CONTEMPORARY
SCIENCE
AND TECHNOLOGY
INTRODUCTION
Contemporary science and technology, aims to explain
the unique features of science and technology today.
Over time, new characteristics have developed, making
science and technology more complex and deeply
involved in society. It highlights how modern science
and technology have become essential in shaping
activities and systems in the present era.
SIX IMPORTANCE DISTINCTIVE
CHARACTERISTICS OF CONTEMPORARY SCIENCE
1 Polymorphism 4 Resources
Products of
2 Contemporary Science 5 Practitioner
and Technology
Salient Characteristics in
3 Setting 6 Contemporary Science
and Technology
CHARACTERISTICS OF CONTEMPORARY SCIENCE
1 POLYMORPHISM Polymorphism means modern science and
technology take many forms. In technology,
it includes design, analysis, and research like
building telecom systems or testing
materials for space shuttles. This variety is a
key feature, especially with computer-
integrated systems.
Science is also polymorphous, not just
experiments and math. It includes simple
observation and description. Though some
see physics as the ideal model, science today
involves many types of valuable activities.
CHARACTERISTICS OF CONTEMPORARY SCIENCE
2 PRODUCTS OF CONTEMPORARY SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
A. Complexity B. System-Embeddedness
Contemporary technics in the twentieth century are Many modern technics
characterized by the presence of hundreds, thousands, or are embedded in complex
even millions of parts, such as in automobiles(14,000 sociotechnical support
parts)and the Apollo 8 spacecraft (5.6 million parts). Even systems, relying on these
older creations like the Steinway concert grand piano systems for manufacture,
(12,000 parts) or the Great Wall of China had many parts, use, and maintenance.
but they lacked the structural and operational complexity
seen today in items like stereo components, personal
computers, Boeing aircrafts, and nuclear power plants.
CHARACTERISTICS OF CONTEMPORARY SCIENCE
2 PRODUCTS OF CONTEMPORARY SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
C. Production Specialization and Incomprehensibility D. Formalized Technical Procedures
Contemporary technics show a high level of Modern technics rely on
specialization, where designers, producers, users, and formalized technical procedures,
maintainers are often different people. This marks a often implemented through
shift from the past, where one person often computer programs to manage
performed all roles. Now, a person may only be an design, production, operation, and
expert in one phase of a technic’s life-cycle, such as maintenance.
design or production, and a non-specialist or mere
user in other phases.
CHARACTERISTICS OF CONTEMPORARY SCIENCE
2 PRODUCTS OF CONTEMPORARY SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
E. Sociotechnical Systems Analysis
In general, systems analysis is the quantitative examination of a particular
system of interest, or a production system to determine how it perform or would
perform under certain conditions or assumptions. This analysis is usually done
with a view to decide how to structure or restructure the system by devising a
formalized procedure or method to be followed in seeking to control its
performance or behavior to achieve the desired and most favorable condition.
CHARACTERISTICS OF CONTEMPORARY SCIENCE
PRODUCTS OF CONTEMPORARY
2 SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
SCIENCE
ABSTRACT AND ABSTRUSE NATURE
-This refers to how many modern scientific
concepts and technologies are difficult to
understand or imagine because they deal
with invisible forces, mathematical models,
or complex systems that are not directly
observable in everyday life.
CHARACTERISTICS OF CONTEMPORARY SCIENCE
PRODUCTS OF CONTEMPORARY
2 SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
SCIENCE
THEORY-DEPENDENCE
-Scientific observations are influenced by
existing theories. What scientists see, how
they interpret data, and even what they
choose to observe are shaped by the current
body of scientific knowledge.
CHARACTERISTICS OF CONTEMPORARY SCIENCE
PRODUCTS OF CONTEMPORARY
2 SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
SCIENCE
GROWTH OF SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE
-Scientific knowledge continuously
evolves. New discoveries build upon previous
research, and incorrect or outdated ideas are
revised or replaced as better evidence
becomes available.
CHARACTERISTICS OF CONTEMPORARY SCIENCE
In the 20th Century Shift: A massive expansion occurred.
3 SETTING In 1980
• 6,700 university & non-profit research centers (US & Canada).
In 1980
• 10,200 organizations in the former were active in doing research and development
for industry R&D organizations (mostly private). • 700 major US federal government
Laboratory is the characteristic labs.
setting o contemporary
SCIENCE, while In 1989
CONTEMPORARY •United Airlines employed about 600 engineers and technicians and 10,000
TECHNOLOGICAL ACTIVITY mechanists at its national Maintenance Operations Center at San Francisco International
takes place primarily in design Airport (Comstock K. 1989).
offices, on shop floors, and in
*Institutionalization of 20th century Scienc and Technology Institutionalization: a
production, operations, and process by which a social phenomenon gradually assumes well-established forms of
maintenance facilities. organization and practice, eventually becoming recognized as part of societal culture.
CHARACTERISTICS OF CONTEMPORARY SCIENCE
4 RESOURCES
Majority of achievements and outputs of
contemporary science and technology
were supported by resources without the
contribution of resources any endeavor
or activity in this world is destined to
end up in a failure.
CHARACTERISTICS OF CONTEMPORARY SCIENCE
5 PRACTITIONER Practitioners are the people who actively work
in the fields of science and technology—like
scientists, engineers, researchers, lab
technicians, and even project leaders.
They are not just thinkers or observers—they
are doers who apply knowledge to solve
problems, create new technologies, and push
innovation forward.
In today’s world, practitioners are more than
experts—they are also collaborators, managers,
and specialists who contribute to large-scale
research, development, and innovation projects.
Key Aspects of Practitioners Description
There are now millions of scientists and
PRACTITIONER
1. Numbers & Density engineers worldwide—more than ever
before.
Practitioners now work mostly in teams,
2. Collaboration & Teams not alone, often with others across
countries.
Scientists and engineers today must also
3. Management Skills manage projects, lead teams, and make
big decisions.
Even in big teams, individual creativity
4. Role of the Individual and leadership still play a vital role in
innovation.
More practitioners now have master’s
5. Training & Specialization and PhD degrees, focusing on very
specific research fields.
1. Numbers & Density
PRACTITIONER
2. Collaboration & Teams
2004 Book Data
2024 Update
(1988)
Then (1900–
Now (2020s)
5.47 million 8+ million R&D 1959)
scientists & engineers professionals globally
83–95% of
1 per 45 people in 85 per 10,000 25% to 83% co-
research is team-
the USA workers (USA) authorship growth
based
Data limited mostly Global growth in Remote & cross-
In-person teams country
to USA developing countries were dominant
collaborations
i i
Collaboration just Default mode of
gaining ground research today
Then (2004 Book) Now (2024)
4.Reaffirmation
of the Individuals still Systems like
Individual
PRACTITIONER
sparked ideas CRediT now
Personal Innovators are still
5. Training & Specialization
breakthroughs vital within team
3.Management Skills
Then (1986–1988) Now (2020s)
Then (1988 Data) Now (2024) 24% had Master’s; ~350,000+ PhDs
many PhDs in awarded per year
science globally
27.4% in Project leadership
management roles is essential More engineers
Few engineers had
now hold advanced
Fundraising & Required: PM tools, doctorates
degrees
coordination were interdisciplinary
emerging collaboration 1,000+ subfields in AI, climate tech,
physics/astronomy biotech added as
Even small labs
Limited to big alone new disciplines
now require
projects
management skills
CHARACTERISTICS OF CONTEMPORARY SCIENCE
6 SALIENT
The Four Salient Trends in
Science and Technology
· Increasing Scale
· Internationalization
· Rationalization
· Symbiotic Interdependence
CHARACTERISTICS OF CONTEMPORARY SCIENCE
6 SALIENT
1. Increasing Scale
Use of large and advanced equipment
Big organizations and huge budgets
More scientists and workers involved
Faster production and more powerful
output
Example
Large Hadron Collider (LHC) in Switzerland
– the biggest machine ever built to study
particles.
CHARACTERISTICS OF CONTEMPORARY SCIENCE
6 SALIENT 2. Internationalization
Science and tech have become global.
Scientists share research across
countries.
Students and experts study and work
abroad.
Example:
SLAC in the USA has scientists from
many countries.
COVID-19 vaccine development
CHARACTERISTICS OF CONTEMPORARY SCIENCE
6 SALIENT 3. Rationalization
Science-based procedures replaced
traditions
Use of systems analysis and rules
Organized, step-by-step methods
Engineers now follow formal standards
Organized, systematic approaches to
problem-solving.
Based on logic, data, and analysis.
Example - Self-driving car technology
CHARACTERISTICS OF CONTEMPORARY SCIENCE
6 SALIENT
4. Symbiotic Interdependence
Science and technology help each
other
Tools help discover scientific
knowledge
Science makes new tech possible
Example: James Webb Space Telescope
CONTEXT OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
INTERNAL OR EXTERNAL OR MACRO
MICRO CONTEXTS CONTEXTS
These are factors BOTH CONTEXTS These are outside
within the scientific MATTER: influences like
community—such government policies,
as research goals, They work together to economy, culture, and
tools, methods, and determine what education that affect
peer influence— research is pursued, what science is
that shape how how discoveries supported or
science is done. prioritized.
happen, and how
technologies are
developed and
accepted.
INTERNAL OR
These are factors within science and technology itself—
MICRO CONTEXTS things that happen inside laboratories, research institutions,
and the scientific community.
Examples:
Research goals – What scientists aim to solve
Tools & methods – Equipment and experiment design
Scientific culture – Norms, ethics, and behaviors in
research
Peer influence – Pressure to publish or follow
dominant ideas
These micro contexts affect how fast and
how well discoveries are made.
EXTERNAL OR
MACRO CONTEXTS Macro contexts are the broad
national and global factors
political, economic, and
environmental that influence
science and technology. They cover
general aspects of society and help
explain the causes and
consequences of scientific and
technological developments on a
larger scale.
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