CHEMISTRY (20 items, long definitions, podcast-style)
Atom
An atom is the smallest unit of ordinary matter that forms a chemical element. It consists of a nucleus
containing protons and neutrons, surrounded by a cloud of electrons. Atoms combine in countless ways to form
all the substances in the universe, from air to water to living organisms.
Element
An element is a pure substance made entirely of one type of atom. Each element is defined by its atomic
number—the number of protons in its nucleus—and is listed in the periodic table. Examples include hydrogen,
oxygen, and gold.
Compound
A compound is a substance formed when two or more different elements chemically bond together in fixed
proportions. These bonds result in properties that are often completely different from the individual elements.
For example, sodium and chlorine combine to form table salt.
Mixture
Unlike compounds, mixtures consist of two or more substances physically combined. These substances retain
their individual properties and can be separated by physical means like filtration or evaporation. Air is a mixture
of gases like nitrogen and oxygen.
Molecule
A molecule is the smallest particle of a compound or element that can exist independently while retaining its
chemical properties. It’s made of two or more atoms bonded together. A water molecule, for instance, contains
two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom.
Chemical Bond
A chemical bond is the force that holds atoms together in a molecule or compound. There are several types of
bonds—ionic, covalent, and metallic—each with different ways of sharing or transferring electrons to achieve
stability.
Covalent Bond
In covalent bonding, atoms share one or more pairs of electrons to achieve full outer shells. This bond is
especially common among nonmetals. A good example is water (H₂O), where hydrogen and oxygen share
electrons.
Ionic Bond
An ionic bond occurs when one atom donates an electron to another, forming ions—charged particles. These
oppositely charged ions attract each other. Table salt (NaCl) is formed this way when sodium donates an
electron to chlorine.
Periodic Table
The periodic table is a chart that organizes all known chemical elements by increasing atomic number. It reveals
patterns in element properties, such as metallic behavior, reactivity, and electron configuration, making it a
powerful tool for chemists.
Acid
An acid is a substance that donates hydrogen ions (H⁺) in a solution. Acids have a sour taste, can corrode
metals, and turn blue litmus paper red. Common acids include vinegar (acetic acid) and lemon juice (citric
acid).
Base (Alkali)
A base is a substance that accepts hydrogen ions or releases hydroxide ions (OH⁻) in solution. Bases feel
slippery, taste bitter, and turn red litmus paper blue. Examples include baking soda and bleach.
pH Scale
The pH scale measures the acidity or alkalinity of a solution on a scale from 0 to 14. A pH below 7 is acidic,
above 7 is basic (alkaline), and exactly 7 is neutral, like pure water.
Chemical Reaction
A chemical reaction occurs when substances interact and form new substances with different properties.
Evidence of a reaction may include color change, temperature change, gas production, or precipitate formation.
Law of Conservation of Mass
This law states that matter cannot be created or destroyed in a chemical reaction. The total mass of the reactants
always equals the total mass of the products, meaning no atoms are lost or gained—only rearranged.
Endothermic Reaction
An endothermic reaction absorbs heat from its surroundings. This results in a drop in temperature.
Photosynthesis is a common example, where plants absorb sunlight to convert carbon dioxide and water into
glucose and oxygen.
Exothermic Reaction
In contrast, an exothermic reaction releases heat, often causing the surroundings to warm up. Combustion is a
classic example, such as burning wood or gasoline.
Solvent
A solvent is a substance that dissolves another substance (solute) to form a solution. Water is known as the
"universal solvent" because it dissolves more substances than any other liquid.
Solute
A solute is the substance that is dissolved in a solvent to create a solution. For example, in saltwater, salt is the
solute and water is the solvent.
Concentration
Concentration describes how much solute is dissolved in a solvent. A high concentration means there is a lot of
solute in the solution, while a dilute solution has little solute.
Catalyst
A catalyst is a substance that speeds up a chemical reaction without being consumed or changed in the process.
Enzymes in our body are natural catalysts that help vital reactions occur more efficiently.
Physics Notes
1. Force
Force is any interaction that, when unopposed, causes an object to change its motion. It may cause a resting
object to move or a moving object to accelerate, decelerate, or change direction. Force is a vector quantity,
meaning it has both magnitude and direction, and is measured in newtons (N). It's often described by Newton’s
laws of motion, especially his second law, which says force equals mass times acceleration (F = ma).
2. Velocity
Velocity refers to the rate at which an object changes its position in a particular direction. It is different from
speed because it includes direction. So if a car is moving east at 60 kilometers per hour, that’s its velocity. If it
turns west but still goes 60, the speed is the same but the velocity has changed.
3. Acceleration
Acceleration is the rate at which an object’s velocity changes over time. This can mean speeding up, slowing
down (also called deceleration), or changing direction. It is measured in meters per second squared (m/s²). An
object accelerating at 1 m/s² is increasing its velocity by 1 meter per second every second.
4. Momentum
Momentum is the quantity of motion an object has and is calculated by multiplying its mass and velocity (p =
mv). A heavy truck moving fast has a lot of momentum and would take longer to stop than a small car moving
at the same speed.
5. Work
Work in physics refers to the transfer of energy when a force is applied to an object causing it to move. The
object must move in the direction of the force for work to be done. Work = Force × Distance. If you push a wall
and it doesn’t move, no work is done even though you applied force.
6. Power
Power is the rate at which work is done or energy is transferred. It tells us how quickly something is happening.
The faster work is done, the more power is required. It is measured in watts (W), and 1 watt equals 1 joule per
second.
7. Energy
Energy is the capacity to do work. It comes in many forms: kinetic energy (energy of motion), potential energy
(stored energy), thermal energy, chemical energy, etc. Energy can be transformed from one form to another but
cannot be created or destroyed (law of conservation of energy).
8. Kinetic Energy
Kinetic energy is the energy an object has due to its motion. The faster an object moves and the heavier it is, the
more kinetic energy it has. It is calculated using the formula: KE = ½ mv².
9. Potential Energy
Potential energy is stored energy that an object has because of its position or condition. For example, a rock at
the edge of a cliff has gravitational potential energy due to its height and can release energy when it falls.
10. Friction
Friction is a force that opposes the motion of an object when it slides or rolls over a surface. It acts in the
opposite direction of motion and can cause objects to slow down and stop. It’s also the reason we can walk
without slipping.
11. Newton’s First Law (Inertia)
An object at rest will stay at rest, and an object in motion will stay in motion at constant velocity unless acted
upon by an external force. This is called the law of inertia. Basically, things don’t start or stop moving unless
something causes that change.
12. Newton’s Second Law
This law explains how the velocity of an object changes when it is subjected to an external force. The formula F
= ma (Force = mass × acceleration) tells us how much force is needed to accelerate an object.
13. Newton’s Third Law
For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction. This means if object A pushes on object B, then object
B pushes back on object A with the same force in the opposite direction. Think of jumping — your legs push
against the ground, and the ground pushes you upward.
14. Law of Conservation of Momentum
The total momentum of a closed system remains constant unless acted upon by external forces. This is why in
collisions, especially elastic ones, the total momentum before and after the collision is the same.
15. Gravitational Force
Gravitational force is the force of attraction between two masses. On Earth, gravity pulls everything toward the
center of the planet, giving us weight. It keeps the planets in orbit around the sun and causes objects to fall
when dropped.
16. Mass vs Weight
Mass is the amount of matter in an object and stays the same everywhere in the universe. Weight is the force
gravity exerts on that mass and can change depending on location — for example, you'd weigh less on the moon
than on Earth, but your mass stays the same.
17. Mechanical Advantage
Mechanical advantage refers to how much a machine multiplies force. It lets you use less effort to do the same
amount of work, like when you use a lever or pulley system to lift something heavy.
18. Simple Machines
Simple machines include tools like levers, pulleys, inclined planes, screws, wedges, and wheel-and-axles. They
make work easier by changing the direction or magnitude of a force.
19. Ohm’s Law
Ohm’s Law relates voltage (V), current (I), and resistance (R) in an electric circuit. The formula is V = IR. It
explains how electricity behaves in a circuit, like how increasing resistance lowers the current if voltage stays
the same.
20. Wave
A wave is a repeating disturbance or vibration that transfers energy from one point to another without
transferring matter. Waves can be mechanical (like sound) or electromagnetic (like light). They have properties
like wavelength, frequency, and amplitude.
ASTRONOMY
Astronomy
The scientific study of celestial bodies such as stars, planets, comets, and galaxies, and phenomena that
originate outside Earth's atmosphere. It is one of the oldest sciences, often driven by curiosity, and is split into
observational and theoretical branches.
The Big Bang Theory
A cosmological model that explains the early development of the Universe. It suggests that the Universe
expanded from a hot, dense singularity approximately 13.8 billion years ago, continuing to expand to this day.
Stars
Massive, luminous spheres of plasma held together by gravity. They are formed in nebulae and undergo a life
cycle that includes stages such as main sequence, red giant, and eventually, depending on their mass, white
dwarf, neutron star, or black hole.
Light-Year
A unit of distance used in astronomy that measures how far light travels in one year — about 9.46 trillion
kilometers. It helps describe distances between stars and galaxies.
Black Hole
An astronomical object with a gravitational pull so strong that nothing, not even light, can escape it. Formed
from the remnants of a massive star after it undergoes gravitational collapse.
Supernova
A stellar explosion that occurs during the final evolutionary stages of a massive star or when a white dwarf
gains enough mass. It disperses elements into space and can result in a neutron star or black hole.
Galaxy
A massive system of stars, stellar remnants, interstellar gas, dust, and dark matter, bound together by gravity.
The Milky Way is the galaxy that contains our solar system.
Nebula
A cloud of gas and dust in space, often the birthplace of stars. Nebulae are visible as luminous patches and are
crucial for star formation.
Solar System
Consists of the Sun and all celestial bodies that are gravitationally bound to it, including eight planets, their
moons, asteroids, comets, and dwarf planets like Pluto.
The Sun
A G-type main-sequence star (G2V) at the center of our solar system, providing heat and light necessary for life
on Earth. It’s mostly made up of hydrogen and helium and undergoes nuclear fusion in its core.
Planets
Large celestial bodies orbiting a star. In our solar system, there are eight recognized planets divided into
terrestrial (Mercury to Mars) and gas giants (Jupiter to Neptune).
Moon Phases
The different appearances of the Moon from Earth over a month, resulting from the Sun’s light reflecting off its
surface. Includes new moon, crescent, first quarter, gibbous, and full moon phases.
Telescope
An instrument used to observe distant celestial objects by collecting electromagnetic radiation. Optical
telescopes use lenses or mirrors, while radio telescopes detect radio waves.
Comets
Icy celestial bodies that originate from the Kuiper Belt or Oort Cloud. When close to the Sun, they develop tails
made of gas and dust due to sublimation.
Asteroids
Rocky objects orbiting the Sun, mostly found in the asteroid belt between Mars and Jupiter. They vary in size
and can impact Earth under certain conditions.
Meteoroids, Meteors, Meteorites
Meteoroids are small space rocks. When they enter Earth's atmosphere and burn, they become meteors
("shooting stars"). If they survive and land, they're called meteorites.
Orbit
The curved path of a celestial object or spacecraft around a star, planet, or moon, influenced by gravity. Orbits
can be circular, elliptical, or hyperbolic.
Redshift
A phenomenon where light from distant galaxies is stretched to longer wavelengths, indicating that the Universe
is expanding — a key piece of evidence for the Big Bang.
Exoplanets
Planets located outside our solar system, often discovered using the transit method or radial velocity technique.
Thousands have been found, with some located in habitable zones.
Dark Matter & Dark Energy
Unseen components that make up most of the Universe’s mass-energy content. Dark matter affects galaxy
rotation, while dark energy is believed to drive the accelerated expansion of the Universe.
EARTH SCIENCE (Long, Detailed Definitions)
Earth Science
Earth Science is the comprehensive study of the Earth’s physical constitution, structure, processes, and its place
in the universe. It is an umbrella term encompassing several branches such as geology, meteorology,
oceanography, and astronomy. The goal of Earth science is to understand Earth's past, present, and future by
examining natural phenomena and their interactions with human life.
Geology
Geology is the study of the Earth’s solid material, including rocks, minerals, and the processes by which they
change over time. It covers plate tectonics, the rock cycle, earthquakes, volcanoes, and how landforms develop.
Geologists analyze Earth's layers to trace its history and forecast future geological activity.
Plate Tectonics
A scientific theory explaining the movement of Earth’s lithospheric plates. These large, rigid slabs float atop the
semi-fluid asthenosphere, interacting at boundaries to form earthquakes, volcanoes, mountain ranges, and ocean
trenches. This concept unified the understanding of continental drift and seafloor spreading.
The Rock Cycle
A continuous process describing the transformation of rocks through geological processes: igneous rocks form
from cooled magma, sedimentary rocks form from compressed sediments, and metamorphic rocks form through
heat and pressure. These transformations occur over millions of years.
Minerals
Naturally occurring, inorganic solids with a definite chemical composition and crystalline structure. Minerals
are the building blocks of rocks and are classified based on properties like hardness, luster, color, and cleavage.
Examples include quartz, feldspar, and mica.
Earth’s Layers
The Earth is made up of distinct layers: the crust (solid outer shell), the mantle (semi-solid and highly viscous),
the outer core (liquid iron and nickel), and the inner core (solid metal sphere). These layers vary in composition,
temperature, and physical state, influencing tectonic activity and magnetic fields.
Volcanoes
Openings in Earth’s crust that allow magma, gases, and ash to escape. Volcanoes are typically found at plate
boundaries or hotspots. They are classified based on eruption style and shape, including shield, stratovolcano,
and cinder cone types.
Earthquakes
Sudden ground movements caused by the release of energy from fault lines or tectonic stress. Seismic waves
radiate outward, and their intensity is measured on the Richter or moment magnitude scale. Earthquakes are
studied to mitigate damage and predict future quakes.
Weathering
The breakdown of rocks into smaller particles through physical (mechanical), chemical, or biological processes.
Weathering prepares materials for erosion and soil formation and plays a key role in shaping Earth’s surface.
Erosion and Deposition
Erosion is the movement of weathered rock by agents like water, wind, ice, or gravity. Deposition occurs when
these agents lose energy and drop the sediments they carry, shaping features like deltas, beaches, and sand
dunes.
Soil Formation
The result of weathered rock mixing with organic material over time. Soil forms in layers (horizons) and varies
in fertility and texture based on climate, parent rock, and biological activity. It supports agriculture and
ecosystems.
Fossils
Preserved remains or impressions of ancient organisms found in sedimentary rock layers. Fossils offer a
window into Earth's biological past and are critical for studying evolution and geological time periods.
Geological Time Scale
A chronological timeline dividing Earth’s 4.6-billion-year history into eons, eras, periods, and epochs. It helps
scientists date rocks and fossils and understand the sequence of major geological and biological events.
Water Cycle
A continuous cycle where water moves between the atmosphere, land, and oceans through evaporation,
condensation, precipitation, infiltration, and runoff. It regulates weather patterns and supports all life on Earth.
Groundwater and Aquifers
Groundwater is water stored underground in porous rock formations known as aquifers. It plays a major role in
agriculture, drinking water supply, and ecosystem support, and is replenished by rain infiltration.
Oceanography
The study of Earth’s oceans, including currents, waves, marine life, seafloor geology, and chemical
composition. Oceans regulate climate and weather through heat transfer and carbon cycling.
Atmosphere Layers
Earth’s atmosphere consists of five layers: troposphere (weather), stratosphere (ozone layer), mesosphere
(meteors burn up), thermosphere (auroras occur), and exosphere (outer space boundary). Each layer has unique
properties and functions.
Climate vs. Weather
Weather refers to short-term atmospheric conditions (like temperature and rain), while climate describes the
long-term average of weather in a region over decades. Understanding both helps in disaster preparedness and
environmental planning.
Natural Disasters
Earthquakes, tsunamis, landslides, hurricanes, and volcanic eruptions are natural disasters that result from
geological or atmospheric processes. Earth scientists study these to reduce risks and protect communities.
Renewable and Nonrenewable Resources
Earth provides resources like minerals, fossil fuels, water, and forests. Renewable resources (like solar energy
or wind) can replenish naturally, while nonrenewable ones (like coal or oil) are finite and deplete over time.
ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE (Long, Podcast-Ready
Notes)
Environmental Science
An interdisciplinary field that combines information and ideas from physical sciences, biological sciences, and
social sciences to study the environment and find solutions to environmental problems. It covers topics such as
pollution, climate change, biodiversity loss, and sustainable resource management, aiming to protect natural
ecosystems and human well-being.
Ecosystem
A community of living organisms (plants, animals, and microbes) interacting with one another and with their
non-living environment (such as soil, air, and water) in a specific area. Ecosystems can be as large as a
rainforest or as small as a pond, and each plays a critical role in supporting life on Earth.
Biodiversity
The variety of life in all its forms, levels, and combinations, including ecosystem diversity, species diversity,
and genetic diversity. High biodiversity increases ecosystem stability and resilience, while its loss can lead to
ecological imbalance and extinction of species.
Sustainability
The practice of using natural resources in a way that meets present needs without compromising the ability of
future generations to meet their own. It involves conserving energy, protecting ecosystems, and promoting
practices that reduce pollution and waste.
Renewable Resources
Resources that can be replenished naturally over short periods of time, such as sunlight, wind, water, and
biomass. These are preferred over non-renewable resources for long-term energy production and ecological
balance.
Non-Renewable Resources
Natural resources that are finite and do not replenish quickly, including fossil fuels (like coal, oil, and natural
gas), metals, and minerals. Overuse of these resources contributes to environmental degradation and global
conflicts.
Climate Change
Long-term alterations in temperature, precipitation, wind patterns, and other elements of Earth’s climate system.
Most modern climate change is driven by human activities like burning fossil fuels and deforestation, which
increase greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere.
Greenhouse Effect
The natural process by which gases in Earth’s atmosphere, such as carbon dioxide and methane, trap heat from
the Sun, keeping the planet warm enough to sustain life. Human-induced enhancements of this effect are
causing global warming.
Deforestation
The large-scale removal of forests for agriculture, logging, or urban development. This disrupts ecosystems,
contributes to biodiversity loss, and reduces the Earth's capacity to absorb carbon dioxide.
Pollution
The introduction of harmful substances or products into the environment, including air, water, soil, and noise
pollution. Pollution causes health problems, damages ecosystems, and contributes to climate change.
Waste Management
The collection, transportation, processing, recycling, and disposal of waste materials in a way that minimizes
their impact on the environment. Proper waste management includes reducing, reusing, and recycling (the 3Rs).
Acid Rain
Precipitation with a lower pH than normal, caused by emissions of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides from
burning fossil fuels. Acid rain harms aquatic life, corrodes buildings, and weakens forests.
Carbon Footprint
The total amount of greenhouse gases emitted directly or indirectly by human activities, usually expressed in
equivalent tons of CO₂. Reducing one’s carbon footprint helps mitigate climate change.
Ozone Layer Depletion
The thinning of the stratospheric ozone layer, primarily caused by chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). The ozone layer
protects life on Earth by absorbing most of the Sun’s harmful ultraviolet radiation.
Ecological Footprint
A measure of how much biologically productive land and water an individual or population uses to produce the
resources they consume and to absorb their waste. It’s used to evaluate sustainability.
Environmental Justice
A movement that aims to ensure that all people, regardless of race, income, or background, have equal
protection from environmental hazards and equal access to decision-making in environmental policies.
Urbanization
The increase in the number and size of cities. While urban areas can offer economic opportunities, uncontrolled
urbanization often leads to pollution, overcrowding, and poor waste management.
Conservation Biology
A branch of biology that focuses on protecting and preserving biodiversity, especially endangered species and
habitats. It also studies how human activities impact ecosystems.
Ecological Restoration
The process of assisting the recovery of damaged, degraded, or destroyed ecosystems through planting, habitat
reconstruction, and pollution cleanup, aiming to bring back ecological balance.
Global Warming
A specific aspect of climate change referring to the ongoing rise in global average temperatures due to increased
greenhouse gas emissions. It leads to more intense weather events, rising sea levels, and melting glaciers.
GENERAL SCIENCE & MISCELLANEOUS TRIVIA (20
items, long-form)
Scientific Method
A systematic, logical approach used in scientific study to investigate phenomena, acquire new knowledge, or
correct and integrate previous knowledge. It involves making observations, forming a question, constructing a
hypothesis, conducting experiments, analyzing data, and drawing conclusions. This method ensures that
discoveries are based on evidence and reproducibility.
Observation vs. Inference
Observation is the act of using senses or tools to gather facts or data, while inference is the logical interpretation
or explanation based on those observations. Observations are direct and objective, whereas inferences are
conclusions drawn from evidence and reasoning.
Hypothesis
A testable and educated guess or proposition made based on limited evidence, which serves as a starting point
for further investigation. A good hypothesis is specific, measurable, and can be supported or refuted through
experimentation or observation.
Theory vs. Law
A scientific theory is a well-substantiated explanation of an aspect of the natural world, based on a body of
evidence that has been repeatedly confirmed through observation and experiment. A scientific law, on the other
hand, is a statement based on repeated experimental observations that describes a universally consistent natural
phenomenon, often expressed mathematically.
Control Group and Experimental Group
In a controlled experiment, the control group serves as the standard for comparison and does not receive the
experimental treatment, while the experimental group is the one being tested with the variable of interest. This
design helps isolate the effect of the independent variable.
Independent and Dependent Variables
The independent variable is the factor that the experimenter changes or manipulates, while the dependent
variable is the one being measured or observed in response to changes in the independent variable.
SI Units
Also known as the International System of Units, these are standard units used globally in science to ensure
consistency. Examples include the meter (m) for length, kilogram (kg) for mass, second (s) for time, and kelvin
(K) for temperature.
Matter
Matter is anything that has mass and occupies space. It exists in different states: solid, liquid, gas, and plasma.
All physical objects are made of matter, which is composed of atoms and molecules.
Energy
Energy is the capacity to do work or produce change. It exists in various forms including kinetic, potential,
thermal, chemical, electrical, and nuclear. It can neither be created nor destroyed, only transformed from one
form to another (Law of Conservation of Energy).
Density
Density is the amount of mass per unit volume of a substance, usually expressed in kilograms per cubic meter
(kg/m³). It determines whether an object will float or sink in a fluid and is calculated by dividing mass by
volume (D = m/v).
States of Matter
The physical forms in which all matter naturally exists—solid (fixed shape and volume), liquid (fixed volume
but takes the shape of its container), gas (neither fixed shape nor volume), and plasma (ionized gas with free
electrons and ions, found in stars).
Acids and Bases
Acids are substances that release hydrogen ions (H⁺) in solution and have a pH less than 7. Bases release
hydroxide ions (OH⁻) and have a pH greater than 7. The pH scale ranges from 0 to 14 and is used to measure
the acidity or alkalinity of a solution.
Ecology
The branch of biology that studies interactions among organisms and between organisms and their environment.
It includes concepts like food chains, ecosystems, population dynamics, and biodiversity.
Cell Theory
A foundational principle of biology stating that all living things are composed of cells, the cell is the basic unit
of life, and all cells arise from pre-existing cells. This theory underscores the importance of cells in structure
and function.
DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid)
The hereditary material in almost all living organisms, consisting of two long chains coiled into a double helix.
It carries genetic instructions for development, functioning, growth, and reproduction.
Evolution
The process by which different kinds of living organisms have developed and diversified from earlier forms
during the history of the Earth. Proposed by Charles Darwin, it is driven by mechanisms such as natural
selection and genetic mutation.
Newton’s Laws of Motion
A set of three principles describing how objects move. The first law states that an object at rest stays at rest
unless acted on by a force. The second law quantifies force as mass times acceleration (F=ma). The third law
states that every action has an equal and opposite reaction.
Plate Tectonics
A theory in geology that explains the structure and movement of Earth’s lithosphere. According to this theory,
Earth’s surface is broken into large plates that move slowly over the asthenosphere, leading to earthquakes,
mountain formation, and volcanic activity.
Water Cycle
The continuous process through which water circulates in the Earth's atmosphere and surface. It includes
evaporation, condensation, precipitation, infiltration, and runoff. This cycle is essential for sustaining life and
regulating climate.
Climate vs. Weather
Weather refers to the short-term atmospheric conditions in a specific place and time, such as rain or sunshine.
Climate describes the long-term patterns of weather in a region over decades or centuries. While weather is
what you experience daily, climate is what you expect over a season or longer.
