AIRCRAFT DESIGN PROJECT-AE5611

A PROJECT REPORT OF DESIGN OF 25 TONNES

CARGO AIRCRAFT WITH RANGE OF 3000 km
Submitted by
ABHISHEAK A (2019501001)
AGILAN V (2019501002)
AISHWARYA KANNAN (2019501003)
AJAY S (2019501004)
AKASH S (2019501005)
ALAN M (2019501006)
ARUN K (2019501007)
BHUVANA PPRASIDDA G (2019501008)
in partial fulfilment for the award of the degree
of
BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING
in
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING

ANNA UNIVERSITY MIT CAMPUS: CHENNAI-600044

MAY 2022

1
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We are very grateful to Dr. C. Senthil Kumar for giving us continuous guidance
during the various stages of our project’s aerodynamic design. We also express
our heartfelt thanks to Dr. V. Arumugam for his guidance and help in the
structural design of the project. We would also like to thank all our faculty
members who have helped us during the design project.

2
CONTENTS

1. Data collection and plots

2. Preliminary weight estimation
3. Airfoil selection
4. Empennage selection and design
5. Cargo pallet selection
6. Landing gear selection
7. Balance Diagram
8. Drag polar
9. Performance curves
10. Range and endurance
11. Take-off and landing performance
12. Stability and control of aircraft
13. V-n diagram

3
AERODYNAMIC
DESIGN

4
 1. AIRCRAFT DATA COLLECTION AND PLOTS

The purpose of data collection is to fix the initial values for the design of
the given aircraft, which would be refined in the later sections of this Aircraft
Design Project. The given payload and range specifications being 25 tonnes
(metric tons) and 3000km respectively, data of cargo aircrafts with 10% variation
is the specifications were searched in books and online sources, with the aim to
collect data of at-least 8 aircrafts. Since not many aircrafts were available for
10% variation criteria, a few aircrafts with low variation were included. For
every aircraft, the aircraft name, payload, empty weight, maximum take-off
weight, cruise speed, wingspan, service ceiling, length, height, wing area,
number of engines, engine type, one engine sea level thrust, thrust to weight
ratio, aspect ratio, wing loading, overall engine thrust, and maximum range were
collected and tabulated. From range vs cruise velocity plot, the cruise velocity for
the required range is found by the following steps:

1. The range (x-axis) vs cruise velocity (y-axis) data is plotted using the
data collected.
2. A vertical line is drawn at a range of 3000 km.
3. A circle is drawn from a point on the line such that at-least 8 aircraft data
lie inside the circle and the circle should be of least radius possible.
4. The cruise velocity corresponding to this point is found by drawing a
horizontal line from the point to the y-axis.
For other plots, cruise velocity is taken along x-axis and using similar
procedure the various other values are found out.

5
Data:

S. No Aircraft Empty Payload Max Cruise Wingsp Service

Name weight (kg) take-off speed an (m) ceiling
(kg) weight (m/s) (m)
(kg)

1 Boeing 44300 24042 58100 230.56 32.9 10650

B727-
200F
2 Boeing 34820 20412 61000 221.12 29 11278
B737-
400F
3 Boeing 41140 20768 79000 233.89 35.8 11000
B737-
800F
4 Boeing 32820 19500 62800 253.89 28.9 11278
B737-
300F
5 Airbus 48534 27000 93500 230 36 12427
A321-
P2F
6 Tupole 60000 30000 103500 236.12 43.5 11000
v Tu-
330
7 MC 36200 20000 65700 236.12 43.5 11000
Dougla
s MD-
80
8 Tupole 59300 27000 110750 225 41.8 11000
v Tu-
204-
120

6
S. No Aircraft Length (m) Height Wing area Engine type Aspect
Name (m) (𝑚2 ) ratio

1 Boeing 46.7 10.4 153 Turbofan 7.0745

B727-
200F
2 Boeing 36.4 11.1 92 Turbofan 9.0783
B737-
400F
3 Boeing 39.5 12.54 124.6 Turbofan 10.286
B737-
800F
4 Boeing 32.2 11.1 91.04 Turbofan 9.174
B737-
300F
5 Airbus 44.51 11.76 122.4 Turbofan 10.470
A321-
P2F
6 Tupolev 42 14 195.5 Turbofan 9.679
Tu-330
7 MC 44.83 9.05 112.3 Turbofan 16.849
Douglas
MD-80
8 Tupolev 46.14 13.9 184.2 Turbofan 9.485
Tu-204-
120

7
S. Aircraft Thrust/ Wing One No. of Overall Max
No Name weight loading engine engines engine range
ratio (N/𝑚2 ) thrust thrust (km)
(N) (N)

1 Boeing 0.46529 3725.235 77000 3 231000 4400

B727-
200F
2 Boeing 0.3509 6504.456 105000 2 210000 3820
B737-
400F
3 Boeing 0.30968 6219.823 120000 2 240000 3695
B737-
800F
4 Boeing 0.3149 6767.003 97000 2 194000 2950
B737-
300F
5 Airbus 0.29 7493.75 133000 2 266000 3800
A321-
P2F
6 Tupolev 0.3368 5193.529 171000 2 342000 3000
Tu-330
7 MC 0.28858 5739.243 93000 2 186000 3700
Douglas
MD-80
8 Tupolev 0.6847 5898.249 186000 2 744000 2400
Tu-204-
120

8
Plots:

Figure-1: Cruise velocity = 235 m/s

Figure-2: Taper ratio = 0.24

9
 𝑊𝑜
Figure-3: Wing loading = = 5400 N/𝑚2
𝑠

𝑊𝑒
Figure-4: = 0.55
𝑊𝑜

10
 Figure-5: Aspect ratio = 8.4

Figure-6: Wing area = 110 𝑚2

11
Figure-7: One engine thrust = 100 kN

Figure-8: Wingspan = 35.5 m

12
 Figure-9: Length of aircraft = 40 m

Figure-10: Height of aircraft = 11 m

13
 Figure-11: Service ceiling = 10000 m

Figure-12: Maximum take-off weight = 800000 N

14
Values obtained from graph:

Cruise velocity 235 m/s

Range 3000 km
Payload 25 tons
Length 40 m
𝑊𝑒
0.55
𝑊𝑜
Wing area 110 𝑚2
Max take-off weight 800 kN
Taper ratio 0.2425
One engine thrust 100 kN
Wing loading 5450 N/𝑚2
Wingspan 36 m
Aspect ratio 8.4
Height 11 m
Service ceiling 10000 m

15
 2. PRELIMINAREY WEIGHT ESTIMATION

The next task is to determine the maximum take-off weight and select the
engine for the aircraft.
The maximum take-off weight is calculated iteratively by changing the
engine selection for each iteration The first iteration as follows:

𝑊𝑝𝑎𝑦𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 +𝑊𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑤
𝑊0 = 𝑊𝑓 𝑊
[1−(𝑊 )−(𝑊𝑒 )]
0 0

𝑊𝑓 𝑊𝑒
= 0.175 and = 0.55 (from comparable data)
𝑊0 𝑊0

Weight of payload and crew: 247212 N

247212
𝑊0 =
1−0.175−0.55

Gross weight= 898952.721 N

The thrust required (T) for this overall weight is estimated from the thrust
𝑇
to weight ratio = 0.3 and a factor 20% percent as extra thrust is added as a
𝑊0
safety factor. The number of engines for this aircraft is selected as two (n = 2)
Powerplant weight shouldn’t be more than 10% of 𝑊0 .

𝜌𝑐𝑟𝑢𝑖𝑠𝑒
𝜎=
𝜌𝑠𝑒𝑎 𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙

𝑇
𝑇𝑠𝑒𝑎 𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙 = 𝑊0 × × 𝑔 × 1.2 × 10−3
𝑊0

16
 It is required to choose the cruise altitude for this aircraft, it is chosen as 10
km by comparing the cruise altitude of different aircrafts in data collection. The
cruise thrust is calculated as follows:
𝑇𝑐𝑟𝑢𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑎𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 = 𝑇𝑠𝑒𝑎 𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙 × 𝜎 1.2

The weight of fuel (Wf) required to cover the given range with a safety
factor of 20% percent is calculated as follows:
𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑠 × 𝑇𝑐𝑟𝑢𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑎𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 × 𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 × 𝑆𝐹𝐶 × 1.2
𝑊𝑓 =
𝐶𝑟𝑢𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦

A new empty weight to maximum take-off weight ratio is calculated

without powerplant as follows:
𝑊 𝑊𝑒 2×𝑊𝑃𝑃
( 𝑒 )𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑃𝑃 = −
𝑊0 𝑊0 𝑊0

With known weight of powerplant and fuel, the maximum take-off weight
is calculated more accurately as follows for the next iteration.
𝑊𝑝𝑎𝑦𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 +2×𝑊𝑃𝑃 +𝑊𝑓
𝑊0 = 𝑊
[1−(𝑊𝑒 )𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑃𝑃 ]
0

The above steps are repeated until the net required thrust converges.

Iteration: 1
Thrust of one engine at sea level: 161811.490 N
Thrust of one engine (Selected) at sea level: 164000 N
Weight of one engine: 28939.5 N
TSFC: 16.854 g/kN-s
Thrust of one engine at cruise altitude: 44510.6 N
Overall engine weight: 57879 N
17
Weight of fuel: 225475.875 N
Gross Weight: 1031458.844 N
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Iteration: 2
Thrust of one engine at sea level: 185662.593 N
Thrust of one engine (Selected) at sea level: 186150 N
Weight of one engine: 53081.91 N
TSFC: 18 g/kN-s
Thrust of one engine at cruise altitude: 50522.246 N
Overall engine weight: 106163.82 N
Weight of fuel: 273330.938 N
Gross Weight: 1133437.178 N
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Iteration: 3
Thrust of one engine at sea level: 204018.692 N
Thrust of one engine (Selected) at sea level: 202000 N
Weight of one engine: 39504.87 N
TSFC: 16 g/kN-s
Thrust of one engine at cruise altitude: 54824.0328 N
Overall engine weight: 79009.74 N
Weight of fuel: 263648.066 N
Gross Weight: 1135002.117 N
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Iteration: 4
Thrust of one engine at sea level: 204300.392 N
Thrust of one engine (Selected) at sea level: 205300 N
Weight of one engine: 39513.699 N
18
TSFC:16 g/kN-s
Thrust of one engine at cruise altitude: 55719.672 N
Overall engine weight: 79027.398 N
Weight of fuel: 267955.196 N
Gross Weight: 1143500.982 N
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Iteration: 5
Thrust of one engine at sea level: 205830.1779 N
Thrust of one engine (Selected) at sea level: 205300N
Weight of one engine: 39513.699 N
TSFC:16 g/kN-s
Thrust of one engine at cruise altitude: 55719.672 N
Overall engine weight: 79027.398 N
Weight of fuel: 267955.196 N
Gross Weight: 1144640.914 N
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Iteration: 6
Thrust of one engine at sea level: 206035.366 N
Thrust of one engine (Selected) at sea level: 208000 N
Weight of one engine: 39513.699 N
TSFC: 16 g/kN-s
Thrust of one engine at cruise altitude: 56452.469 N
Overall engine weight: 79027.398 N
Weight of fuel: 271479.203 N
Gross Weight: 1151582.156 N
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
19
Iteration: 7
Thrust of one engine at sea level: 207284.789 N
Thrust of one engine (Selected) at sea level: 208000 N
weight of one engine: 39513.699 N
TSFC: 16 g/kN-s
Thrust of one engine at cruise altitude: 56452.469 N
Overall engine weight: 79027.398 N
Weight of fuel: 271479.203 N
Gross Weight: 1152506.199 N
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Iteration: 8
Thrust of one engine at sea level: 207451.116 N
Thrust of one engine (Selected) at sea level: 208000 N
Weight of one engine: 39513.699 N
TSFC: 16 g/kN. s
Thrust of one engine at cruise altitude: 56452.46944843572 N
Overall engine weight: 79027.398 N
Weight of fuel: 271479.203 N
Gross Weight: 1152628.481 N
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Iteration: 9
Thrust of one engine at sea level: 207473.1279733774 N
Thrust of one engine (Selected) at sea level: 208000 N
Weight of one engine: 39513.699 N
TSFC: 16 g/kN. s
Thrust of one engine at cruise altitude: 56452.46944843572 N
20
Overall engine weight: 79027.398 N
Weight of fuel: 271479.203 N
Gross Weight: 1152644.658 N
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Iteration: 10
Thrust of one engine at sea level: 207476.038 N
Thrust of one engine (Selected) at sea level: 208000 N
Weight of one engine: 39513.699 N
TSFC: 16 g/kN. s
Thrust of one engine at cruise altitude: 56452.469 N
Overall engine weight: 79027.398 N
Weight of fuel: 271479.203 N
Gross Weight: 1152646.796 N
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Iteration: 11
Thrust of one engine at sea level: 207476.4233316577 N
Thrust of one engine (Selected) at sea level: 208000 N
Weight of one engine: 39513.699 N
TSFC: 16 g/kN. s
Thrust of one engine at cruise altitude: 56452.4694 N
Overall engine weight: 79027.398 N
Weight of fuel: 271479.203 N
Gross Weight: 1152647.079 N

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

21
Iteration: 12
Thrust of one engine at sea level: 207476.4742 N
Thrust of one engine (Selected) at sea level: 208000 N
Weight of one engine: 39513.699 N
TSFC: 16 g/kN. s
Thrust of one engine at cruise altitude: 56452.4694 N
Overall engine weight: 79027.398 N
Weight of fuel: 271479.203 N
Gross Weight: 1152647.116 N
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Iteration: 13
Thrust of one engine at sea level: 207476.480 N
Thrust of one engine (Selected) at sea level: 208000 N
Weight of one engine: 39513.699 N
TSFC: 16 g/kN. s
Thrust of one engine at cruise altitude: 56452.4694 N
Overall engine weight: 79027.398 N
Weight of fuel: 271479.203 N
Gross Weight: 1152647.121N

22
RESULT:

Thrust of 1 Weight of Thrust of 1

Name of the No of weight of
[Link] Eng. At sea the W0(N) Eng at cruise W0(N)
Engine Engines the Fuel(kg)
level(N) Engine(kg) alt(N)

1 Aviadvigatel PS-90 2 164000 57879 91636.363 225475.8751 44510.6 1031458.844

2 Rolls-Royce RB11 2 186150 106163.82 105143.613 273326.22 50522.246 1133437.179

Pratt & Whitney

3 2 202000 79009.74 115538.9581 263648.0664 54824.032 1135002.179
PWJT-9D7

Pratt & Whitney

4 2 205300 79027.398 115698.4892 267955.196 55719.672 1143500.988
JT9-7A

Pratt & Whitney

5 2 205300 79027.398 116564.8306 271479.203 55719.672 1144640.922
9D-7F

Pratt & Whitney

6 2 205300 79027.398 116681.0318 271479.203 56452.469 1151582.156
9D-7F

Pratt & Whitney

7 2 205300 79027.398 117388.599 271479.203 56452.469 1152506.199
9D-7F

Pratt & Whitney

8 2 205300 79027.398 117482.793 271479.203 56452.469 1152628.481
9D-7F

Pratt & Whitney

9 2 205300 79027.398 117495.258 271479.203 56452.469 1152644.658
9D-7F

Pratt & Whitney

10 2 205300 79027.398 117496.907 271479.203 56452.469 1152646.796
9D-7F

Pratt & Whitney

11 2 205300 79027.398 117497.125 271479.203 56452.469 1152647.071
9D-7F

Pratt & Whitney

12 2 205300 79027.398 117497.153 271479.203 56452.469 1152647.11
9D-7F

Pratt & Whitney

13 2 205300 79027.398 117497.157 271479.203 56452.469 1152647.12
9D-7F

Table-1: Iteration results

Through the preliminary weight estimation, the following data have been arrived:
➢ Weight of one engine: 39513.699 N
➢ Thrust of one engine at cruise altitude: 56452.4694 N
➢ Overall engine weight: 79027.398 N
➢ Weight of fuel: 271479.203 N
➢ Engine name: PW9D7F
Gross Weight: 1152647.121N

23
 3. AIRFOIL SELECTION
In this chapter, the wing characteristics are determined to select the
appropriate airfoil for the aircraft. Wing area (S), wing span(b), length of the
fuselage(l), diameter of the fuselage(d) and average chord (𝑐𝑎𝑣𝑔 ) are determined
from the data collected as follows:
From graphs,
𝑊𝑜
= 5500 𝑁⁄ 2
𝑆 𝑚
𝑊𝑜 = 1152647.12 𝑁 then, S=209.572𝑚2
𝑏2
𝐴𝑅 = , b=41.957m
𝑆

𝑏 41.957
𝑐𝑎𝑣𝑔 = = = 4.99𝑚
𝐴𝑅 8.4

We have selected Low wing configuration for our aircraft. It has more
stability and better ground effects. Here, we selected our fuel as Jet A fuel. It has
density 804kgm-3 and composition of 30% kerosene and 70% gasoline. We know
the weight of the fuel and density of the fuel from which volume of the fuel(VF ),
is found out to be 34.42m3. The most of fuel is stored in wing. To find percent of
fuel stored in wing and thickness to chord ratio of wing, we use the below
equation.
t
VF = 0.5 × cavg × × 0.5 × b2 × 0.75 × 2
c
The t/c comes out to be 18%. And all the fuel is stored in wings. The airfoil is
selected based on the coefficient of lift in cruise (CLcruise) and coefficient of the
drag (CDcruise) must be [Link] CLcruise is calculated as follows:
2W𝑜 −(0.8×WF )
Wcruise = = 1044055.439 𝑁
2
2Wcruise
CLcruise = 2
ρcruise Vcruise S

24
 2 × 1044055.439
𝐶𝐿𝑐𝑟𝑢𝑖𝑠𝑒 = = 0.4369
0.4135 × 2352 × 209.572

Figure-13: NACA4418 CL Vs 𝛼 graph

To find CLmax of aircraft, we use the following formulae, we also know the
runway length Srunway =1675m.
S𝐿 = 0.6𝑆𝑟𝑢𝑛𝑤𝑎𝑦 = 1005𝑚

𝑉𝐿 = √2𝑎𝑆𝐿 = 70.1𝑚/𝑠

25
 𝑉𝐿
𝑉𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙 = = 58.5037m/s
1.2
2Wcruise
CL,max = 2 = 2.318
ρsealevel Vstall S
We selected airfoil NACA 4418 based on CLcruise and t/c. It has maximum
thickness 18% at 30% chord and maximum chamber 4% at 40% chord.
ρ𝑉𝐿
Re = = 4.2 × 106
μ
From the CL vs α graph of NACA 4418, CL,max=1.5
ΔCL = 2.318 − 1.5 = 0.81
From flap deflection data, we get
δ = 29∘

From, the data book we arrive a sweep of 35o.

26
Figure-14: sweep angle estimation

27
 4. EMPENNAGE SELECTION

The dimensions of horizontal and vertical tail are determined using the
approximate ratio relating the parameters of horizontal and vertical tail with
those of the wing.

Wing:
2∗𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑑 2∗4.99
Root chord, Cr = = = 8.04𝑚
𝜆+1 0.24+1

Tip chord , Ct= 𝜆 Cr =1.931m

Empennage part:
Lcg=0.25*l=10m

Horizontal tail:
• 𝑙𝐻𝑇 = 0.95 × 40 = 38𝑚
(𝑙 ×𝑆𝐻𝑇 )
• Assuming 𝑉𝐻𝑇 = 0.7, 𝑉𝐻𝑇 = (𝑐𝐻𝑇
𝑀𝐴𝐶 ×𝑆𝑤 )
Horizontal tail area,𝑆𝐻𝑇 = 21.619𝑚2
• A𝑅𝐻𝑇 = 0.6 × A𝑅𝑤 = 0.6 × 8.4 = 5.04
• 𝑏𝐻𝑇 = √(𝑆𝐻𝑇 × 𝐴𝑅𝐻𝑇 ) = 10.438𝑚
2×𝑆
• 𝑐𝑟𝐻𝑇 = (λ+1)×𝑏
𝐻𝑇
= 2.958𝑚
𝐻𝑇
• 𝑐𝑡𝐻𝑇 = λ × 𝑐𝑟𝐻𝑇 = 1.183𝑚
𝑏𝐻𝑇 (1+2λ)
• Spanwise location of MAC,𝑦𝐻𝑇 = × (1+λ)
= 2.236𝑚
6
• Mean aerodynamic chord length of Horizontal tail,
2 (1+λ+λ2 )
𝑐𝑀𝐴𝐶 = × 𝑐𝑟𝐻𝑇 × (1+λ)
= 2.794𝑚
3
• WHT = 0.03 × 𝑊𝑜 = 34579.413N

28
Vertical tail:
• 𝑙𝑉𝑇 = 0.95 × 𝑙𝐻𝑇 = 36.1𝑚
(𝑙𝑉𝑇 ×𝑆𝑉𝑇 )
• Assuming 𝑉𝑉𝑇 = 0.04, 𝑉𝑉𝑇 = (𝑏𝑤 ×𝑆𝑤 )
2
Vertical tail area,𝑆𝑉𝑇 = 9.742𝑚
• Aspect ratio is fixed to be 𝐴𝑅𝑉𝑇 = 2
• ℎ𝑉𝑇 = √(𝑆𝑉𝑇 × 𝐴𝑅𝑉𝑇 ) = 4.414𝑚
2×𝑆
• 𝑐𝑟𝑉𝑇 = (λ+1)×ℎ
𝑉𝑇
= 3.152𝑚
𝑉𝑇

• 𝑐𝑡𝑉𝑇 = λ × 𝑐𝑟𝑉𝑇 = 1.2608𝑚

2ℎ𝑉𝑇 (1+2λ)
• 𝑧𝑉𝑇 = × (1+λ)
= 1.891m Mean aerodynamic chord length of vertical
6
tail,
2 (1+𝜆+𝜆2 )
𝑐𝑀𝐴𝐶 = × 𝑐𝑟𝑉𝑇 × (1+𝜆)
= 2.341𝑚
3
• 𝑊𝑉𝑇 = 0.02 × 𝑊𝑜 = 23052.942𝑁
A symmetric airfoil has symmetric 𝐶𝐿,𝐶𝐷,𝐶𝑀 characteristics about the
zero-lift angle of attack (which is 0° for symmetric airfoils). Hence, they are
very suitable for HT and VT. Usual choice of airfoil for HT and VT is NACA
0009 or NACA 0012. A symmetric airfoil NACA 0012 is selected for the
horizontal and vertical tail.

29
 5. CARGO PALETTE SELECTION

In this section data of several aircraft cargo pallets available have been
collected and the one’s suitable for the aircrafts were filtered out. The
maximum weight allowed on the selected pallet was the constraint on number
of pallets. As of then, maximum number of pallets were arranged with
required spacing between them. The constraint on the height of the cargo on
each pallet is given by the cargo door size. Hence, the cargo door dimensions
were also fixed in this process. Finally, a preliminary fuselage cargo layout
was drawn, which was later finalised during balance diagram.
• Aircraft length = 40 m
• From HT & VT dimensions, excluding 10 m for empennage,
Remaining Aircraft length = 30 m
• Excluding 5 m for cockpit,
Length available for cargo = 2 m
• Assuming a 4-inch (10cm) fuselage wall thickness, internal fuselage
diameter = 3.8m
• Main deck floor thickness is assumed to be 4 inches.
account for the wing attachment and fuel storage resp.
• Pallet with IATA ULD code – PLX and AKH container in lower deck is
chosen, which has following specs
Dimensions = 1.63*3.18*1.443 m and 1.23*2.41*1.11 m
Tare weight = 50 kg(for both)
Max. palette gross weight = 2500 kg
Max. container gross weight = 1200 kg

30
 6. LANDING GEAR SELECTION

From the Iteration,

Wo =117497.158 kg
When more than two wheels are attached to a landing gear strut, the
attaching mechanism is known as bogie.
Number of Nose Wheel chosen = 2
Number of Main Wheel chosen = 8
Nose Wheel:
0.1∗𝑊𝑜
Load acting on each nose wheel =
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑜𝑠𝑒 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙𝑠
0.1∗117497.15
=
2∗0.4536

= 12951.626 lbf.
Nose Wheel diameter and width:
Wheel diameter = AWB
= 1.51*(12951.626).349
= 41.1318 inch.
Wheel Width = AWB
= .715*(12951.626).312
= 13.7199 inch.
THREE PART TYRE-DR3223T
33*9.75-16
Pr = 135 Psi
Rf = 14.1 inch.

31
 𝑑
Ap = 2.3*√𝑤 ∗ 𝑑 * ( − 𝑅𝑓)
2
33
= 2.3*√9.75 ∗ 33 * ( − 14.1)
2

Ap = 99.0143 inch2.

W = Ap*Pr
= 99.0143*135
= 13366.9438 > 12951.6267
Therefore the chosen tyre is applicable.

Main Wheel:
0.9∗𝑊𝑜
Load acting on each main wheel =
8
0.9∗117497.158
=
8∗0.4536

= 29141.16022 lbf.
Main Wheel diameter and width:
Wheel diameter = AWB
= 1.51*(29141.16022).349
= 54.5870 inch.
Wheel width = AWB
= 0.715*(29141.16022).312
= 17.6698 inch.

THREE PART TYRE-DR213297

41*15-18
Rf = 17.2 inch.
32
 Pr = 177 Psi
41
Ap = 2.3* √15 ∗ 41 * ( − 17.2)
2

=188.2258
W = Ap*Pr
=33315.9805 > 29141.1602
Therefore the chosen tyre is applicable.

Type of Runway:
Contact area of nose wheel = π*a*b
𝑑 𝑤
= π * √( )2 − (𝑅𝑓)2 *
2 2

33 9.75
= π * √( )2 − 14.12 *
2 2

= 131.2474 inch2.
Contact area of main wheel = π*a*b
41 15
= π * √( )2 − 17.22 *
2 2

= 262.8081 inch2.
Total contact area = 2*(131.2474) + 8*(262.8081)
= 2364.9596 inch2
= 15257.7733 cm2
Runway Loading:
𝑂𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
Runway loading =
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑐𝑡 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
117497.158∗9.81
=
15257.7733

= 75.5449 𝑁⁄ 2
𝑐𝑚
33
 Maximum allowable runway
Type of Runway 𝑁
loading( )
𝑐𝑚^2
Grass strip 21.1
Asphalt (or) Black top 73.9
Concrete 116.15
Table-2: Maximum allowable runway loading

Inference:
For our obtained Runway loading,
Concrete runway has been chosen.

34
 7. BALANCE DIAGRAM
Fuselage Contribution:
1. Instrumental weight = 4.5% of Wo
4.5
= ∗ 117497.1581 ∗ 9.81
100
= 51869.120 N
2. Pilot load = 2*100*9.81
= 1962 N
3. Nose Wheel = 0.01* Wo
= 0.01*117497.1581*9.81
= 11526.4712 N
4. Pallet Weight in Upper deck = 2500*9.81
= 24525 N
5. Structural Weight of the fuselage = 0.1* Wo
= 0.1*117497.1581*9.81
=115264.712 N
6. Pallet Weight in lower deck = 1200*9.81
= 11772 N
7. Horizontal stabilizer = 0.03*117497.1581*9.81
= 34579.413 N
8. Vertical stabilizer = 0.02* Wo
= 0.02*117497.1581
= 23052.942 N
Wing Contribution:
1. Wing structural weight = 0.05* Wo
= 57632.36 N
2. Fuel Weight = 271479 N
3. Power Plant Weight = 79027.4N
𝑥𝑐𝑔 = 𝑥 ′ + 0.3𝑐̅
̅̅̅̅
= 5.8+(0.3*5.6)
= 7.48m
35
Fuselage:
[Link] Component Wi(N) Xi(m) Wi*Xi
.
1 Instrument 51869.12 2.8 145233.536
2 Pilot 1962 3.5 6867
3 Nose Wheel 11526.4712 5 57632.356
4 Lavatory 1962 5.325 10447.65
st
5 1 Pallet (Up) 24525 7.096 174029.4
6 Structural Weight 115264.712 19 2190029.52
7 2nd Pallet (Up) 24525 10.096 247604.4
rd
8 3 Pallet (Up) 24525 13.096 321179.4
th
9 4 Pallet (Up) 24525 16.096 394754.4
th
10 5 Pallet (Up) 24525 19.096 468329.4
th
11 6 Pallet (Up) 24525 22.096 541904.4
th
12 7 Pallet (Up) 24525 25.096 615479.4
th
13 8 Pallet (Up) 24525 28.096 689054.4
st
14 1 Pallet (Down) 11772 9.265 109067.58
nd
15 2 Pallet (Down) 11772 23.265 273875.58
rd
16 3 Pallet (Down) 11772 26.095 307190.34
th
17 4 Pallet (Down) 11772 28.16 331499.5
18 Horizontal Stabilizer 34579.413 38 1314017.69
19 Vertical Stabilizer 23052.942 36.1 832211.206
20 Main Wheel 46105.884 20 922117.68
TOTAL 529610.542 9952524.87
(Wi*Xi)/ Wi =18.792
Table-3: Fuselage contribution
Wing:
[Link]. Component Wi(N) Xi(N) Wi*Xi
1 Structural weight 57632.356 8.04 463364.14
2 Fuel weight 271479 8.3 2253275.7
3 Power plant 79027.398 6.472 511465.32
TOTAL 408138.75 3228105.2
(Wi*Xi)/ Wi =7.909
Table-4:Wing contribution
36
Case 1: Full Payload + Full Fuel
̅̅̅̅)
(Wf+Ww)(x+𝑥 𝑐𝑔 = (Wf*𝑥𝑐𝑔𝑓 )+(Ww*(x+𝑥𝑐𝑔𝑤 )

(529610.5422+408138.75)(x+7.48) =
(529610.542*18.792)+(408138.75(x+7.909))
x=11.643m

Case 2: No Payload + Half Fuel

(286322.5422+408138.75)(11.643+xcg) =
(286322.5422*19.134)+(408138.75(11.643+7.909))
Xcg=7.736m

Case 3: Half Payload + Full Fuel

(407966.542+408138.75)(11.643+xcg) =
(407966.542*18.91219)+(408138.75(11.643+7.909))
Xcg=7.589m

Case 4: Half Payload + Half Fuel

(407966.542+272399.25)(11.643+xcg) =
(407966.542*18.91219)+(272399.25(11.643+7.714))
Xcg=7.447m

Case 5: Full Payload + Reserve Fuel

(529160.5422+190955.55)(11.643+xcg) =
(529160.5422*18.792)+(190955.565(11.643+7.465))
Xcg=7.232m

37
Case 6: Half Payload + Reserve Fuel
(407966.542+190955.55)(11.643+xcg) =
(407966.542*18.912)+(190955.55(11.643+7.465))
Xcg=7.331m

Case 7: Full Payload + Half Fuel

(529610.542+272399.25)(11.643+xcg) =
(529610.542*18.792)+(272399.25(11.643+7.714))
Xcg=7.341m

Case 8: No Payload + Reserve Fuel

(286322.5422+190955.55)(11.643+xcg) =
(286322.542*19.134)+(190955.55(11.643+7.465))
Xcg=7.480m

Case 9: No Payload + Half Fuel

(286322.5422+272399.25)(11.643+xcg) =
(286322.542*19.134)+(272399.25(11.643+7.714))
Xcg=7.6004m

38
 Table-5:CG variation for various flight condition

From the above table it is absorbed that CG variation is within 5%in change
in original value.

39
PERFORMANCE
DESIGN

40
 8. DRAG ESTIMATION AND DRAG POLAR

The Drag coefficients at zero-lift condition, called the parasite drag for the
different components of the aircraft are estimated using different formulae
characteristic of them. The total parasite drag, induced drag and interference drag
for the entire aircraft is calculated and overall drag coefficient for various Cl
values are tabulated and the graph is plotted. Finally, the drag polar equations for
various aircraft conditions are obtained.

FORMULAE:
𝐂𝑫𝒐 = 𝐐 ∗ 𝐅𝐅 ∗ 𝐂𝐟
This formula is used to calculate the drag of rounded bodies which include
Fuselage, powerplant, nose wheel and main wheel landing gears.
Where,
𝐂𝑫𝒐 - Parasite Drag +Interference Drag Coefficient
Q - Interference factor
FF - is the form factor
Cf - is the coefficient of skin friction drag
0.455
Cf = 𝛾−1 2
(𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝑅𝑒)^2.584∗(1+ 𝑀𝐶 )^0.467
2
𝜌𝑉𝐿
Re - Reynolds number =
𝜇
Where,
ρ - Density at sea level
V - velocity
μ - Dynamic Viscosity
L - the Length

41
 60 𝐿/𝐷
FF = 1 + 𝐿 +
( )^3 400
𝐷

L/D - Fineness ratio

2 1
Swet = πLD {(1 − ( ) ^0.667) ∗ (1 + (L/D)^2)}
L/D

Swet -Wetted area in (𝑚2 )

S-Planform Area(𝑚2 )
For wing ,horizontal and vertical tail the same 𝐂𝐝𝟎 is used but the formula for
form factor and Swet changes as,
𝑡 1+𝜏𝜆
Swet = 2*S {1 + 0.25 ( )}
𝑐 1+𝜆

τ - varying thickness from root to tip

λ is the Aspect Ratio
𝑡
- thickness to chord ratio
𝑐
0.6 𝑡 𝑡
FF = {1 +
𝑥𝑖
(𝑐) + 100 (𝑐) ^4}+{1.34𝑀0.8 (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛬)^0.28}

𝑥𝑖 = 0.3 𝐶̅ = 1.68
Λ - sweep angle
M - cruise Mach number
Q is the interference factor fixed for the different components and the values are
taken for calculation

42
 Table-5: 𝐂𝑫𝒐 for cruise
𝐂𝑫𝒐 during Cruise = 0.0161253

Take Off Calculation:

Fuselage, Wing, Horizontal tail,Vertical tail and Power plant calculations are
same but the value of velocity and mach number changes.
𝑉𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑜𝑓𝑓 = 70.204 m/s
𝑀𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑜𝑓𝑓 = 0.206

Table-6: 𝐂𝑫𝒐 for take-off

𝐂𝑫𝒐 during take-off= 0.01903834

43
Landing Calculation:
𝑉𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 67.279 m/s

Table-7: 𝐂𝑫𝒐 for landing

𝐂𝑫𝒐 during Landing= 0.01927
Compressibility effects are considered only for cruise condition and are
calculated using the following formulae:
𝐂𝐝𝟎
𝐂𝑫𝒐(𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒃𝒍𝒆) =
√1−𝑀2

INDUCED DRAG :
Induced drag= KCL2
1
Where K =
𝛱𝑒𝐴𝑅

AR=8.4 e=0.85
K= 0.044581
Overall drag is found for TAKE-OFF AND LANDING by;
2
𝐶 𝐷(𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒−𝑜𝑓𝑓) = 𝐶𝐷𝑜(𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒−𝑜𝑓𝑓) + 𝐾𝐶𝐿(𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑜𝑓𝑓)
2
𝐶𝐷(𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔) = 𝐶𝐷𝑜(𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔) + 𝐾𝐶𝐿(𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔)

44
 Table-8: Drag estimation
The Drag polar is plotted for various value of CL for the
corresponding Cruise, Take-off and Landing.

Figure-15: CD Vs CL for various velocities

45
 9. PERFORMANCE CURVES

CLIMB PERFORMANCE:

𝑃𝑎𝑣 −𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑞
Rate of climb,ROC =
𝑊
Where,
𝑃𝑎𝑣 is the power available
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑞 is the power required
B
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑞 = AV 3 +
V
1
Where A= ρsCDo
2

2KW2
B= 𝜌𝑠
1
Where K =
𝛱𝑒𝐴𝑅

𝑃𝑎𝑣 = [Link] engines*Thrust*Velocity

2∗208000∗𝑉𝑐𝑟𝑢𝑖𝑠𝑒 97760000
𝑃𝑎𝑣 = =
√𝜎 √𝜎
Where,
𝜌𝑐𝑟𝑢𝑖𝑠𝑒
σ=
𝜌𝑀𝑆𝐿

from the below graph,

Service Ceiling : 13585.792 m
Absolute Ceiling:13782 m

46
Table-9: ROC Vs Altitude

Figure-16: ROC Vs Altitude

47
GLIDE PERFORMANCE:

Figure-17: glide performance

Horizontal distance travelled is d

Vertical distance travelled is h
𝐶𝐷
tan 𝛾 =
𝐶𝐿

ROD = V sin γ
Where, γ is the gliding angle
V is the velocity of aircraft
CLincompressible
C𝐿𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 =
√1−𝑀2
0.4363
C𝐿𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 = = 1.1322
√1−0.784 2

𝐶𝐷 = 𝐶𝐷𝑜 + 𝐾𝐶𝐿2 = 0.0732

0.0732
C𝐷𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 = = 0.1899
√1−0.784 2
𝐶𝐷 0.1899
tan 𝛾 = = = 2.594
𝐶𝐿 1.1322

γ = 9.524°
48
 0.1899
d at cruise = 1000*
1.1322

d at cruise = 1.667 Km
ROD at cruise = 235*sin 9.524°
ROD at cruise = 38.883 m/s
𝛾𝑚𝑖𝑛 = tan−1 2√𝐾𝐶𝐷𝑜
𝛾𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 3.068°
10000
𝑑𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
2√𝐾𝐶𝐷𝑜

𝑑𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 186.516 Km

49
 10. RANGE & ENDURANCE

RANGE:

2 √𝐶𝑳 2
Range = x x √ x (√ω1 − √ω2 )
C 𝐶𝐷 𝜌𝑆

C – specific fuel consumption

ω1 - initial weigh

ω2 - final weight (weight without 80% of the fuel)

𝐶𝐷 𝑜𝑐𝑟𝑢𝑖𝑠𝑒 = 0.01625
𝐶𝐿 𝑐𝑟𝑢𝑖𝑠𝑒 = 0.4363
C = 16 x 10-6 x 9.81 N/N-s
𝐶𝐷 = 𝐶𝐷 𝑜 + 𝐾𝐶𝐿2 = 0.016125 + 0.04458(0.4363)2
𝐶𝐷 = 0.02458
𝐶𝐷 0.02458
𝐶𝐷 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝 = 2
=
√1−𝑀 √1−0.784 2

𝐶𝐷 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝 = 0.0395

Hence,
2 √0.4363 2
Range = √ (√1152647.12 −√935463.757)
16 x 10−6 x 9.81 0.0395 0.4136 x 209.572

Range = 3.4285 x 106 m= 3,428.5 km

50
ENDURANCE(E) :

1 𝐶𝑳 ω 1 0.4363 1152647.12
E= ln( 2 ) = ln( )
𝐶 𝐶𝐷 ω1 16 x 10−6 x 9.81 0.0395 935463.757

E = 4.08 hours

51
 11. TAKE-OFF & LANDING PERFORMANCE

TAKE OFF PERFORMANCE:

Figure-18: Take-off performance

Ground Run (𝑺𝟏 ):
𝑤
T – D - μR = F = ma = xa
𝑔

R=W–L
𝐹 𝐹𝑔 𝑇−𝐷− μ(𝑊−𝐿)
a= = = 𝑤
𝑚 𝑤 (𝑔)

𝑉𝑑𝑉
dS =
𝑎
𝑆 𝑉 𝑉 𝑑𝑉 𝑤 𝑉1 𝑉 𝑑𝑉
𝑆1 = ∫0 1 𝑑𝑆 = ∫0 1 = ∫0
𝑎 𝑔 𝑇−𝐷−μ(𝑊−𝐿 )

𝑤 𝑉12
𝑆1 =
𝑔 2(𝑇−𝐷−μ(𝑊−𝐿 ))
2x𝑤 2∗ 1152647.12
𝐶𝐿 = = = 1.821
𝜌𝑆𝑉12 1.2256∗209.572∗(70.204)2

𝐶𝐷 𝑜 = 0.01903
𝐶𝐷 = 𝐶𝐷 𝑜 + 𝐾𝐶𝐿2 = 0.01903 + 0.04458 (1.821)2 = 0.16685
1 1
Hence, D = 𝜌𝑆𝑉12 𝐶𝐷 = ∗ 1.2256 ∗ (70.204)2 ∗ (209.572)(0.1668)
2 2
52
 D = 105,577.597N
1 1
L= 𝜌𝑆𝑉12 𝐶𝐿 = x 1.2256 x (70.204)2 x (209.572)(1.821)
2 2

L = 1,152,618.738N
𝑇𝑐𝑟𝑢𝑖𝑠𝑒 = 112904.938N
𝑇𝑐𝑟𝑢𝑖𝑠𝑒 12904.938
𝑇𝑠𝑒𝑎 = = = 334646.413N
σ 0.3373

(𝑇 − 𝐷 − μ(𝑊 − 𝐿 )
= 334646.413 -105,577.597 – 0.02(1152647.12-1152,618.738)
(𝑇 − 𝐷 − μ(𝑊 − 𝐿 ) = 229069.4
1152647.12 (70.204)2
Hence, 𝑆1 = => 𝑆1 = 1062m
9.31 2 x 229069.4

Time taken for Ground Run:

𝑡 𝑉 𝑑𝑉 𝑤 𝑉1 𝑉 𝑑𝑉
𝑡1 = ∫0 1 𝑑𝑡 = ∫0 1 = ∫0
𝑎 𝑔 𝑇−𝐷−μ(𝑊−𝐿 )
𝑤 𝑉 𝑑𝑉 1152647.12∗70.204
𝑡1 = = = 33.007 secs
𝑔 𝑇−𝐷−μ(𝑊−𝐿 ) 9.81∗229069.4

Transition Distance (𝑆2 ):

𝑉2 = 1.05𝑉1 = 73.714 m/s
𝑉1 + 𝑉2
𝑈𝑚 = = 71.959 m/s
2
2xw 2 x 1152647.12
𝐶𝐿 = = => 𝐶𝐿 = 1.733
𝜌𝑆𝑈𝑚2 1.2256 x (209.572)(71.959)2

𝐶𝐷 = 0.01529
1
D = 𝜌𝑆𝑈𝑚2 𝐶𝐷
2
1
D= x 1.2256 (71.959)2 x 209.572 x 0.01529
2

53
D = 101720.6809 N
𝑤 𝑉22 − 𝑉12 1152647.12 73.7142 − 70.2042
𝑆2 = = => 𝑆2 = 127.409 m
2𝑔 𝑇−𝐷 2∗9.81 334646.413−101720.680

Time taken for transition zone (𝒕𝟐 ):

2𝑆2 2∗127.409
𝑡2 = = => 𝑡2 = 1.7705 secs
𝑉1 + 𝑉2 73.714 + 70.204

Steady Climb Distance (𝑺𝟑 ):

2𝑤 2 x 1152647.12
𝐶𝐿 = = = 1.651
𝜌𝑆𝑉12 1.2256 𝑥 209.572 𝑥 (70.204)2

𝐶𝐷 = 0.1405
1 1
D = 𝜌𝑆𝐶𝐷 𝑉22 = x 1.2256 (73.714)2 x 209.572 x 0.1405
2 2

D = 98077.881N
𝑇−𝐷 334646.413−98077.881
θ𝑐 = sin-1( ) = sin-1( ) => θ𝑐 = 11.843o
𝑊 1152647.12
𝐻 15
𝑆3 = = = 71.532 m
𝑡𝑎𝑛θ𝑐 𝑡𝑎𝑛11.843

Time taken for Steady Climb (𝒕𝟑 ):

𝐻 𝐻 15
𝑡3 = = = => 𝑡3 = 0.9915 sec
𝑅𝑂𝐶 𝑉2 𝑠𝑖𝑛θ𝑐 73.714 x 0.2552

Total take – off distance (S) :

S = 𝑆1 + 𝑆2 + 𝑆3 = 1260.941 m = 1.26 km
Total take – off time (t) :
t = 𝑡1 + 𝑡2 + 𝑡3 = 35.769 secs

54
LANDING PERFORMANCE :-

Figure-19: Landing performance

Note: Royal Aeronautical Society Data Sheets (known as ESDU) have given a
simple method which amounts to assuming a constant deceleration and
calculating the distance from 𝑉𝐴 and come to halt.
− 𝑈𝑎2
𝑆𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑑 =
2𝑎

a = -1.2 m/s2 for simple braking system

a = -1.52 m/s2 for average braking system
a = -1.83 m/s2 for modern braking system
a = -2.13 – 3m/s for airplane with modern braking system and modern braking
system and reverse thrust.
−(67.729)2
𝑆𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑑 = = 1,236.7 m = 1.236 km
2 x 1.83

𝑆𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑑 1.236 x103

Time taken = = = 18.38 sec
𝑈 67.729

TURNING PERFORMANCE :-
𝐿
n= ; 𝐶𝑙 𝑐𝑟𝑢𝑖𝑠𝑒 = 0.4363
𝑤
𝐶𝐿 𝑐𝑟𝑢𝑖𝑠𝑒 0.4363
𝐶𝐿 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝 = = = 0.7028
√1−𝑀2 √1−0.7842
1 1
L= 𝜌𝑆𝐶𝐿 𝑈 2 = x 0.4135 ∗ (235)2 *209.572 *0.7028
2 2

55
 L = 1,681,804.124 N
𝐿 ,681,804.124
Load factor, n = = => n = 1.61
𝑤 1044055.439
2
𝑉∞ (235)2
Radius, R = = => R = 4461.506 m
2 2
𝑔√𝑛 − 1 9.81√1.61 − 1

𝑔√𝑛2 − 1 9.81√1.612 − 1
Angular Velocity, ω = = => ω = 0.0526 rad/s
𝑉∞ 235

2𝛱𝑅 2 x 𝛱 x 4461.506
Time to complete one cycle = = = 119.287 secs = I min 1
𝑉∞ 235
sec

Figure-20: Turning performance

Pull-Up Maneuver:
2
𝑉∞ (235)2
Radius, R = = => R = 9228.62 m
𝑔 (𝑛 − 1) 9.81 (1.61 − 1)

𝑔(𝑛 − 1)
Angular Velocity, 𝛚 = => 0.0254 rad/s
𝑉∞

Figure-21:Pull-up Maneuver

56
Pull-Down Maneuver:
2
𝑉∞ (235)2
Radius, R = = => R = 2,156.8 m
𝑔 (𝑛 + 1) 9.81 (2.61)

𝑔(𝑛 + 1) 9.81 (2.61)

Angular Velocity, 𝛚 = = => ω = 0.1089 rad/s
𝑉∞ 235

Figure-22:Pull-down Maneuver

57
STABILITY &
CONTROL
DESIGN

58
 12. Stability and Control of Aircraft
i) . Longitudinal stability
Stick fixed longitudinal stability :
𝜕𝐶𝑀 𝜕𝐶𝑀 𝜕𝐶𝑀 𝜕𝐶𝑀
( ) = ( ) +( ) +( )
𝜕𝐶𝐿 𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑘 𝑓𝑖𝑥𝑒𝑑 𝜕𝐶𝐿 𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝜕𝐶𝐿 𝑓𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝜕𝐶𝐿 𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑙

Wing contribution:
𝜕𝐶 𝑥𝑐𝑔 −𝑥𝑎𝑐 0.3𝑐̅−0.25𝑐̅
( 𝜕𝐶𝑀 ) =
𝑐̅
=
𝑐̅
= 0.05
𝐿 𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔

Fuselage contribution:
𝜕𝑀 𝑆𝑟𝑒𝑓 ∗ (𝑘2 − 𝑘1 )
( ) =
𝜕𝐶𝐿 𝑓𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑤 ∗ 28.7 ∗ 𝑆𝑤
𝐶𝐿2 −𝐶𝐿1 0.4−0.2
𝑎𝑤 = = = 0.066/deg
𝛼2 −𝛼1 3°−0

0.92

Figure-23: Estimation of k2 – k1

𝐶𝐿
𝛼 − 𝛼𝑜 = 𝛼 = −3°
𝑎𝑤 𝑜

59
 𝜋𝐷2
𝑆𝑟𝑒𝑓 = = 12.566 𝑚2
4

𝜕𝐶𝑀 12.5663 ∗ 0.92

( ) = = 0.02886
𝜕𝐶𝐿 𝑓𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑔𝑒 0.066 ∗ 28.7 ∗ 209.572

Tail contribution:
𝜕𝐶 𝑎𝑡 𝑑𝜀
( 𝜕𝐶𝑀) = −𝜂𝑡 𝑣̅𝐻
𝑎𝑤
(1 − 𝑑𝛼)
𝐿 𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑙
𝐶𝐿2 −𝐶𝐿1 0.67−0.4492
𝑎𝑡 = = =0.1104/deg
𝛼2 −𝛼1 6°−4°

𝜂𝑡 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑠 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 0.8 − 1.2 .

𝐷𝑒𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑠 𝑜𝑛 𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑙 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 . 𝑙𝑒𝑡𝑠 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛,
𝜂𝑡 = 0.9 𝑣̅𝐻 = 0.7
𝑑𝜀 114.3 ∗ 𝑎𝑤
= = 0.567
𝑑𝛼 𝜋 ∗ 𝑒 ∗ 𝐴𝑅
𝜕𝐶
( 𝜕𝐶𝑀 ) = −0.9 ∗ 0.7 ∗ (0.1104/0.0666)(1-0.567) =-0.4521
𝐿 𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑙
𝜕𝐶𝑀
( ) = 0.05 + 0.02886 − 0.4521
𝜕𝐶𝐿 𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑘 𝑓𝑖𝑥𝑒𝑑
𝜕𝐶𝑀
( ) = −0.37324 (𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑖𝑧𝑖𝑛𝑔)
𝜕𝐶𝐿 𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑘 𝑓𝑖𝑥𝑒𝑑

Stick free neutral point:

𝑁𝑜 𝑥𝑎𝑐 𝜕𝐶𝑀 𝜕𝐶𝑀
= −( ) +( )
𝑐̅ 𝑐̅ 𝜕𝐶𝐿 𝑓𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝜕𝐶𝐿 𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑙
𝑁𝑜
= 0.25 − 0.02886 + 0.4521
𝑐̅
𝑁𝑜 = 0.67324𝑐̅

60
Static margin:
𝜕𝐶𝑀
S.M=-( ) = 0.37324𝑐̅
𝜕𝐶𝐿 𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑘 𝑓𝑖𝑥𝑒𝑑

Zero lift pitching moment:

𝜕𝐶𝑀
𝐶𝑀 = 𝐶𝑀𝑜 + 𝐶
𝜕𝐶𝐿 𝐿
𝜕𝐶𝑀
𝐶𝑀𝑜 = − 𝐶 = 0.16284
𝜕𝐶𝐿 𝐿
Tail setting angle :
𝛼𝑡 = 𝛼𝑤 − 𝑖𝑤 − 𝜀 + 𝑖𝑡
114.6 ∗ 𝐶𝐿
𝜀= = 3.715°
𝜋 ∗ 𝑒 ∗ 𝐴𝑅
𝑑𝜀 𝜀 − 𝜀𝑜
= ⟹ 𝜀𝑜 = 3.425°
𝑑𝛼 𝛼 − 0
𝐶𝑀𝑜 = 𝜂𝑡 𝑣̅𝐻 𝑎𝑡 (𝑖𝑤 + 𝜀𝑜 − 𝑖𝑡 )
⟹ 𝑖𝑡 = 3.582°

Static free longitudinal stability :

𝜕𝐶𝑀
( )
𝜕𝐶𝐿 𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑘 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒

𝜕𝐶𝑀 𝜕𝐶𝑀 𝑎𝑡 𝑑𝜀 𝐶𝐻
= ( ) +( ) − 𝜂𝑡 𝑣̅𝐻 (1 − ) (1 − 𝛼𝑡 𝜏)
𝜕𝐶𝐿 𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝜕𝐶𝐿 𝑓𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑤 𝑑𝛼 𝐶𝐻𝛿𝑒

assume ,
𝐶𝐻𝛼𝑡 = −0.003/𝑑𝑒𝑔, 𝐶𝐻𝛿𝑒 = −0.005/𝑑𝑒𝑔,
𝑆𝑒
𝜏‐ 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟, 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜
𝑆𝑡

61
 𝜕𝐶𝑀
( )
𝜕𝐶𝐿 𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑘 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒
0.1104 0.003
= 0.05 + 0.02886 − ∗ 0.7 ∗ 0.9 ∗ (1 − 0.567) (1 − ∗ 0.52)
0.066 0.005

𝜕𝐶𝑀
( ) = −0.23223(𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑖𝑧𝑖𝑛𝑔)
𝜕𝐶𝐿 𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑘 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒

0.
52

Figure-24: Estimation of 𝜏
Stick free neutral point :
𝑁𝑜 ′ 𝑥𝑎𝑐 𝜕𝐶𝑀 𝑎𝑡 𝑑𝜀 𝐶𝐻
= −( ) + 𝜂𝑡 𝑣̅𝐻 (1 − ) (1 − 𝛼𝑡 𝜏)
𝑐̅ 𝑐̅ 𝜕𝐶𝐿 𝑓𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑤 𝑑𝛼 𝐶𝐻𝛿𝑒

𝑁𝑜 ′
= 0.25 − 0.02886 + 0.31109
𝑐̅
𝑁𝑜 ′
= 0.53223 ⟹ 𝑁𝑜 ′ = 0.53223 𝑐̅
𝑐̅

Stick free static margin :

𝜕𝐶𝑀
SM’ = -( )
𝜕𝐶𝐿 𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑘 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒

SM’ = 0.23223𝑐̅

62
Elevator control power :
𝜕𝐶𝑀
= −𝜂𝑡 𝑣̅𝐻 𝑎𝑡 𝜏
𝜕𝛿𝑒
𝐶𝑀𝛿𝑒 = −0.9 ∗ 0.7 ∗ 0.1104 ∗ 0.52
𝐶𝑀𝛿𝑒 = −0.03616/𝑑𝑒𝑔
Elevator deflection:
𝜕𝐶𝑀
−𝐶𝐿𝛼 (𝐶𝑀𝑜 + 𝛼 )
𝛿𝑒𝑜 = 𝜕𝛼 𝑜
𝜕𝐶
(𝐶𝑀𝛿𝑒 𝐶𝐿𝛼 − 𝑀 𝐶𝐿𝛿𝑒 )
𝜕𝛼
𝜕𝐶𝑀
= −0.37324 ∗ 0.066 = −0.02485
𝜕𝛼

𝜕𝐶𝐿𝑡 𝜕𝐶𝐿𝑡 𝜕𝛼𝑡

= ∗ = 0.00574
𝜕𝛿𝑒 𝜕𝛼𝑡 𝜕𝛿𝑒
𝑆𝑡 𝜕𝐶𝐿𝑡
𝐶𝐿𝛿𝑒 = ( ) ∗ 𝜂 ∗ = 0.0006715
𝑆 𝜕𝛿𝑒
⟹ 𝛿𝑒𝑜 = 0.015810 𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 7.050°
𝜕𝐶
( 𝑀)
𝜕𝐶𝐿 𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑘 𝑓𝑖𝑥𝑒𝑑
𝛿𝑒 = 𝛿𝑒𝑜 − ∗ 𝐶𝐿
𝐶𝑀𝛿𝑒

𝛿𝑒 = 2.546°

Stick force gradient (unaccelerated flight):

𝑑𝐹
= −𝐺𝑠𝑒 𝑐𝑒 𝜂𝑡 𝜌𝑣 [𝐶𝐻𝑜 + 𝐶𝐻𝛼 (𝛼 − 𝑖𝑤 + 𝑖𝑡 ) + 𝐶𝐻𝛿𝑒 ∗ 𝛿𝑒𝑜 ]
𝑑𝑣 𝑡

𝑑𝐹
= −1 ∗ 8.1732 ∗ 0.6591 ∗ 0.9 ∗ 0.4135 ∗ 235[0.1
𝑑𝑣
− 0.003(4.2 − 2.5 + 3.583) + (−0.005)(7.050)]
𝑑𝐹
= −22.656 𝑁𝑚/𝑠
𝑑𝑣
63
CM vs α graph:
𝑥𝑐𝑔 − 𝑥𝑎𝑐
𝐶𝑀 = 𝐶𝑀𝑎𝑐 + 𝐶𝐿 − 𝜂𝑡 𝑣̅𝐻 𝑎𝑡 (𝛼 − 𝑖𝑤 − 𝜀 + 𝑖𝑡 )
𝑐̅
𝐶𝑀 = 0.224695 − 0.03011𝛼

Figure-25: Angle of attack Vs Co-efficient of moment graph

Figure-26: Angle of attack Vs Co-efficient of moment graph variation w.r.t

varying elevator deflection
64
For varying elevator deflection:
𝑥𝑐𝑔 − 𝑥𝑎𝑐
𝐶𝑀 = 𝐶𝑀𝑎𝑐 + 𝐶𝐿 − 𝜂𝑡 𝑣̅𝐻 𝑎𝑡 (𝛼 − 𝑖𝑤 − 𝜀 + 𝑖𝑡 + 𝜏𝛿𝑒)
𝑐̅
𝐶𝑀 = 0.224695 − 0.03011𝛼 − 0.03616𝛿𝑒

Elevator deflection vs Cl graph:

𝜕𝐶𝑀
( )
𝜕𝐶𝐿 𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑘 𝑓𝑖𝑥𝑒𝑑
𝛿𝑒 = 𝛿𝑒𝑜 − 𝐶𝐿
𝐶𝑀𝛿𝑒

𝛿𝑒 = 7.050 − 10.3219𝐶𝐿

𝜕𝐶𝑚
=0
𝜕𝐶𝐿

𝛿𝑒0

𝜕𝐶𝑚
𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝜕𝐶𝐿

Cl max=2.19

Figure-27: CL Vs 𝛿𝑒 graph
Most forward CG:
𝜕𝐶𝑀
( )
𝜕𝐶𝐿 𝑚𝑎𝑥.𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑘 𝑓𝑖𝑥𝑒𝑑
𝛿𝑒 = 𝛿𝑒𝑜 − 𝐶𝐿
𝐶𝑀𝛿𝑒

65
 𝜕𝐶𝑀 −32.05 ∗ −0.03616
−( ) =
𝜕𝐶𝐿 𝑚𝑎𝑥.𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑘 𝑓𝑖𝑥𝑒𝑑 2.91
𝜕𝐶𝑀
( ) = −0.3925
𝜕𝐶𝐿 𝑚𝑎𝑥.𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑘 𝑓𝑖𝑥𝑒𝑑
𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝐶𝑀 𝜕𝐶𝑀 𝜕𝐶𝑀
( ) = ( ) +( ) +( )
𝜕𝐶𝐿 𝑚𝑎𝑥.𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑘 𝑓𝑖𝑥𝑒𝑑 𝜕𝐶𝐿 𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝜕𝐶𝐿 𝑓𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝜕𝐶𝐿 𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑙
𝑥𝑐𝑔
−0.39825 = − 0.25 + 0.02286 − 004521
𝑐̅
(𝑥𝑐𝑔 )𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑 = 0.2807𝑐̅

ii)Lateral stability
𝜕𝐶𝑙 𝜕𝐶𝑙 𝜕𝐶𝑙 𝜕𝐶𝑙 𝜕𝐶𝑙
( )= ( ) +( ) +( ) +( )
𝜕𝛽 𝜕𝛽 𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝜕𝛽 𝑓𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝜕𝛽 𝑝.𝑝 𝜕𝛽 𝑣.𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑙

Wing contribution:

Dihedral effect:
𝜕𝐶 𝜕𝐶 2(1+2𝜆)
( 𝜕𝛽𝑙) = −0.25Γ ( 𝜕𝛼𝐿 ) [ 3(1+𝜆) ] Γ = 0.0698, 𝜆 = 0.24
Γ
𝜕𝐶
( 𝜕𝛽𝑙) = −0.00924639/deg (stabilizing)
Γ

Sweep back effect:

𝜕𝐶𝑙 𝑦̅
( ) = −𝐶𝐿 sin 2Λ
𝜕𝛽 Λ 𝑏
Λ = 35°

66
 𝜕𝐶𝑙 10.485
( ) = −0.4363 ∗ ( ) ∗ sin 70°
𝜕𝛽 Λ 41.94
𝜕𝐶𝑙
( ) = −0.001788/deg (𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑖𝑧𝑖𝑛𝑔)
𝜕𝛽 Λ

Vertical tail:

𝜕𝐶𝑙 𝑆𝑣𝑍𝑣
( ) = −𝜂𝑡 (𝐶𝐿𝛼 )𝑣.𝑡
𝜕𝛽 [Link] 𝑆𝑏
𝜕𝐶𝑙 1.891
( ) = −0.9 ∗ (9.742 ∗ ) ∗ 0.1104
𝜕𝛽 [Link] 209.572 ∗ 41.94
𝜕𝐶𝑙
( ) = −0.00020825/𝑑𝑒𝑔 (𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑖𝑧𝑖𝑛𝑔)
𝜕𝛽 [Link]
𝜕𝐶𝑙
∆ ( ) = 0.0006/ deg 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑓𝑖𝑔𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝜕𝛽
𝜕𝐶𝑙 0.0002
∆( )= 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑖𝑝 𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑝𝑒
𝜕𝛽 𝑑𝑒𝑔

Rather than that other are negligible value and thus termed to be neglected.

𝜕𝐶𝑙 𝜕𝐶𝑙 𝜕𝐶𝑙

( )=( ) +( )
𝜕𝛽 𝜕𝛽 𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝜕𝛽 𝑣.𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑙
𝜕𝐶𝑙
( ) = −0.00924639 − 0.001788 + 0.0006 + 0.0002 − 0.0002085
𝜕𝛽
𝜕𝐶𝑙
( ) = −0.01044 (𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑖𝑧𝑖𝑛𝑔)
𝜕𝛽

67
 iii)Directional stability

𝜕𝐶𝑁 𝜕𝐶𝑁 𝜕𝐶𝑁 𝜕𝐶𝑁 𝜕𝐶𝑁

( )= ( ) +( ) +( ) +( )
𝜕𝛽 𝜕𝛽 𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝜕𝛽 𝑓𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝜕𝛽 𝑝.𝑝 𝜕𝛽 𝑣.𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑙

Wing contribution:
𝜕𝐶𝑁 𝑦̅ sin 2Λ
( ) = −𝐶𝐷 ( )
𝜕𝛽 wing 𝑏 57.3

CD (cruise)=0.0395(from task 9)
𝜕𝐶𝑁 (0.0395 ∗ 0.016399)
( ) =
𝜕𝛽 wing 4
𝜕𝐶𝑁
( ) = 0.00016194/deg (𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑖𝑧𝑖𝑛𝑔)
𝜕𝛽 wing

Fuselage contribution:

Figure-28: fuselage contribution

68
 𝜕𝐶𝑁 −0.96𝐾𝛽 𝑠𝑠 𝐿𝑓 ℎ1 0.5 𝑤2 0.5
( ) = ( ) ( )
𝜕𝛽 𝑓𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑔𝑒 57.3 𝑠𝑤 𝑏 ℎ2 𝑤1

Where,
h1 – height of fuselage at Lf/4
h1 – height of fuselage at 3Lf/4
w1 – width of fuselage at Lf/4
w1 – width of fuselage at 3Lf/4
Ss- side projected area
𝜕𝐶𝑁 160
( ) = −0.96 ∗ 0.07 ∗
𝜕𝛽 𝑓𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑔𝑒 57.3 ∗ 209.572
𝜕𝐶𝑁
( ) = −0.00153419(𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑖𝑧𝑖𝑛𝑔)
𝜕𝛽 𝑓𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑔𝑒

Tail contribution:
𝜕𝐶𝑁 𝑑𝜎𝑠
( ) = 𝜂𝑡 𝑣̅𝑣 (𝐶𝐿𝛼 )𝑣.𝑡 (1 + )
𝜕𝛽 𝑣.𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑙 𝑑𝛽
𝑑𝜎𝑠 𝑆𝑣 0.4𝑍𝑤
𝜂𝑡 (1 + ) = 0.724 + (3.06 ∗ )+ + 0.009𝐴𝑅
𝑑𝛽 𝑆 ∗ (1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠Λ) 𝑑
𝑑𝜎𝑠
𝜂𝑡 (1 + ) = 1.06825
𝑑𝛽
𝜕𝐶𝑁
( ) = 0.04 ∗ 0.1104 ∗ 1.06825
𝜕𝛽 𝑣.𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑙
𝜕𝐶𝑁
( ) = 0.00471739/deg (𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑖𝑧𝑖𝑛𝑔)
𝜕𝛽 𝑣.𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑙
Others are negeleted,
𝜕𝐶𝑁 𝜕𝐶𝑁 𝜕𝐶𝑁 𝜕𝐶𝑁 𝜕𝐶𝑁
⟹( )= ( ) +( ) +( ) + Δ( )
𝜕𝛽 𝜕𝛽 𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝜕𝛽 𝑓𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝜕𝛽 𝑣.𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑙 𝜕𝛽

69
 𝜕𝐶𝑁
( ) = 0.00016194 + 0.004717 − 0.0015341 + 0.0001
𝜕𝛽
𝜕𝐶𝑁
( ) = 0.00344514(𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑖𝑧𝑖𝑛𝑔)
𝜕𝛽

Pedal free static directional stability:

𝑑𝛿𝑟 𝐶𝐻 𝑑𝜎𝑠
= − 𝛼𝑣 (1 + )
𝑑𝛽 𝐶𝐻𝛿𝑟 𝑑𝛽
𝑑𝛿𝑟 0.003
= −( ) ∗ 1.1869(𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑒)
𝑑𝛽 0.006
𝑑𝛿𝑟
= −0.59347
𝑑𝛽
Rudder control power:
𝜕 (𝐶𝐿𝛼 )𝑣.𝑡
𝐶𝑁𝜹𝒓 = −𝜂𝑡 𝑣̅𝑣
𝜕𝛿𝑟
𝜕 (𝐶𝐿𝛼 )𝑣.𝑡
= 0.1104 ∗ 0.4
𝜕𝛿𝑟
𝐶𝑁𝜹𝒓 = −0.9 ∗ 0.04 ∗ 0.1104 ∗ 0.4
𝐶𝑁𝜹𝒓 = −0.00158976/𝑑𝑒𝑔

70
 13. V-n diagram

From calculation,
Positive nmax=3.10
Negative nmin=-1.24
Dive speed, VD=1.4*Vc=1.4*235=329 m/s

𝑤
𝑉𝑠 = √
𝜌𝑠𝑤 𝐶𝐿

𝑉𝑠 = 77.3718𝑚/𝑠
n=l/w=(0.5*1.225*V*2*209.572*1.5)/1152647.110
n=1.67*10-4V*2
for corner velocity, (point A)
V*=1.36*102=136.2m/s

The co-ordinates are A (136.2,3.10)

The lower curve is,

-n = -l/w = (0.5*1.225* V*2*209.572*1.2)/1152647.110
-n= 1.336*10-4V*2
The co-ordinates, point D
=>D (96.34, -1.24)

71
Gust computation:
𝑘𝑔 𝑉𝑔 𝑣𝑎𝜌𝑠
𝑛 =1±
2𝑤
2𝑚
𝜇𝑔 = = 25.94
𝜌𝑐̅𝑎𝑠
0.88𝜇𝑔
𝑘𝑔 = = 0.7307
5.3 + 𝜇𝑔
Assume gust velocity=±15.24m/s
n=1±0.00781V
n=2.8353(+ve n in cruising speed)
n=-0.8358(-ve n in cruising speed)

For dive speed,

With dive speed=VD=±7.62m/s
n=1±0.003906
n=2.28507(+ve n in dive speed)
n=-0.2.85075(-ve n in dive speed)

72
Figure-29: V-n diagram

73
 AIRCRAFT DESIGN PROJECT REPORT

A PROJECT REPORT OF DESIGN OF 25 TONNES CARGO

AIRCRAFT WITH RANGE OF 3000km
Submitted by,
ABHISHEAK A (2019501001)
AGILAN V (2019501002)
AISHWARYA KANNAN (2019501003)
AJAY S (2019501004)
AKASH S (2019501005)
ALAN M (2019501006)
ARUN K (2019501007)
BHUVANAPPRASIDDA G (2019501008)
in partial fulfilment for the award of the degree
of
BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING
in
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING

ANNA UNIVERSITY MIT CAMPUS CHENNAI- 600044

DECEMBER 2022

1
2
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We are grateful to Dr. R Arun prasad for giving us continuous
guidance during the various stages of our project’s structural
design. We would also like to express our gratitude to Dr. C
Senthil Kumar for his guidance throughout the aerodynamic
design of the aircraft. We would also like to thank all our
faculty members who have helped us throughout the design
project.
We also extend our sincere gratitude to Dr. K. M.
Parammasivam, Head of the Department, Department of
Aerospace Engineering.

3
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. Schrenk’s Approximation Method
2. Shear Force Diagrams For Wings
3. Bending Moment Diagrams
4. Spar Flange and Web Design
5. Stringer Design
6. Shear Flow in the Wing Section
7. Shear Force Diagram for Fuselage
8. Bending Moment Diagram for Fuselage
9. Bulkhead Design
10. Longeron Design
11. Shear Flow Over a Fuselage

4
 1. SCHRENK’S APPROXIMATION METHOD
The first objective of structural design is to estimate the loads acting
on different components on the aircraft. Starting with design of wing,
the aerodynamic lift is a major load that acts on the wings. To
estimate the stresses at any station, the load distribution along the
span is required. The Schrenk’s curve is a conventional
approximation of the aerodynamic lift distribution. It is obtained by
taking the average of the elliptic and trapezoidal lift distribution.
The exposed part of the wing itself is assumed to produce the
necessary lift.
Elliptic lift
𝑊𝑦 = 0 for 0 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 2𝑚

4𝐿 2𝑦 2
𝑊𝑦 = √1 − ( ) (𝑁/𝑚) for 2𝑚 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 20.9785𝑚
𝜋(𝑏−𝑑) (𝑏−𝑑)

Trapezoidal lift
𝑊𝑦 = 0 for 0 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 2𝑚

2𝐿 2𝑦
𝑊𝑦 = √1 + (𝜆 − 1 ) (𝑁/𝑚)
(1 + 𝜆)(𝑏 − 𝑑) (𝑏 − 𝑑)

for 2𝑚 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 20.9785𝑚
Where,
L = Total lift = Aircraft’s gross weight in N
b = Span of wing in m
𝜆 = Taper ratio of wing = Tip chord / Root chord
y = Distance of a station in wing, measured from wing root to
tip
y = 0 at wing root
5
 y = b/2 at wing tip
d= Fuselage diameter
The Elliptical lift, Trapezoidal lift and spanwise lift for
different locations of the wing has been calculated by
using the above defined formulas.

Span Life Elliptical Trapezoidal Mean Lift

location (y) Lift Lift Distribution
m N N N
0 -2 0 0 0
0.5 -1.5 0 0 0
1 -1 0 0 0
1.5 -0.5 0 0 0
2 0 0 0 0
2 0 38684.31 48979.33 43831.82
2.5 0.5 38670.88 47998.63 43334.75
3 1 38630.57 47017.93 42824.25
3.5 1.5 38563.29 46037.24 42300.26
4 2 38468.91 45056.54 41762.72
4.5 2.5 38347.21 44075.84 41211.53
5 3 38197.94 43095.15 40646.55
5.5 3.5 38020.78 42114.45 40067.62
6 4 37815.33 41133.76 39474.55
6.5 4.5 37581.14 40153.06 38867.1
7 5 37317.65 39172.36 38245
7.5 5.5 37024.24 38191.67 37607.95
8 6 36700.2 37210.97 36955.58
8.5 6.5 36344.7 36230.27 36287.49
9 7 35956.81 35249.58 35603.2
9.5 7.5 35535.48 34268.88 34902.18
10 8 35079.5 33288.19 34183.84
10.5 8.5 34587.49 32307.49 33447.49
11 9 34057.89 31326.79 32692.34
11.5 9.5 33488.93 30346.1 31917.51
12 10 32878.56 29365.4 31121.98
6
 12.5 10.5 32224.42 28384.7 30304.56
13 11 31523.8 27404.01 29463.9
13.5 11.5 30773.51 26423.31 28598.41
14 12 29969.82 25442.62 27706.22
14.5 12.5 29108.32 24461.92 26785.12
15 13 28183.71 23481.22 25832.46
15.5 13.5 27189.53 22500.53 24845.03
16 14 26117.86 21519.83 23818.85
16.5 14.5 24958.72 20539.13 22748.93
17 15 23699.26 19558.44 21628.85
17.5 15.5 22322.52 18577.74 20450.13
18 16 20805.22 17597.05 19201.13
18.5 16.5 19113.93 16616.35 17865.14
19 17 17197.39 15635.65 16416.52
19.5 17.5 14969.32 14654.96 14812.14
20 18 12261.06 13674.26 12967.66
20.5 18.5 8631.873 12693.56 10662.72
20.9785 18.9785 0 11755.04 5877.519

The lift distribution versus the spanwise location graph has been
plotted for the elliptic lift, Trapezoidal lift and the mean lift
distribution of the aircraft. From those graphs, the Schrenk
curve has been plotted. Schrenk curve is the curve which
combines the graphs of the elliptical, trapezoidal and the span
wise lift distribution versus the spanwise location.

7
 Elliptical Lift Disrtibution
45000

Lift Distribution(N/m) 40000

35000
30000
25000
20000
15000
10000
5000
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Spanwise Location(m)

Figure 1

Trapezoidal Lift Distribution

60000

50000
Lift Distribution(N/m)

40000

30000

20000

10000

0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Spanwise Location(m)

Figure 2

8
 MeanLift Distribution
50000
45000
40000
Lift Distributin(N/m)

35000
30000
25000
20000
15000
10000
5000
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Spanwise Location(m)

Figure 3

Schrenk Curve
60000

50000
Lift Distribution(N/m)

40000
Elliptical Lift
Distribution
30000
Trapezoidal Lift
Distribution
20000
Mean Lift Distribution

10000

0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Spanwise Location(m)

Figure 4

9
 2. SHEAR FORCE DIAGRAMS FOR WINGS
The ribs, spars and stringers in a wing are subjected to
shear forces and bending moments. In order to design the
spar and stringers inside the wing, an estimate of shear
force and bending moment at different station along the
span is required.
Shear force diagrams
The shear force at a station is estimated by strength of
materials approach, treating half wing as a cantilever beam
with lift, structural weight, fuel weight, powerplant weight
and landing gear weight acting as applied loads. The shear
flow at a section is taken as positive if the element to the
right of the section moves down while the beam bends due
to the corresponding load. The calculated shear force
functions are given below,
Shear Force (SF) due to elliptic lift
𝑉𝑦 = (𝑉𝑦 )𝑦=𝑚 for 18.9785𝑚 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 20.9785𝑚
2𝐿 𝜋 𝑝 1
𝑉𝑦 = − [ − ( √1 − 𝑝2 ) − ( sin−1 𝑝)]
𝜋 4 2 2

for 0 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 18.9785𝑚
Shear Force (SF) due to trapezoidal lift
𝑉𝑦 = (𝑉𝑦 )𝑦=𝑚 for 18.9785𝑚 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 20.9785𝑚

2𝐿 𝑦2
𝑉𝑦 = − (𝜆+1)(𝑏−𝑑) [𝜆𝑦 + (1 − 𝜆)]
(𝑏−𝑑)

for 0 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 18.9785𝑚
Where,
p = 1 – (2y/(b-d))

10
 y = Distance to a station in the wing, measured from the wing
tip to root
y = 0 at the wing tip
y = b/2 at the wing root
L = Total lift = Aircraft’s gross weight in N
b = Span of wing in m
𝜆 = Taper ratio of wing = Tip chord / Root chord
d = Fuselage diameter
Loading due to wing structure
𝑡
𝑊𝑦 = [𝜌𝐴𝑙 𝑘𝐴 ( ) 𝑐𝑟2 ]
𝑐 𝑚𝑎𝑥
4𝑦 2 4𝑦
× [ 2 (1 − 𝜆)2 + 𝜆2 + 𝜆(1 − 𝜆)] (𝑁/𝑚)
𝑏 𝑏
Shear Force (SF) due to wing structure
𝑡
𝑉𝑦 = [𝜌𝐴𝑙 𝑘𝐴 ( ) 𝑐𝑟2 ]
𝑐 𝑚𝑎𝑥
4𝑦 3 2 2
2𝑦 2
× [ 2 (1 − 𝜆) + 𝜆 𝑦 + 𝜆(1 − 𝜆)] (𝑁)
3𝑏 𝑏
Where,
𝜌𝐴𝑙 = Weight density of aluminium = 26585.1 𝑁/𝑚3
𝑘𝐴 is a constant to be estimated
𝑡
(𝑐) = Max thickness to chord ratio of the airfoil
𝑚𝑎𝑥

𝑐𝑟 = Root chord in m
y = Distance to a station in the wing, measured from the
wing tip to root
y = 0 at the wing tip

11
 y = b/2 at the wing root
𝜆 = Taper ratio of wing = Tip chord / Root chord
Using the condition,
𝑊 𝑏
𝑉𝑦 = at 𝑦 =
2 2

We get,
(𝑊/2)
𝑘𝐴 =
𝑡 𝑏
[𝜌𝐴𝑙 ( ) 𝑐𝑟2 (𝜆2 + 𝜆 + 1)]
𝑐 𝑚𝑎𝑥 6
Where,
W = Structural weight of full wing in N
The wing structure inside the fuselage is considered to have zero
contribution in the SFD. Hence the shear force due to structure
becomes,
𝑉𝑦 = (𝑉𝑦 )𝑦=13.465𝑚 or 18.9785m ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 20.9785𝑚

𝑡 4𝑦 3 2𝑦 2
𝑉𝑦 = [𝜌𝐴𝑙 𝑘𝐴 ( ) 𝑐𝑟2 ] × [ (
2 1−𝜆
)2 + 𝜆2 𝑦 + 𝜆(1 − 𝜆)]
𝑐 𝑚𝑎𝑥 3𝑏 𝑏
for 0 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 18.9785𝑚
The engine and landing gear weights are taken as point loads and the
fuel weight is taken as uniformly distributed load. The shear force due
to these loadings are calculated at different stations and plotted. The
total shear force is also calculated and plotted.

Shear force due to engine, (Point load of 39513.699N at 14.4785m

from wing tip)
𝑉𝑦 = 39513.699 𝑁 for 14.4785𝑚 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 20.9785𝑚
𝑉𝑦 = 0 for 0 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 14.4785𝑚
y = Distance to a station in the wing, measured from the
wing tip to root
12
Shear force due to fuel, (Uniformly distributed load of N/m from m
to m from wing tip)
𝑉𝑦 = 𝑁 for 𝑚 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 𝑚
𝑉𝑦 =× (𝑦 − 6.7390) for 6.7390𝑚 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 𝑚
𝑉𝑦 = 0 for 0 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 6.7390𝑚
y = Distance to a station in the wing, measured from the wing
tip to root

Span p=1- SF due SF due SF due SF due SF SF due Total SF Total SF

wise 2y/b to to to mean to due to fuel without
Locat elliptic 13rapez lift structu to lift
ion lift oid lift re engin
e
M N N N N N N N N
0 - - - - 28787. 39513 135739. 204040 -
0.1053 576323 576323. 576323. 61808 .699 5 .8171 372282
82406 .5605 5605 5605 .7434
0.5 - - - - 27230. 39513 135740. 202484 -
0.0790 576322 576322. 576322. 02748 .699 5 .2265 373838
36805 .5605 5605 5605 .334
1 - - - - 25728. 39513 135741. 200984 -
0.0526 576321 576321. 576321. 85252 .699 5 .0515 375337
91203 .5605 5605 5605 .509
1.5 - - - - 24283. 39513 135742. 199539 -
0.0263 576320 576320. 576320. 05253 .699 5 .2515 376781
45602 .5605 5605 5605 .309
2 0 - - - 22891. 39513 135743. 198148 -
576323 576323. 576323. 58688 .699 5 .7859 378174
.5605 5605 5605 .7746
2.25 0.0131 - - - 22215. 39513 135744. 197474 -
72801 566657 564140. 565398. 90423 .699 5 .1032 367924
.6659 0226 8442 .741
2.75 0.0395 - - - 20903. 39513 135745. 196163 -
18402 547332 540140. 543736. 98888 .699 5 .1879 347573
.5875 708 6478 .4599

13
 3.25 0.0658 - - - 19643. 39513 135746. 194904 -
64004 528027 516631. 522329. 80627 .699 5 .0053 327425
.6561 7415 6988 .6935
3.75 0.0922 - - - 18434. 39513 135739. 193687 -
09606 508756 493613. 501184. 31574 .699 5 .5147 307497
.3495 1231 7363 .2216
4.25 0.1185 - - - 17274. 39513 129269. 186057 -
55207 489532 471084. 480308. 47665 .699 0898 .2654 294251
.2166 8528 5347 .2692
4.75 0.1449 - - - 16163. 39513 122798. 178475 -
00809 470368 449046. 459707. 24836 .699 6796 .627 281232
.9062 9306 9184 .2915
5.25 0.1712 - - - 15099. 39513 116328. 170941 -
4641 451280 427499. 439389. 59023 .699 2694 .5587 268448
.1978 3566 7772 .2185
5.75 0.1975 - - - 14082. 39513 109857. 163454 -
92012 432280 406442. 419361. 46161 .699 8592 .0199 255907
.033 1307 0819 .062
6.25 0.2239 - - - 13110. 39513 103387. 156011 -
37614 413382 385875. 399628. 82187 .699 4491 .9699 243616
.5496 2529 9013 .9313
6.5 0.2371 - - - 12641. 39513 100152. 152307 -
10414 403976 375775. 389876. 73512 .699 244 .6781 237568
.7939 6945 2442 .5661
6.5 0.2371 - - - 12641. 0 100152. 112793 -
10414 403976 375775. 389876. 73512 244 .9791 277082
.7939 6945 2442 .2651
6.75 0.2502 - - - 12183. 0 96917.0 109100 -
83215 394602 365798. 380200. 63035 3888 .6692 271099
.1173 7232 4202 .751
7.25 0.2766 - - - 11299. 0 90446.6 101746 -
28817 375953 346212. 361082. 84642 287 .4751 259336
.3763 5417 959 .4839
7.75 0.3029 - - - 10458. 0 83976.2 94434. -
74418 357451 327116. 342283. 42942 1852 64794 247849
.2799 7083 9941 .3461
8.25 0.3293 - - - 9658.3 0 77505.8 87164. -
2002 339111 308511. 323811. 38726 0834 14707 236647
.1397 223 1813 .0342
8.75 0.3556 - - - 8898.5 0 71035.3 79933. -
65622 320948 290396. 305672. 33684 9816 93185 225738
.6773 0858 3815 .4497
9.25 0.3820 - - - 8177.9 0 64564.9 72742. -
11223 302980 272771. 287875. 73654 8798 96164 215132
.0808 2967 6888 .7272
9.75 0.4083 - - - 7495.6 0 58094.5 65590. -
56825 285222 255636. 270429. 17992 778 19579 204839
.0688 8558 4623 .2665
10.25 0.4347 - - - 6850.4 0 51624.1 58474. -
02426 267691 238992. 253342. 26054 6762 59368 194867
.9622 763 3626 .769

14
10.75 0.4610 - - - 6241.3 0 45153.7 51395. -
48028 250407 222839. 236623. 57198 5744 11464 185228
.7678 0183 3931 .2784
11.25 0.4873 - - - 5667.3 0 38683.3 44350. -
9363 233388 207175. 220281. 70781 4726 71804 175931
.273 6218 9474 .2293
11.75 0.5137 - - - 5127.4 0 32212.9 37340. -
39231 216653 192002. 204327. 26158 3708 36324 166987
.157 5733 8652 .5019
12.25 0.5400 - - - 4620.4 0 25742.5 30363. -
84833 200223 177319. 188771. 82688 269 00959 158408
.1216 873 4973 .4877
12.75 0.5664 - - - 4145.4 0 19272.1 23417. -
30434 184120 163127. 173623. 99725 1672 61645 150206
.0456 5208 7832 .1668
13.25 0.5927 - - - 3701.4 0 12801.7 16503. -
76036 168367 149425. 158896. 36629 0654 14317 142393
.171 5168 3439 .2007
13.75 0.6191 - - - 3287.2 0 6331.29 9618.5 -
21638 152989 136213. 144601. 52754 6361 49115 134983
.3287 8608 5948 .0457
14.25 0.6454 - - - 2901.9 0 - 2762.7 -
67239 138013 123492. 130752. 07459 139.113 9364 127990
.2163 553 8847 8189 .091
14.23 0.6449 - - - 2909.8 0 0 2909.8 -
925 00809 138330 123760. 131045. 96252 96252 128135
.7808 9032 842 .9458
14.75 0.6718 - - - 2544.3 0 0 2544.3 -
12841 123467 111261. 117364. 60099 60099 114820
.7455 5933 6694 .3093
15.25 0.6981 - - - 2213.5 0 0 2213.5 -
58442 109384 99520.9 104452. 70032 70032 102239
.4823 8175 732 .162
15.75 0.7245 - - - 1908.4 0 0 1908.4 -
04044 95798. 88270.7 92034.4 96614 96614 90125.
218 183 6815 97154
16.25 0.7508 - - - 1628.0 0 0 1628.0 -
49646 82747. 77510.8 80129.2 99202 99202 78501.
72381 0297 6339 16419
16.75 0.7771 - - - 1371.3 0 0 1371.3 -
95247 70276. 67241.2 68759.0 37152 37152 67387.
77525 3577 0551 66836
17.25 0.8035 - - - 1137.1 0 0 1137.1 -
40849 58435. 57462.0 57948.8 69823 69823 56811.
58714 1669 0191 63209
17.75 0.8298 - - - 924.55 0 0 924.55 -
8645 47282. 48173.1 47728.0 65697 65697 46803.
89996 4573 2284 46627
18.25 0.8562 - - - 732.45 0 0 732.45 -
32052 36889. 39374.6 38131.8 67496 67496 37399.
16123 229 9206 43531

15
18.75 0.8825 - - - 559.82 0 0 559.82 -
77654 27341. 31066.4 29204.0 97194 97194 28644.
68334 4818 6576 23604
19.25 0.9089 - - - 405.63 0 0 405.63 -
23255 18753. 23248.6 21001.1 48359 48359 20595.
72986 216 7573 54089
19.75 0.9352 - - - 268.83 0 0 268.83 -
68857 11282. 15921.1 13601.8 14558 14558 13333.
56276 4313 5294 02149
20.25 0.9616 - - - 148.37 0 0 148.37 -
14458 5172.9 9084.01 7128.46 8936 8936 6980.0
13704 2789 3247 84311
20.75 0.9879 - - - 43.236 0 0 43.236 -
6006 912.32 2737.23 1824.77 6332 6332 1781.5
76226 057 9097 42463
20.97 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
85

SHEAR FORCE DUE TO ELLIPTICAL LIFT

0
0 5 10 15 20 25
-100000

-200000
SHEAR FORCE(N)

-300000

-400000

-500000

-600000

-700000
SPANWISE LOCATION

16
 Figure 5

SHEAR FORCE DUE TO TRAPEZOIDAL LIFT

0
0 5 10 15 20 25
-100000

-200000
SHEAR FORCE (N)

-300000

-400000

-500000

-600000

-700000
SPANWISE LOCATION

Figure 6

SHEAR FORCE DUE TO MEAN LIFT

0
0 5 10 15 20 25
-100000

-200000
SHEAR FORCE (N)

-300000

-400000

-500000

-600000

-700000
SPANWISE LOCATION

17
 Figure 7

SHEAR FORCE DUE TO ENGINE WEIGHT

45000
40000
35000
30000
SHEAR FORCE (N)

25000
20000
15000
10000
5000
0
-5000 0 5 10 15 20 25
-10000
SPANWISE LOCATION

Figure 8

SHEAR FORCE DUE TO FUEL

160000
140000
120000

100000
SHEAR FORCE(N)

80000
60000

40000
20000
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
-20000
SPANWISE LOCATION

18
 Figure 9

SHEAR FORCE DUE TO STRUCTURE

35000

30000

25000
SHEAR FORCE (N)

20000

15000

10000

5000

0
0 5 10 15 20 25
SPANWISE LOCATION

Figure 10

SHEAR FORCE WITHOUT LIFT

250000

200000
SHEAR FORCE (N)

150000

100000

50000

0
0 5 10 15 20 25
SPANWISE LOCATION

Figure 11

19
 TOTAL SHEAR FLOW
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
-50000

-100000
SHEAR FLOW(N)

-150000

-200000

-250000

-300000

-350000

-400000
SPANWISE LOCATION

Figure 12

20
 3. BENDING MOMENT DIAGRAMS
Bending moment due to elliptic lift
3
𝐿(𝑏−𝑑) 𝜋 𝑝 1 𝑞2
𝐵𝑀𝑦 = −𝑉𝑦 𝑦 − [ − ( √1 − 𝑝2 ) − ( sin−1 𝑝) − ( )]
𝜋 4 2 2 3

for 0 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 18.9785𝑚
Bending moment due to trapezoidal lift
2𝐿 𝜆𝑦 2 2𝑦 3
𝐵𝑀𝑦 = −𝑉𝑦 𝑦 − (𝜆+1)(𝑏−𝑑) [ + (1 − 𝜆)]
2 3(𝑏−𝑑)

for 0 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 18.9785𝑚
Where,
p = 1 – (2y/(b-d))
y = Distance to a station in the wing, measured from the wing
tip to root
y = 0 at the wing tip
y = 18.9785m at the wing fuselage intersection
L = Total lift = Aircraft’s gross weight in N
b = Span of wing in m
𝜆 = Taper ratio of wing = Tip chord / Root chord
d= Fuselage diameter
Bending moment due to wing structure,
𝑡 𝑦4 𝜆2 𝑦 2
𝐵𝑀𝑦 = −𝑉𝑦 𝑦 + [𝜌𝐴𝑙 𝑘𝐴 ( ) 𝑐𝑟2 ] × [ (
2 1−𝜆
)2 + +
𝑐 𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑏 2
4𝑦 3
𝜆(1 − 𝜆)] for 0 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 18.9785𝑚
3𝑏

Where,
𝜌𝐴𝑙 = Weight density of aluminium = 26585.1 𝑁/𝑚3
𝑘𝐴 is a constant to be estimated
𝑡
(𝑐) = Max thickness to chord ratio of the airfoil
𝑚𝑎𝑥
21
 𝑐𝑟 = Root chord in m
y = Distance to a station in the wing, measured from the
wing tip to root
y = 0 at the wing tip
y = 18.9785m at the wing fuselage intersection
𝜆 = Taper ratio of wing = Tip chord / Root chord
Bending moment due to engine, (Point load of 39513.699N at
14.4785m from wing tip)
BMy = −39513.699 × (14.4785 − y)
for 14.4785m ≤ y ≤ 18.9785m
BMy = 0
for 0 ≤ y ≤ 14.4785m
y = Distance to a station in the wing, measured from the wing
tip to root
Bending moment due to fuel, (Uniformly distributed load of N/m
from m to 5m from wing tip)
𝐵𝑀𝑦 = − × (−𝑦) for 𝑚 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 𝑚
(−𝑦)2
𝐵𝑀𝑦 = − × for 𝑚 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 𝑚
2

𝐵𝑀𝑦 = 0 for 0 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 𝑚
y = Distance to a station in the wing, measured from the wing
tip to root

22
 BENDING MOMENT DUE TO ELLIPTICAL LIFT
5000000

4000000
BENDING MOMENT (NM)

3000000

2000000

1000000

0
0 5 10 15 20 25
-1000000
SPANWISE LOCATION

Figure 13

BENDING MOMENT DUE TO TRAPEZOIDAL

5000000
4500000
4000000
BENDING MOMENT (NM)

3500000
3000000
2500000
2000000
1500000
1000000
500000
0
-500000 0 5 10 15 20 25
SPANWISE LOCATION

Figure 14

23
 BENDING MOMENT DUE TO MEAN LIFT
5000000
4500000
4000000
BENDING MOMENT (NM)

3500000
3000000
2500000
2000000
1500000
1000000
500000
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
-500000
SPANWISE LOCATION

Figure 15

BENDING MOMENT DUE TO STRUCTURE

20000

0
0 5 10 15 20 25
-20000
BENDING MOMENT (NM)

-40000

-60000

-80000

-100000

-120000

-140000

-160000
SPANWISE LOCATION

Figure 16

24
 BENDING MOMENT DUE TO ENGINE
20000
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
-20000
BENDING MOMENT (NM)

-40000
-60000
-80000
-100000
-120000
-140000
-160000
-180000
-200000
SPANWISE LOCATION

Figure 17

BENDING MOMENT DUE TO FUEL

200000

0
0 5 10 15 20 25
BENDING MOMENT (NM)

-200000

-400000

-600000

-800000

-1000000
SPANWISE LOCATION

Figure 18

25
 BENDING MOMENT WITHOUT LIFT
200000

0
0 5 10 15 20 25
-200000
BENDING MOMENT(NM)

-400000

-600000

-800000

-1000000

-1200000

-1400000 SPANWISE LOCATION

Figure 19

TOTAL BENDING MOMENT

3500000

3000000
BENDING MOMENT (NM)

2500000

2000000

1500000

1000000

500000

0
0 5 10 15 20 25
-500000
SPANWISE LOCATION

Figure 20

26
 TOTAL BENDING MOMENT
CHECK
4000000
BENDING MOMENT(NM)

3000000
2000000
1000000
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
-1000000
SPANWISE LOCATION

Figure 21

27
 4. SPAR FLANGE AND WEB DESIGN
The condition that the maximum flap length can be only 0.25c
should be taken into account during aerodynamic design.
Correspondingly the stall/landing velocities would change.
The front and rear spar are assumed to be at 0.25c and 0.75c
respectively.
Using, airfoil data :
Height of the front spar, ℎ𝑓 = 1.3906 m.
Height of the rear spar, ℎ𝑟 = 0.88528 m.
Here, the heights are calculated by interpolating the vertical
distance ( i.e. y values) before and after our corresponding x
co-ordinate locations from the airfoil plot data .
𝑀𝑓 + 𝑀𝑟 = Total Bending moment taken by Spars × Factor of
safety.
Total Bending moment taken by Spars= 70% of Bending
moment at root.
𝑀𝑓 ℎ𝑓 2
=(ℎ )
𝑀𝑟 𝑟

Where,
𝑀𝑓 = Moment taken by front spar.
𝑀𝑟 = Moment taken by rear spar.
Bending moment at root = Nm.
Factor of safety = 1.2
Using the two equations,
Bending moment taken by front spar, 𝑀𝑓 = 1930188.618 Nm.

28
Bending moment taken by rear spar, 𝑀𝑟 = 782149.5333 Nm.
𝑀𝑓
Force due to bending moment in front spar, 𝐹𝑓 = ℎ𝑓
𝑀𝑟
Force due to bending moment in rear spar, 𝐹𝑟 = ℎ𝑟

On substituting,
𝐹𝑓 = 1.38802 MN.
𝐹𝑟 = 0.883505 MN.
For Al 2024 material,
Maximum allowable tensile stress for that material,
σ𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 =530.89 MPa.
Total Area of the angular sections of spar is calculated by
using the formula,
For front spar,
𝐹𝑓
𝐴𝑓 = σ = 0.0026145 Sq.m.
𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒

For rear spar,

𝐹𝑟
𝐴𝑟 = σ = 0.001664 Sq.m.
𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒

Since the spar flange is made of four equal sized angular

sections,
Area per angular sections for front and rear spar is,
Total Area of the angular sections of spar
= 4

Area per Angular section for front spar = 1.01308 [Link]

Area per Angular section for rear spar = 0.644801 [Link]

29
From the obtained value of Area per angular section, angular
section of suitable area is chosen,
Hence, selected angular section for front spar:
A = 1.01308 [Link]
w = 2 in
t = 0.125 in
R = 0.125 in
Selected angular section for rear spar:
A = 0.644801 [Link]
w = 0.25 in
t = 0.094 in
R = 0.094 in
Then, the shear force in the web is calculated by,
𝑉𝑓 ℎ𝑓
=
𝑉𝑟 ℎ𝑟

𝑉𝑓 + 𝑉𝑟 = 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 * Factor of safety.

Where,
𝑉𝑓 = Shear force in the web of front spar (N).
𝑉𝑟 = Shear force in the web of rear spar (N).
𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 = Shear force at the wing fuselage wing
intersection (N) = 378174.7746 N
Upon, substituting the values, we get:
𝑉𝑓 = 277291.383 N
30
 𝑉𝑟 = 176517.845 N
Since, Al 2024 gave a web thickness less than 4mm, a
composite material made of standard unidirectional carbon
fibre-epoxy composite of ultimate shear stress, 70GPa, is
chosen.
For web assuming,
Average shear stress, 𝜏𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 40 MPa.
𝑉𝑓
Thickness of front spar web, t = 𝜏
𝑎𝑣𝑔 ∗ℎ𝑓𝑓

Where,
𝑉𝑓 = Shear force in the web of front spar (N)
𝜏𝑎𝑣𝑔 = Average shear stress (Pa)
ℎ𝑓𝑓 = Effective height of front spar (m)
ℎ𝑓𝑓 = ℎ𝑓 - 2w
ℎ𝑓 = height of the front spar (m)
w = width of the angled section (m)
Web height between the angular sections,
Front spar, ℎ𝑓𝑓 = 1.289 m
Rear spar, ℎ𝑟𝑟 = 0.8872 m
Web thickness of the spars,
Front spar, 𝑡𝑓 = 5.378 mm.
Rear spar, 𝑡𝑟 = 4.974 mm.

31
 5. STRINGER DESIGN
The stringer cross sections are selected from Bruhn Table
A3.16. The initial stringer locations are assumed and the
stress due to bending is calculated using, unsymmetrical
bending equation,
My Ixx − Mx Ixy Mx Iyy − My Ixy
σz = [ 2
( )
] x − xc + [ 2
] (y − yc )
Ixx Iyy − Ixy Ixx Iyy − Ixy
Where,
Mx = −Sy × 1
My = −Sx × 1
Sy = shear force at root = 378174.774619481 N
Sx = drag force = 10% of lift force at root = 115264.712
N
x and y are stringer locations
xc and yc is centroid location
Ixx Iyy Ixy are calculated for the assumed stringer
locations.
Selected stringer cross-section:

32
 d = 80 mm
b = 40 mm
t = t1 = 1/16 [Link]
R = 5 mm
Area = 0.0006 sq.m
Ixx = 0.135
Iyy =
Using the formula, the stress taken by each stringer is
calculated and tabulated.
stringer x y area area*x area*y x-xc y-yc
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
FRONT SPAR 2.012 0.997952 0.002614 0.005259 0.0026086 -1.63428237 0.729065588
1 2.4144 1.026925 7.42E-05 0.000179 7.619E-05 -1.23188237 0.758038388
2 2.8168 1.02451 7.42E-05 0.000209 7.601E-05 -0.82948237 0.755623988
3 4.024 0.953688 7.42E-05 0.000299 7.075E-05 0.377717629 0.684801588
4 4.8288 0.840211 7.42E-05 0.000358 6.234E-05 1.182517629 0.571324788
5 5.2312 0.764158 7.42E-05 0.000388 5.669E-05 1.584917629 0.495271188
6 5.6336 0.688104 7.42E-05 0.000418 5.105E-05 1.987317629 0.419217588
7 5.8348 0.641224 7.42E-05 0.000433 4.757E-05 2.188517629 0.372337988
Rear spar 6.036 0.594345 0.001664 0.010044 0.000989 2.389717629 0.325458388
Rear Spar 6.036 -0.16579 0.001664 0.010044 -0.0002759 2.389717629 -0.434675212
8 5.6336 -0.19718 7.42E-05 0.000418 -1.463E-05 1.987317629 -0.466062412
9 5.2312 -0.22897 7.42E-05 0.000388 -1.699E-05 1.584917629 -0.497852012
10 4.024 -0.32353 7.42E-05 0.000299 -2.4E-05 0.377717629 -0.592416012
11 2.4144 -0.42332 7.42E-05 0.000179 -3.141E-05 -1.23188237 -0.692211212
FRONT SPAR 2.012 -0.44184 0.002615 0.00526 -0.0011552 -1.63428237 -0.710721612
0.009373 0.034175 0.0025202
XC YC
3.646282 0.268886

Centroid location for the spar stringer system is calculated to

∑ Ax
xc = = 3.6462 m
∑A
∑ Ay
yc = = 0.2688 m
∑A
33
stringer x y a*(x-xc)^2 a*(y-yc)^2 a*(x-xc)*(y-yc)
b stress(Mpa)
0 0 0 0 0 0
FRONT SPAR 2.012 0.997952 0.006981677 0.001389437 -0.00311 175.0293
1 2.4144 1.0269248 0.000112586 4.26312E-05 -6.9E-05 130.9389
2 2.8168 1.0245104 5.10458E-05 4.23601E-05 -4.7E-05 86.99809
3 4.024 0.953688 1.05847E-05 3.47916E-05 1.92E-05 -44.5211
4 4.8288 0.8402112 0.000103743 2.42165E-05 5.01E-05 -131.885
5 5.2312 0.7641576 0.000186363 1.81983E-05 5.82E-05 -175.474
6 5.6336 0.688104 0.000293008 1.30384E-05 6.18E-05 -219.064
7 5.8348 0.6412244 0.000355341 1.02854E-05 6.05E-05 -240.817
Rear spar 6.036 0.5943448 0.009502689 0.000176256 0.001294 -262.569
Rear Spar 6.036 -0.1657888 0.009502689 0.0003144 -0.00173 -258.945
8 5.6336 -0.197176 0.000293008 1.61151E-05 -6.9E-05 -214.844
9 5.2312 -0.2289656 0.000186363 1.83885E-05 -5.9E-05 -170.74
10 4.024 -0.3235296 1.05847E-05 2.60375E-05 -1.7E-05 -38.432
11 2.4144 -0.4233248 0.000112586 3.55486E-05 6.33E-05 137.8529
FRONT SPAR 2.012 -0.4418352 0.006983013 0.00132065 0.003037 181.8934

Ixx = ∑ A(y − yc )2 = 0.0346 m4

Iyy = ∑ A(x − xc )2 = 0.00348m4

Ixy = ∑ A(x − xc )(y − yc ) = − 0.0004586m4

The highest stress value is 181.8934 MPa in tension and

262.569 MPa in compression.
4π2 EI
The critical buckling stress is calculated using σcr = AL2

Where,
E is the Young’s modulus of Ti-6Al-4V
I is the minimum among Ixx and IYY for the stringer cross
section
A is the cross-section area of the stringers
L is the spacing between the ribs

34
A rib spacing of 0.7m gives a σcr of 287.736004 MPa which
is lower than the yield stress. The maximum stress in the
stringer is less than the critical buckling stress. Total of 58
ribs are used.

SPAR LOCATION
2.6
2.3
2
1.7
1.4
1.1
0.8
0.5
0.2
-0.1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
-0.4
-0.7
-1

Figure 22

STRINGERS LOCATION
2.6
2.3
2
1.7
1.4
A B C
1.1 D E F G
0.8
0.5
0.2
I H
-0.1 J
0 1 2 K 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
-0.4
-0.7
-1

Figure 23

35
 [Link] FLOW IN THE WING SECTION
The shear flow is defined as the shear stress per unit thickness and is commonly
used in analysing thin walled structures. In a wing the shear flow consists of two
parts; shear flow due to shear force at that station and shear flow due to torque at
that station. By calculating the total shear flow, the shear center can be located.
To avoid twisting of the wing, the shear center has to be as close as possible to
the aerodynamic center at that station. Here, the calculations are performed at the
root section, where the shear force and the torque is maximum.

SHEAR FLOW DUE TO SHEAR FORCE

A cut is made on both sides of the front spar on the top surface. The basic shear
flow due to shear force is calculated using,
Sx Ixx − Sy Ixy Sy Iyy − Sx Ixy
qb = − [ 2
] A(x − x c ) + [ 2
] A(y − yc )
Ixx Iyy − Ixy Ixx Iyy − Ixy
Where,
Sy = Vertical shear force at root =115264.71 N
Sx = drag force = 10% of lift force at root = -378174.77 N
x and y are stringer locations
xc = 3.559 m and yc = 0.316 m is centroid location

Ixx = 0.00181528 m4

Iyy = 0.01994904 m4

Ixy = 0.00063425 m4

A is the area of boom

Loads, Sy and Sx are taken one by one and the corresponding basic shear flows
are calculated. The residual/initial shear flow is calculated by assuming the shear
forces act through the shear centre, i.e., the twist in both the cells is zero. From
which, the final shear flows are calculated.

36
Segments q_b q_final Shear Stress Vertical Horizontal
(N/m) (N/m) (MPa) Shear force Shear force
BA 0.000 202384.634 67.462 -40882.667 -211742.899

AO 8427.738 210812.372 70.271 -165080.929 -203594.157

OM 8427.738 210812.372 70.271 -89496.598 212077.246

ML 416.776 202801.409 67.600 -2187.075 204018.218

BL 422938.753 175699.330 33.736 -249561.839 0.000

LK 56521.463 11666.673 3.889 402.803 9389.339

KJ 47382.620 2527.830 0.843 195.302 3051.597

JI 38326.485 -6528.304 2.176 -512.268 -6567.474

IH 29530.630 -15324.159 5.108 -6295.925 -15416.104

HG -75196.941 -120051.730 23.051 -51448.889 0.000

GF -28237.138 -73091.927 24.364 -12411.945 58824.383

FE -23482.925 -68337.715 22.779 -5197.329 27499.096

ED -17373.131 -62227.920 20.743 -5308.589 25040.515

DC -9782.014 -54636.803 18.212 -1539.009 21985.850

CB 0.000 -44854.789 14.952 -1407.866 90247.836

37
 7. SHEAR FORCE DIAGRAM FOR FUSELAGE

The fuselage is taken as a overhanging beam supported by

front and rear spars.
Location of front spar from nose = 13.662m Location of rear
spar from nose = 17.686m
The spars offer Reaction forces which will balance the loads
acting on the [Link] components available in the
fuselage, their loads, distances from nose are taken from
Balance diagram –Normal condition (Full Payload, full fuel)
and are tabulated as given below.
[Link] components weight(N) Xi(m) Reaction front spar Reaction rear spar a
1 instrument 51869.12 2.8 191879.6522 -140010.5322 -10.862
2 Pilot 1962 3.5 6916.732604 -4954.732604 -10.162
3 nose wheel 11526.4712 5 36338.17436 -24811.70316 -8.662
4 lavatory 1962 5.325 6026.909046 -4064.909046 -8.337
5 1st pallet(up) 24525 7.096 64542.68141 -40017.68141 -6.566
6 2nd pallet(up) 24525 10.096 46258.63569 -21733.63569 -3.566
7 3rd pallet(up) 24525 13.096 27974.58996 -3449.58996 -0.566
8 4th pallet(up) 24525 16.096 9690.544235 14834.45577 2.434
9 5th pallet(up) 24525 19.096 -8593.501491 33118.50149 5.434
10 6th pallet(up) 24525 22.096 -26877.54722 51402.54722 8.434
11 7th pallet(up) 24525 25.096 -45161.59294 69686.59294 11.434
12 8th pallet(up) 24525 28.096 -63445.63867 87970.63867 14.434
13 1st pallet(down) 11772 9.265 24635.19185 -12863.19185 -4.397
14 2nd pallet(down) 11772 23.265 -16321.07058 28093.07058 9.603
15 3rd pallet(down) 11772 26.095 -24600.08648 36372.08648 12.433
16 4th pallet(down) 11772 28.16 -30641.13519 42413.13519 14.498
horizontal
17 stabilizer 34579.413 38 -174564.1639 209143.5769 24.338
18 vertical stabilizer 23052.942 36.1 -105491.2709 128544.2129 22.438
19 main wheel 46105.884 20 -26513.17484 72619.05884 6.338
20 structural weight 115264.712 19 -36012.27562 152503.8303 5.338
21 1st triangular 8,985.77 3.3334 32049.9996 -23064.2271 -10.3286
22 rectangular 89534.2372 17.453 5184.263734 84349.97346 3.791
23 2nd triangle 17971.545 33.24334 -69480.47612 87452.02112 19.58134
-32246.21278 148737.7675

38
Using these two equilibrium equations the reactions offered
by spars are found to be
Ra = -32246.21278N Rb= 148737.7675 N
[Link] components Xi(m) shaer force(N)
1 instrument 2.8 -54687.05826
2 pilot 3.5 -58234.14853
3 nose wheel 5 -74343.3637
4 lavatory 5.325 -77473.51413
5 1st pallet(up) 7.096 -108364.0354
6 2nd pallet(up) 10.096 -155443.9624
7 3rd pallet(up) 13.096 -190751.8894
8 4th pallet(up) 16.096 -370018.1629
9 5th pallet(up) 19.096 270369.6415
10 6th pallet(up) 22.096 188955.8305
11 7th pallet(up) 25.096 141875.9035
12 8th pallet(up) 28.096 94795.97652
13 1st pallet(down) 9.265 -127932.0916
14 2nd pallet(down) 23.265 172982.0833
15 3rd pallet(down) 26.095 126513.1888
16 4th pallet(down) 28.16 82793.94074
17 horizontal stabilizer 38 6209.510247
18 vertical stabilizer 36.1 46564.96284
19 main wheel 20 221014.5022
The-negative reaction at the front spar is due to the position of
CG of the aircraft aft the rear spar. For a proper configuration
both the reactions should be Positive.
The shear force is calculated by considering sections between
various loads acting on the fuselage and plotting the shear
forces against the span along the drag axis.
The loads are the weights of various components acting on the
fuselage and hence they act downward, the reaction forces at
front and rear spars are positive and act upward. The shear
forces are zero at the ends of the fuselage.

39
Figure 24

40
8. BENDING MOMENT DIAGRAM FOR FUSELAGE

The Bending Moment is calculated and plotted against the

span of the fuselage.
Distance
from
nose total BM 14.5 -1524761 32.5 -329085
0 0 15 -1695088 33 -301090
0.5 -14.4763 15.5 -1866314 33.5 -273838
1 -118.81 16 -2038438 34 -247033
1.5 -402.86 16.096 -2071589 34.5 -220381
2 -956.482 16.5 -2221369 35 -193586
2.5 -1869.54 17 -2407553 35.5 -166352
2.8 -2627.28 17.5 -2594636 36 -138385
3 -13605.7 17.686 -2664460 36.1 -132678
3.5 -41441.8 18 -2570731 36.5 -118610
4 -70887.8 18.5 -2422213 37 -99817
4.5 -101053 19 -2274593 37.5 -79404.4
5 -132026 19.096 -2246353 38 -57077.3
5.325 -156377 19.5 -2137780 38.5 -49830.2
5.5 -169990 20 -2004220 39 -40078.2
6 -209490 20.5 -1894612 39.5 -27525.9
6.5 -249889 21 -1785902 39.91 -14936.4
7 -291186 21.5 -1678090
7.096 -299218 22 -1571178
7.5 -343290 22.096 -1550753
8 -398647 22.5 -1475072
8.5 -454902 23 -1382219
9 -512056 23.265 -1333371
9.265 -542712 23.5 -1293030
9.5 -572875 24 -1207861
10 -637712 24.5 -1123589
10.096 -650264 25 -1040216
10.5 -713356 25.096 -1024312
11 -792253 25.5 -967650
11.5 -872048 26 -898337
12 -952742 26.095 -885269
12.5 -1034335 26.5 -834690
13 -1116826 27 -773060
13.096 -1132767 27.5 -712329
13.5 -1210124 28 -652496
13.662 -1241308 28.096 -641111
14 -1355333 28.16 -635109

41
All the components in the fuselage create negative moment
about the sections considered, while the reaction forces offered
by the spars create positive moments. The bending moment is
zero at the ends of the fuselage.
Thus, the Shear force and Bending moment diagram for the
fuselage are obtained using the various loads acting in it.

Chart Title
0
1 5 9 13 17 21 25 29 33 37 41 45 49 53 57 61 65 69 73 77 81 85 89 93 97
-500000

-1000000

-1500000

-2000000

-2500000

-3000000

Figure 25

42
 9. BULKHEAD DESIGN

Max shear force occurs at front spar followed by the

rear spar,
Shear force at the front spar = -336744.615 N
Shear force at the rear spar = 299962.617 N
Bulkheads at these two location are designed. The
moment at a point on the circular bulkhead is given by,

𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃 1
𝑀 = 𝑃𝑅( − )
2 𝜋
Where,
P – shear force on the bulkhead (N)
R – radius of the bulkhead (m)
𝜃 – angle made by the point (degrees)
With angular interval of 5°, the moment at the points is
calculated and maximum value is noted.

43
Using section modulus formula,
Z=Mmax*FOS
Where,
Mmax – maximum bending moment (N.m)
FOS – factor of safety (assumed to be 1.15)
– Ultimate tensile stress (530.9 Mpa)
Mmax at front spar = 0.001557167 Nm
Mmax at rear spar = 490924.7503 Nm
Z at front spar = 0.000406 m3 = 95.02416 in3
Z at rear spar = 0.000344 m3 = 84.64481 in3
Suitable I section is selected from Bruhn table A3.15. Since no suitable sections were found, a
reference section is taken and is scaled by scale factor to obtain a section of necessary section
modulus.
Front Spar Rear Spar

scale factor 2.8 scale factor 2.65

a 11.2 a 10.6

b 11.2 b 10.6

t 0.8764 t 0.82945

r 0.7 r 0.6625

ixx 585.8966984 ixx 470.0807003

y max 5.6 y max 5.3

section modulus 104.6244104 section modulus 88.69447175

44
 10. LONGERON DESIGN
Longeron is a load-bearing component of a framework. They
are used in conjunction with stringers to form structural
framework. Longerons often carry larger loads than stringers
and also help to transfer skin loads to internal structure.
Material used aluminium
No of Longerons used in the aircraft = 12
Radius of the fuselage = 2 m
If we know the longerons angle, the distance between each
longeron can be found by
12 longerons at 30 interval is assumed. The normal stress due
to bending and the shear flow are calculated, similar to that of
stringers. Here the formulae can be further simplified by
assuming the cross section as circular (symmetric about both
x and y axis) and shear force along the x direction is zero.
Normal stress due to bending,
𝑀𝑥
𝜎𝑧 = 𝑦
𝐼𝑥𝑥
𝑀𝑥 = −𝑆𝑦 × 1
Basic shear flow,
𝑆𝑦
𝑞𝑏 = − ∑ 𝐴𝑦
𝐼𝑥𝑥
Total shear flow,
𝑞𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝑞𝑏 + 𝑞0 ,𝑞0 is found using ∑ 2𝐴𝑞 = 0 (Torque=0
condition)
The centre of the circular cross section is taken as origin.
Y – vertical distance of longeron from
centroid(origin) (m)
𝑀𝑥 – Moment about x axis (Nm)
𝐼𝑥𝑥 – Moment of inertia of the longeron system
about x axis (m^4)
45
 𝑆𝑦 – Shear force in the y direction at that
fuselage location (N)
A – Area of the longeron at that location (m^2)

longeron orientationx bar y bar x y area a*(y-yc)^2 stress a*(x-xc)^2

1 0 1 0 2 0 0.0007433 0 0 0 0.0029732
2 30 0.8660254 0.5 1.732051 1 0.0007433 0.000743 16814801 16.8148 0.0022299
3 60 0.5 0.8660254 1 1.732050808 0.0007433 0.00223 29124090 29.12409 0.0007433
4 90 6.1257E-17 1 1.23E-16 2 0.0007433 0.002973 33629602 33.6296 1.1157E-35
5 120 -0.5 0.8660254 -1 1.732050808 0.0007433 0.00223 29124090 29.12409 0.0007433
6 150 -0.8660254 0.5 -1.73205 1 0.0007433 0.000743 16814801 16.8148 0.0022299
7 180 -1 1.225E-16 -2 2.4503E-16 0.0007433 4.46E-35 4.12E-09 4.12E-15 0.0029732
8 210 -0.8660254 -0.5 -1.73205 -1 0.0007433 0.000743 -1.7E+07 -16.8148 0.0022299
9 240 -0.5 -0.866025 -1 -1.732050808 0.0007433 0.00223 -2.9E+07 -29.1241 0.0007433
10 270 -1.838E-16 -1 -3.7E-16 -2 0.0007433 0.002973 -3.4E+07 -33.6296 1.0041E-34
11 300 0.5 -0.866025 1 -1.732050808 0.0007433 0.00223 -2.9E+07 -29.1241 0.0007433
12 330 0.8660254 -0.5 1.732051 -1 0.0007433 0.000743 -1.7E+07 -16.8148 0.0022299

0.017839 0.0178392
31.5856779

Figure 26

46
M ximum n rm s ress due bending is .6 GP .
Assuming bu khe d sp cing f .69m, he buck ing s ress is
c cu ed using,
4𝜋 2 𝐸𝐼
𝜎𝑐𝑟 = = 31.58 𝐺𝑃𝑎
𝐴𝐿2
T bu khe ds is 9.
Ch sen nger n sec i n:
A = / inches B = 7/8 inches = t1 = / 6
inches
Are = . 6 sq.m Ixx = .6 9E 9 inch^ IYY =
.8 6E inch^

47
 [Link] FLOW OVER A FUSELAGE
The shear flow is defined as the shear stress per unit thickness and is commonly
used in analysing thin walled structures. In a wing the shear flow consists of two
parts; shear flow due to shear force at that station and shear flow due to torque at
that station. By calculating the total shear flow, the shear center can be located.
To avoid twisting of the wing, the shear center has to be as close as possible to
the aerodynamic center at that station. Here, the calculations are performed at the
root section, where the shear force and the torque is maximum.

SHEAR FLOW DUE TO SHEAR FORCE

A cut is made on both sides of the front spar on the top surface. The basic shear
flow due to shear force is calculated using,
Sx Ixx − Sy Ixy Sy Iyy − Sx Ixy
qb = − [ 2
] A(x − x c ) + [ 2
] A(y − yc )
Ixx Iyy − Ixy Ixx Iyy − Ixy
Where,
Sy = Vertical shear force
Sx = Horizontal shear force

Ixx = 0.00181528 m4

Iyy = 0.01994904 m4

Ixy = 0.00063425 m4

A is the area of boom

Loads, Sy and Sx are taken one by one and the corresponding basic shear flows
are calculated. The residual/initial shear flow is calculated by assuming the shear
forces act through the shear centre, i.e., the twist in both the cells is zero. From
which, the final shear flows are calculated.

48
 moment shear
area total shear (sy=0) v shear h shear stress
- -
1 40814.21924 -71424.9 40814.2 10936.14 -6.80237
- -
1 28315.77686 -49552.6 20728.6 20728.59 -4.7193
- -
1 6667.839635 -11668.7 1786.64 6667.84 -1.11131
-
1 18329.04513 32075.83 4911.25 -18329 3.054841
-
1 39976.98236 69959.72 29265.2 -29265.2 6.66283
-
1 52475.42474 91831.99 52475.4 -14060.7 8.745904
-
1 52475.42474 91831.99 52475.4 14060.75 8.745904
-
1 39976.98236 69959.72 29265.2 29265.18 6.66283
-
1 18329.04513 32075.83 4911.25 18329.05 3.054841
- -
1 6667.839635 -11668.7 1786.64 -6667.84 -1.11131
- -
1 28315.77686 -49552.6 20728.6 -20728.6 -4.7193
- -
1 40814.21924 -71424.9 40814.2 -10936.1 -6.80237

12 sum -299963 0

49