Q) Define the Central Tenets of American Imperialism.

Explain its
Implementation with Particular Reference to the Spanish-
American War of 1898
Introduction The emergence of the United States as an imperial power in the late 19th
century was shaped by a confluence of economic, strategic, cultural, and ideological
motives. The closing of the American frontier, global economic competition, rising
nationalism, and a belief in the racial and moral superiority of Anglo-Saxon civilization were
central tenets of American imperialism. These impulses culminated in the Spanish-
American War of 1898, which served as a decisive moment in the transformation of the U.S.
from a continental power to a global empire. This transformation continued earlier
expansionist strategies initiated by statesmen like William Seward, who facilitated the
acquisition of Alaska and the Midway Islands, laying the foundation for America’s future
global posture.

I. Central Tenets of American Imperialism

1. Economic Expansion and Commercial Interests By the 1890s, rapid industrialization

and overproduction had created surplus goods and labor, contributing to the Panic of 1893.
Policymakers and businessmen turned to foreign markets as a solution. Exports grew
dramatically—from $234 million in 1865 to $1.3 billion by 1898. Imports also surged,
fueling further investment abroad. Territories like Hawaii and Cuba were particularly
attractive due to their sugar industries, while the Philippines offered access to the lucrative
Asian market. Economic expansionism, thus, was not only reactive to domestic depression
but also proactive in seeking new raw materials, consumers, and investment opportunities.
Historians like William Appleman Williams in The Tragedy of American Diplomacy (1959)
emphasize this economic determinism, arguing that capitalism and market expansion were
at the heart of imperialist motivations.

2. Strategic and Naval Imperatives Alfred Thayer Mahan’s influential book, The Influence
of Sea Power upon History (1890), argued that national greatness depended on naval
supremacy. Mahan advocated for a powerful navy, overseas coaling stations, and a Central
American canal. These ideas shaped U.S. naval policy: the Naval Act of 1890 was passed,
authorizing the construction of new steel warships and transforming the U.S. Navy into a
global force. By 1898, the U.S. Navy had 160 active vessels, including six battleships. Key
acquisitions like Samoa, Midway, and later Guam provided strategic military outposts.
Additionally, the seizure of Guantánamo Bay in Cuba and naval access to ports like Pago
Pago in Samoa became integral to American power projection. Historians of the geopolitical
realist school, such as Walter LaFeber, stress how strategic calculations and global
rivalries—especially in the Pacific—drove such acquisitions.

3. The ‘Frontier Thesis’ and Search for New Frontiers Historian Frederick Jackson
Turner’s 1893 ‘Frontier Thesis’ posited that American democracy and identity were forged
through westward expansion. With the western frontier declared “closed,” expansionists
argued that new frontiers abroad were essential to maintain national vitality. Turner wrote
that closing the frontier would prompt demands for “vigorous foreign policy… and the
extension of American influence to outlying islands.” This encouraged a reimagining of
Manifest Destiny on a global scale and offered a psychological outlet for managing domestic
tensions from immigration, industrial unrest, and demographic pressure. As historian
Richard Hofstadter later interpreted, Turner’s thesis helped provide a historical rationale
for the United States' turn outward, framing imperialism as a continuation rather than
departure from past expansion.

4. Cultural and Racial Superiority Cultural ideologies also drove imperialist ambitions.
Josiah Strong’s Our Country (1885) argued that Anglo-Saxons were divinely ordained to
civilize non-Western peoples. Missionary zeal complemented military conquest—by 1870,
over 60% of U.S. missionaries were women, often promoting American values and
Protestant ethics. Racial ideologies, including the “White Man’s Burden,” suggested non-
white populations were incapable of self-rule. William Howard Taft later referred to
Filipinos as “our little brown brothers,” exemplifying paternalistic rhetoric. These
justifications paralleled domestic Progressive reform ideals—using government as a moral
agent. Scholars such as Kristin Hoganson argue in Fighting for American Manhood that
gendered ideas of honor and masculinity also underpinned this drive for global dominance,
linking racial superiority to national strength.

5. Manifest Destiny Reimagined Originally tied to continental expansion, Manifest Destiny

was reinterpreted to justify overseas conquest. The belief that the U.S. had a unique moral
mission to spread liberty, capitalism, and Christianity provided cultural legitimacy to
military interventions and territorial annexations. Expansion into the Pacific and Caribbean
became a natural extension of America's providential mission. As historian Reginald
Horsman has detailed, this belief system was deeply entwined with a racialized vision of
national mission, casting Anglo-Americans as natural rulers of "lesser" peoples.

II. Implementation of Imperialism: The Spanish-American War (1898)

1. Context and Causes The war emerged from the Cuban revolt against Spanish colonial
rule. American economic interests in Cuban sugar and widespread sympathy for Cuban
nationalists spurred intervention. Sensationalist newspapers, led by William Randolph
Hearst and Joseph Pulitzer, exploited public emotion with lurid stories of Spanish
atrocities—an approach known as “yellow journalism.” These sensationalized reports
played a major role in molding public opinion in favor of war, depicting American
intervention as a moral obligation. This aligns with Emily Rosenberg’s argument in
Spreading the American Dream that media played a crucial role in exporting a consumer-
driven, ideologically framed vision of empire.

Key triggers included:

• De Lôme Letter (1898): A leaked letter from the Spanish ambassador mocked
President McKinley, stirring public outrage.
 • USS Maine Explosion (February 1898): The battleship Maine exploded in Havana
Harbor, killing 266 sailors. Although the cause was uncertain, Spain was blamed,
rallying the public with the slogan “Remember the Maine!”

President McKinley issued an ultimatum demanding Spain end reconcentration policies and
grant Cuban independence. When Spain refused, Congress declared war in April 1898. To
placate anti-expansionists, the Teller Amendment was passed, pledging not to annex Cuba.
Historians like Kristin Hoganson and Gail Bederman stress the performative aspects of such
declarations, meant to preserve America’s republican image while pursuing expansionist
goals.

2. Military Campaigns and Outcomes The war, which lasted only ten weeks,
demonstrated U.S. military potential.

• Cuba: 17,000 troops, including Theodore Roosevelt’s Rough Riders and African
American regiments (“Smoked Yankees”), landed and defeated Spanish forces at
Kettle and San Juan Hills.

• Philippines: Commodore George Dewey, acting on Roosevelt’s orders, destroyed

the Spanish fleet in Manila Bay. U.S. troops occupied the islands by August 1898.

• Puerto Rico and Guam: Captured with little resistance, these islands became
strategic bases in the Caribbean and Pacific.

U.S. casualties included fewer than 350 combat deaths, but nearly 3,000 died from disease.
The war was celebrated as a unifying moment between North and South. Secretary of State
John Hay famously dubbed it “a splendid little war.” However, historians like Paul Kramer
have interrogated this celebratory narrative, pointing out the deeply racialized violence and
coercion underpinning military engagements in the Philippines.

3. Treaty of Paris and Territorial Acquisitions Signed in December 1898, the treaty
ended Spanish rule in the Western Hemisphere:

• Spain recognized Cuban independence.

• The U.S. acquired Puerto Rico and Guam.

• The Philippines was sold to the U.S. for $20 million.

Despite initial hesitation, President McKinley justified Philippine annexation as a civilizing

mission. Many officials doubted the Filipinos’ capacity for self-governance, reflecting
racialized paternalism. This paved the way for direct colonial governance and prolonged
military occupation. Scholars like Amy Kaplan in The Anarchy of Empire in the Making of U.S.
Culture contend that such rhetoric masked the violent imposition of authority through
seemingly benevolent ideologies.
4. Annexation of Hawaii and Control of Samoa In July 1898, Hawaii was annexed, driven
by the influence of American sugar planters and strategic naval interests. The monarchy had
been overthrown earlier in 1893. Samoa was secured via a tripartite agreement with Britain
and Germany, ensuring access to the key port of Pago Pago.

5. Resistance and Governance

• Philippine-American War (1899–1902): Filipino nationalists, led by Emilio

Aguinaldo, resisted U.S. rule. The brutal war resulted in over 4,000 American and
20,000 Filipino military deaths, with civilian deaths estimated up to 250,000. This
was, as Kramer has described, America’s first full-fledged colonial war, marked by
atrocities, scorched-earth tactics, and civilian internment.

• Taft Commission: Governor William Howard Taft oversaw civilian governance in

the Philippines, building infrastructure and implementing reforms while co-opting
local elites.

• Cuba: Although nominally independent, Cuba remained under U.S. control through
the Platt Amendment (1901), which allowed intervention and secured naval rights
at Guantánamo Bay.

• Puerto Rico: The Foraker Act (1900) established civil government, but Puerto
Ricans did not receive U.S. citizenship until 1917.

• Guam and Samoa: These remained under naval administration and served as
critical logistical hubs.

6. Domestic Response and Anti-Imperialist Backlash The Anti-Imperialist League,

formed in 1898, included figures such as Mark Twain, Jane Addams, Andrew Carnegie, and
Samuel Gompers. Critics argued imperialism betrayed democratic ideals and feared racial
integration and foreign entanglements. The Senate narrowly ratified the Treaty of Paris,
swayed by news of the Filipino uprising. Nonetheless, the domestic debate over American
global responsibility and the morality of empire continued well into the 20th century. E.
Berkeley Tompkins and Robert Beisner have explored how anti-imperialism reflected
broader anxieties about national identity, constitutional principles, and class divisions.

Conclusion American imperialism in the late 19th century was grounded in a combination
of economic necessity, strategic logic, cultural assumptions, and ideological ambition. The
Spanish-American War was both a product and a catalyst of this ideology. Through military
victories and political maneuvering, the U.S. acquired overseas colonies and established
itself as a global power. However, imperial expansion also sparked domestic debate, violent
colonial wars, and long-term geopolitical entanglements. These outcomes not only defined
the contours of America’s new empire but also laid the groundwork for future doctrines
such as the Roosevelt Corollary and Open Door Policy, entrenching America’s role in global
affairs for decades to come.