84
11 Dec. 2008 484 1.111 0.759 32 0.635 0.393 38
15 Mar. 2009 124 0.616 0.281 54 0.077 0.034 56
6 Apr. 2009 230 0.722 0.548 24 0.166 0.093 44
11 Apr. 2009 201 0.810 0.734 9 0.104 0.076 27
14 Apr. 2009 318 0.526 0.607 −15 0.081 0.090 −11
18 June 2009 225 1.909 0.078 96 0.014 0.001 96
3 Aug. 2009 68 1.871 0.128 93 0.127 0.009 93
12 Aug. 2009 146 1.207 0.057 95 0.157 0.009 95
24 Aug. 2009 256 2.231 0.065 97 0.571 0.016 97
10 Sept. 2009 255 0.985 0.064 93 0.274 0.014 95
17 Oct. 2009 1 1.196 0.049 96 0.316 0.013 96
12 Nov. 2009 263 1.033 0.040 96 0.396 0.015 96
9 Dec. 2009 73 0.234 0.035 85 0.060 0.005 91
23 Jan. 2010 118 0.729 0.021 97 0.086 0.002 97
29 Mar. 2010 16 0.821 0.013 98 0.013 0.001 98
9 Apr. 10 27 1.860 0.011 99 0.050 0.001 99
1 Oct. 10 285 1.433 0.577 60 1.314 0.545 59
Mean 1.029 0.280 0.251 0.088
† Total dissolved phosphorus.
‡ Dates in italics indicate that storm flow did not breach the weir. All flow passed through the gypsum bed.

[Link] • [Link] • [Link]

as a drainage control structure and slowly released filtered water and 2010 as the hydraulic conductivity of the gypsum bed
over a period of several days to weeks. Although P concentra- decreased. As expected, the total load of dissolved P entering
tions during base flow conditions were considerably lower than the ditch filter within a yearly period is highly correlated to the
during storm flow, the additional TDP in base flow that was total ditch flow for the year (R2 = 0.98; p = 0.008). The over-
treated by the filter was substantial. Ditch flow, TDP loads, and all system efficiency ranged from 17 to 30% removal of TDP
overall P removal efficiencies are summarized by year in Table 3. per year (Table 3), which is considerably better than the overall
The trends are similar to those observed in storm flow. Although 9.2% removal of TDP in storm flow alone. The lower overall
total flow was highly variable from year to year, the percent of system efficiencies occurred in years 2009 and 2010 in spite of
total ditch flow that passed through the filter declined in 2009 higher chemical efficiencies during these years. The ability to

Table 2. Total ditch flow volumes, percent of total flow passing through the filter bed, influent and effluent total dissolved phosphorus, and total dis-
solved phosphorus removal as a proportion of total phosphorus load entering the ditch filter system (system efficiency) for individual storm events.
Storm event date Total ditch flow Influent TDP† Effluent TDP Removal
L × 103 (% of total flow) ——————— kg ——————— %
13 Apr. 2007‡ 16 (100) 0.001 0.000 54
18 Apr. 2007 7879 (7) 13.807 13.498 2
6 June 2007 2 (100) 0.000 0.000 100
30 July 2007 57 (100) 0.129 0.027 79
22 July 07 97 (100) 0.098 0.064 35
8 Feb. 2008 454 (35) 0.113 0.084 25
20 Feb. 2008 1328 (28) 0.730 0.520 29
28 Apr. 2008 406 (84) 0.312 0.200 36
9 May 2008 183 (81) 0.464 0.249 46
16 May 2008 87 (100) 0.154 0.028 82
5 June 2008 2326 (14) 3.900 3.466 11
5 July 2008 250 (68) 0.516 0.252 51
11 Dec. 2008 2336 (21) 3.412 3.169 7
15 Mar. 2009 124 (100) 0.077 0.034 56
6 Apr. 2009 592 (39) 0.681 0.609 11
11 Apr. 2009 800 (25) 0.599 0.571 5
14 Apr. 2009 1289 (25) 0.299 0.299 0
18 June 2009 233 (97) 0.082 0.068 17
3 Aug. 2009 148 (46) 0.127 0.009 46
12 Aug. 2009 439 (33) 0.157 0.009 33
24 Aug. 2009 1876 (14) 0.571 0.016 16
10 Sept. 2009 2953 (9) 3.453 3.193 8
17 Oct. 2009 3 (9) 3.703 3.399 8
12 Nov. 2009 9237 (3) 10.974 10.593 3
9 Dec. 2009 3416 (2) 1.542 1.487 4
23 Jan. 2010 2135 (6) 1.460 1.376 6
29 Mar. 2010 848 (2) 0.657 0.644 2
9 Apr. 2010 82 (33) 0.150 0.100 33
1 Oct. 2010 1202 (24) 1.720 0.951 45
Total 51.87 47.11
† Total dissolved phosphorus.
‡ Dates in italics indicate when storm flow did not breach the weir. All flow passed through the gypsum bed.

Table 3. Ditch flow, total dissolved phosphorus loads, and phosphorus removal efficiencies by year of operation.

Year Apr.–Dec. 2007 Jan.–Dec. 2008 Jan.–Dec. 2009 Jan.–Dec. 2010

Total ditch flow, L × 103 11.6 12.8 75.9 27.3
Ditch flow passing through the filter, L × 10 3
4.3 7.0 13.2 4.6
Ditch flow passing through the filter, % 37 55 17 17
TDP† in ditch flow, kg 8.6 13.3 48.2 22.8
TDP removed, kg 2.2 4.4 9.8 4.0
System efficiency based on load, % 25 30 20 17
Chemical efficiency based on load, % 68 57 84 89
† Total dissolved phosphorus.

Journal of Environmental Quality

filter larger flow volumes is more important to the overall effi- The Future of Flue Gas Desulfurization Gypsum
ciency of the system than is the chemical efficiency of the filter
medium (FGD gypsum).
Use in Filtration
For a period of more than 3 yr, 110 Mg of FGD gypsum was
Environmental Impact used to remove approximately 20 kg of TDP from ditch drain-
Gypsum is a neutral salt and should not strongly affect age waters. During that period, approximately 40 Mg of FGD
water pH. The pH of ditch flow in our study typically ranged gypsum was dissolved. The data provide evidence that the FGD
from 6.0 to 6.5; the effluent that passed through the gypsum gypsum filter is chemically effective at reducing TDP and that
filter had a slightly higher pH, typically ranging from 6.5 to there is no Hg or As loss that would have a negative environmen-
7.0. Measured concentrations of Ca and S in the effluent were tal impact. However, the system efficiency of the gypsum filter
used to calculate that approximately 40 Mg of gypsum (36% is disappointingly low, and large P loads that move during large
of the amount used in construction) was dissolved over the storm events mostly bypass the filter and flow to the receiving
course of the study. The fate and environmental impact of water body. Perhaps the system efficiency could be improved by
elevated concentrations of Ca and S as sulfate were not deter- mixing sand or a coarser material with the gypsum to increase the
mined because neither element is regulated. However, ditches flow rate through the gypsum bed. However, the decline in flow
in the study area flow to the brackish and marine waters of rate through the gypsum bed that we observed over time, and as
the Chesapeake Bay where gypsum is a naturally occurring early as the second year of operation, was apparently due to sedi-
mineral deposit. ment additions that caused surface sealing. The condition was
Mercury can volatilize after a photoreduction reaction that remediated by tilling the surface of the gypsum bed in August
occurs on exposure of Hg to light (Nriagu, 1994). After installa- 2010. Any increased flow rate through a modified gypsum bed
tion, the gypsum filter bed was covered with an erosion mat, and will be defeated by surface sealing due to sedimentation, thus
vegetation soon established on the surface of the filter. Therefore, requiring annual removal of vegetation and tillage to maintain
Hg losses from FGD gypsum due to Hg volatilization via this the higher flow rate. This filter protected a 17-ha area. To com-
photoreduction reaction are expected to be minimal, although pletely treat drainage from an area the size of the average farm
we did not attempt to measure volatilization losses. We did would require several filters treating multiple ditches. Annual
detect Hg in both the influent and the effluent during storm flow maintenance requirements and the need to periodically replace
at concentrations ranging from 0.001 to 0.004 mg L−1 (USEPA the gypsum bed in multiple filters on a single farm are not likely
drinking water standard = 0.002 mg L−1), indicating that Hg is to be acceptable to farm managers.
not removed from solution by the gypsum filter, nor does it leach Subsequent to the construction of the ditch filter, research
from the gypsum at concentrations that might cause concern. on the fate and transport of P in soils at this site showed that
The farming history includes a period of tomato production. 90% of the P that reaches the drainage ditch moves laterally in
Mercury may have been introduced to these soils through fun- groundwater when water tables are high; only 10% moves over-
gicide applications. land in runoff (Vadas et al., 2007). Based on this knowledge,
Arsenic-containing roxarsone (4-hydroxy-3-nitroben- we propose trenching adjacent to drainage ditches and filling
zenearsonic acid) that was routinely fed to chickens to pre- the trenches with FGD gypsum to intercept and treat P-laden
vent coccidiosis is the source of arsenic in soils of the study groundwater before it enters the ditch. This alternative design,
area. Microorganisms of the genus Clostridium in chicken referred to as the “gypsum curtain,” is currently being tested at
litter rapidly transform roxarsone to inorganic arsenate under the UMES Research and Teaching Farm (Fig. 2). Lateral ground-
anaerobic conditions. Dissolved As (assumed to be in the water movement is much slower than ditch flow, meaning that
form of arsenate) was present in the influent during storm the hydraulic conductivity of the gypsum should be adequate to
flow at concentrations ranging from 0.001 to 0.004 mg L−1 accommodate the lower groundwater flow rate. Also, sediment
(USEPA drinking water standard = 0.010 mg L−1). Dissolved additions leading to sealing and a lower filtration rate of the
As in the effluent was below detection limits, suggesting that gypsum should not be an issue. By installing gypsum curtains on
dissolved arsenate is precipitated as calcium arsenate as it all ditches, effluent from an entire farm can be treated before the
passes through the gypsum filter (Bothe and Brown, 1999). water reaches the ditch using a system that requires no mainte-
The solubilities of gypsum, As in calcium arsenate, and P nance. When the treatment begins to fail as gypsum is dissolved,
in calcium phosphate are 2.1, 0.1, and 0.005 g L−1, respec- we propose installing a second curtain parallel to the first. There
tively. Therefore, As and P should remain insoluble as long should be no need to remove spent gypsum from the first curtain
as gypsum is present. To prevent the subsequent dissolution as long as the groundwater entering the first curtain is saturated
and loss of As to receiving waters, the filter bed will have with Ca. This new, low-maintenance design would be expected
to be removed before complete dissolution of the gypsum. to maximize the chemical efficiency of using FGD gypsum to
Incubation studies designed to evaluate the effects of land filter drainage water while minimizing the limiting aspect of a
applying “spent” gypsum from a decommissioned filter bed slow through flow rate.
concluded that there will be little effect on dissolved P con-
centrations in amended soils (Grubb et al., 2011a, 2011b). In
Acknowledgments
The authors thank the staff and students of the University of Maryland
these studies, spent gypsum did not appear to provide addi-
Eastern Shore’s Nutrient Management Laboratory for their valuable
tional P fertilizer value. contributions to this study. Don Mahan collected samples and
maintained the study site. Janice Donohoe and Leonard Kibet led and
supervised a dedicated group of undergraduate and graduate students
[Link] • [Link] • [Link]
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funded by the University of Maryland Eastern Shore and the USDA changeable cations and trace elements in the profiles of soils amend-
Agricultural Research Service. ed with coal combustion by-products. Soil Sci. 166:585–597.
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