SOC 350: METHODS OF SOCIAL RESEARCH I

Topic: Methods of Data Collection and Instruments of Data Collection

Introduction
There are two broad methods in social research, namely; quantitative and qualitative methods.

QUANTITATIVE METHOD rely on numerical or measurable data, which is largely based on

POSITIVISM/OBJECTIVISM as an approach. The QUALITATIVE METHOD is an
approach to research that focuses on understanding meaning, experiences, and social processes
through the collection of non-numerical data (such as words, images, or observations).
INTERPRETIVISM/SUBJECTIVISM (sometimes called ‘anti-positivism’) takes things yet
further by arguing that objectivity is impossible. As an approach, this leads researchers to focus
on gaining subjective knowledge through approaches where individuals, or smaller groups, are
analysed in depth through detailed observations and discussions.

Key Characteristics of Quantitative Method: Key Characteristics of Qualitative Method:

 Based on numeric data  Focuses on understanding depth, context,

 Uses structured tools (e.g., questionnaires, and complexity
surveys)  Involves open-ended data collection (e.g.,
 Focuses on objectivity and reliability interviews, observations)
 Often used to test hypotheses  Results are descriptive and interpretive, not
 Results are analyzed using statistical statistical
techniques  Seeks to understand “how” and “why”
questions
 Researcher plays an active role in data
collection and interpretation

Qualitative and Quantitative Approach to social research highlighting their differences

Parameter of differences Quantitative Qualitative
Quantitative approach investigates social The primary aim of a Qualitative Research is
phenomena by empirical measurement. to provide a complete, detailed description of
Quantitative approach seeks to test the research topic. Describe information by
Goal or Aim of the
hypothesis that the researcher begins with. either observing the social process or by
Research
probing each topic deeply to gain insights into
the people’s behavior or problems under
study.
Hypothesis/Assumption Narrow Broad
Description Focused Whole picture
Objective, Deductive and Conclusive: Subjective, Inductive and Exploratory:
Integral to this approach is the expectation Useful in understanding how people see
that a researcher will set aside his or her themselves and in studying topics that are
experiences, perceptions, and biases to emotive and secret in nature as well as those
ensure objectivity in the conduct of the study embedded in a cultural context. Inductive, in
Approach and the conclusions that are drawn. the sense that a researcher may construct
Researchers are detailed from the setting of theories or hypotheses, explanations, and
the study and the approach look for cause conceptualizations from details provided by a
and effect to social phenomena. participant
Quantitative methods are frequently
described as deductive in nature, in the

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 sense that inferences from tests of statistical
hypotheses lead to general inferences about
characteristics of a population.
Stage of research Late Early
It seeks objective to reality through fact, This approach in researching social problem
data are in the form of numbers from views reality as being socially constructed.
precise measurements. Quantitative Views “truths” as socially constructed
Social reality
methods are also frequently characterized as
assuming that there is a single “truth” that
exists, independent of human perception
Larger sample population The sample size is typically small, and
Sample size respondents are selected to fulfill a given
quota.
Maximize objectivity, replicability, and Replicability and generalizability are not
Replicability and
generalizability of findings, and are generally goals of qualitative research.
generability
typically interested in prediction.
Concepts are in the form of district variables Concepts are measured in the forms of words.
in quantitative approach and research Measures are created in an ad hoc manner and
Concepts procedures are standard and replication is are often specific to the individual setting or
assumed research; procedures in this approach are
particular and replication is very rare
Data in the form of numbers and statistics. The presentation of data in a Qualitative
Quantitative Research focuses more in Research is in the form of words (from
Types of data counting and classifying features and interviews) and images (videos) or objects
constructing statistical models and figures to (such as artifacts).
explain what is observed.
The technique has an orderly and structured Researchers using this approach to social
procedure for data collection which involve phenomena are deeply immersed in the setting
the assigning of numerical values to non- of the study in the course of capturing and
numerical characteristics of human or social discovery meaning to the social phenomena
characteristics under study.
Inherent in this approach is the description of
the interactions among participants and
Data gathering researchers in naturalistic settings with few
boundaries, resulting in a flexible and open
research process. These unique interactions
imply that different results could be obtained
from the same participant depending on who
the researcher is, because results are created
by a
participant and researcher in a given situation
Analysis proceeds by using statistics, tables Analysis of qualitative approach proceeds by
Analysis or charts and discussing how what they show extracting themes or generalization from
relates to the hypothesis evidences.
this approach reduces human being to mere The approach is criticized for being too
statistical figures and that it fails to deal with subjective and relativist, i.e. it treats people’s
Criticism
meanings of real people and their capacity to idea more important than actual conditions
feel and think
Quantitative data collection methods include Examples are case studies, ethnographic,
various forms of surveys (online surveys, focused discussion, observations, interviews
paper surveys, mobile surveys and kiosk etc.
Example surveys face-to-face interviews, telephone Narratives, phenomenological studies,
interviews, longitudinal studies, website grounded theory studies,
interceptors, online polls, and systematic
observations)

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Methods of Data Collection
These refer to the strategies or approaches used to gather data from respondents or sources. They
can be broadly classified into primary and secondary data collection methods.

A. Primary Data Collection Methods

These involve collecting first-hand data directly from the source.
 Observation: Watching and recording behavior or events as they occur.
 Interviews: Direct questioning of participants (can be structured, semi-structured, or
unstructured).
 Surveys: Written or digital forms used to collect data from a large number of respondents.
 Focus Groups: Guided group discussions used to collect views on a specific topic.
 Experiments: Conducting controlled tests to observe effects under certain conditions.

B. Secondary Data Collection Methods

These involve using existing data that was collected for another purpose.
 Document/Content Analysis: Reviewing books, reports, articles, or multimedia content.
 Database Mining: Extracting information from databases, online sources, or public
records (from archives or museum).

Instruments of Data Collection

These are the tools or devices used to implement the data collection methods.
 Observation Checklist: A predefined list used to record observations systematically.
 Interview Guide: A structured outline of questions or topics for an interview.
 Questionnaire/Survey Form: A set of questions (open or closed-ended) provided to
respondents.
 Audio/Video Recorder: Used during interviews, focus groups, or observations to capture
data.
 Rating Scales (e.g., Likert Scale): Instruments to quantify attitudes or opinions.
 Tests and Assessments: Standardized instruments to measure knowledge, skills, or
behavior.
 Online Data Collection Tools: Platforms like Google Forms, SurveyMonkey, or
Qualtrics.

Summary Table
Method Instrument
Observation Observation checklist, video camera
Interview Interview guide, voice recorder
Questionnaire/Survey Printed/digital survey form
Focus Group Discussion guide, audio recorder
Document Analysis Coding sheet, document checklist
Experiment Measurement tools, lab equipment

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Common Quantitative Data Collection Methods:
Method Description
A set of structured questions with predefined answers (e.g.,
Surveys/Questionnaires
multiple-choice, Likert scales)
Experiments Controlled testing to establish cause-and-effect relationships
Structured Observations Recording behaviors using checklists or rating scales
Using existing numerical data from records, databases, or
Secondary Data Analysis
previous studies

Quantitative Instruments of Data Collection:

Instrument Purpose
To collect large-scale data on attitudes, opinions, or
Survey Questionnaire
behaviors
Structured Interview Schedule To gather consistent numeric data via interviews
Rating Scale (e.g., Likert Scale) To measure levels of agreement, satisfaction, or frequency
Tests (e.g., academic, psychological) To assess performance or attributes in numeric form
Used in secondary research to extract numeric data
Data Extraction Sheets
systematically

🔹 Examples of Quantitative Research Questions:

 What is the average income of households in urban vs. rural areas?
 How does exercise frequency impact blood pressure levels?
 What is the correlation between social media use and academic performance?

🔹 Data Analysis in Quantitative Research:

 Descriptive statistics (mean, median, mode, standard deviation)
 Inferential statistics (chi-square test, t-tests, correlation analysis, ANOVA, regression
analysis)

Common Qualitative Data Collection Methods:

Method Description
One-on-one conversations to explore personal
In-depth Interviews
experiences and perspectives
Focus Groups Group discussions to gather diverse views on a topic
Immersing in a setting to observe behaviors, interactions,
Participant Observation
and meanings
Case Studies Detailed study of a single case or small group over time
Document or Content Analysis Analyzing text, images, or media for patterns and themes

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Qualitative Instruments of Data Collection:
Instrument Purpose
Interview Guide List of open-ended questions to steer interviews
Focus Group Protocol A guide for moderators to facilitate group discussions
Observation Checklist/Field Notes Used to document behaviors and context in a setting
Audio/Video Recorder To capture data for transcription and analysis
Document Analysis Sheet For systematically analyzing text or media content

🔹 Examples of Qualitative Research Questions:

 How do teachers perceive the challenges of remote learning?
 What are the lived experiences of cancer survivors?
 How do employees describe their workplace culture?

🔹 Data Analysis in Qualitative Research:

 Thematic analysis: Identifying themes or patterns in data
 Content analysis: Analyzing the frequency and meaning of words or concepts
 Narrative analysis: Studying stories or personal accounts
 Grounded theory: Developing a theory grounded in data
 Discourse analysis: Examining language use in communication

🔹 When to Use Qualitative Methods:

 When exploring new or complex issues
 When the goal is to understand attitudes, beliefs, and motivations
 When context and meaning are essential to the research question

Mixed-Method Research
In social research, research methodology is usually identified as qualitative, quantitative, or as
involving both qualitative and quantitative methods often referred to as mixed-methods. Mixed-
method research combines both quantitative and qualitative approaches within a single study.
It allows researchers to gain a more comprehensive understanding of a research problem by
integrating numeric data (e.g., surveys, experiments) with narrative data (e.g., interviews,
observations).

🔹 Key Characteristics of Mixed-Method Research:

 Combines numerical (quantitative) and textual (qualitative) data
 Integrates data at one or more stages: collection, analysis, or interpretation
 Seeks to triangulate findings for better validity
 Answers both "what" and "why/how" questions
 Involves greater time and resource commitment compared to single-method studies

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🔹 Common Mixed-Method Designs:
Design Type Description
Quantitative and qualitative data are collected simultaneously and
Convergent Parallel
analyzed separately, then merged for comparison.
Quantitative data is collected first, followed by qualitative data to
Explanatory Sequential
explain or elaborate on the quantitative findings.
Qualitative data is collected first to explore a concept, followed by
Exploratory Sequential
quantitative data to test or measure what was found.
One type of data (qualitative or quantitative) is embedded within a
Embedded Design
larger study that primarily uses the other type.

🔹 Examples of Mixed-Method Research Questions:

 What are the stress levels of university students during exams, and how do they cope with
this stress?
 How effective is a new teaching method based on test scores, and what are students'
experiences using it?
 What is the prevalence of vaccine hesitancy in a community, and why do individuals
resist vaccination?

🔹 Instruments Used in Mixed-Method Research:

Method Instruments
Quantitative Surveys, questionnaires, tests, rating scales
Qualitative Interview guides, focus group protocols, observation checklists
Combined Use Merged data collection tools, integrated protocols

🔹 Advantages of Mixed-Method Research:

 Offers broader and deeper insights
 Enhances validity through data triangulation
 Balances objectivity and context
 Addresses both general patterns and individual experiences

🔹 Challenges of Mixed-Method Research:

 More complex and time-consuming
 Requires expertise in both qualitative and quantitative analysis
 Data integration can be methodologically challenging

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🔹 Instruments for Mixed-Method Data Collection
These combine tools from both quantitative and qualitative methods.
Instrument Purpose
Integrated Questionnaire Includes both closed and open-ended questions.
Using quantitative instruments first, followed by qualitative tools (or
Sequential Tools
vice versa).
One type of data is collected within the framework of another (e.g.,
Embedded Instruments
adding a focus group to a survey-based study).

🔹 Key Features of Good Data Collection Instruments:

 Validity: Measures what it is intended to measure
 Reliability: Produces consistent results over time
 Clarity: Easy to understand for respondents
 Relevance: Directly relates to research objectives

Triangulation in Research
Triangulation refers to the use of multiple methods, data sources, researchers, or theories in a
research study to enhance the validity, reliability, and depth of the findings. It is especially
common in qualitative and mixed-method research and helps ensure that the results are not biased
or limited to a single perspective.

🔹 Purpose of Triangulation:
 To cross-verify findings
 To provide a more complete and comprehensive understanding
 To reduce bias and increase credibility
 To validate results through convergence of evidence

🔹 Types of Triangulation:
Type Description
Using more than one method to collect data (e.g.,
1. Methodological Triangulation
interviews + surveys)
2. Data Triangulation Using data from different sources, times, or settings
3. Investigator Triangulation Involving multiple researchers to interpret data
Using different theories or perspectives to interpret
4. Theoretical Triangulation
findings
Applying multiple analytical methods to the same data
5. Analytical Triangulation
set

🔹 Examples:
 A study on student motivation might use:
o Surveys (quantitative)
o Interviews (qualitative)
o Classroom observations

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 o Analysis by multiple researchers
→ This would demonstrate methodological and investigator triangulation.

🔹 Benefits of Triangulation:
 Increases credibility and trustworthiness
 Provides richer, more nuanced insights
 Helps confirm or challenge findings
 Mitigates limitations of single-method studies

🔹 Challenges of Triangulation:
 Can be time-consuming and resource-intensive
 Requires expertise in multiple methods
 Integrating different data types can be methodologically complex