Fluid Dynamics
Fluids can flow from one point to another; e.g. water going downstream in a river and
wind blowing from one area to another; are some of the scenarios where a fluid flow
is observed. The study of the flow of fluids is known as fluid dynamics or
hydrodynamics.
Naturally, fluid flow occurs due to pressure difference between two points/regions/
areas, and where there is a difference gravitational potential energy. (A fluid flows
from a region with a higher pressure to one with lower pressure and from higher to
lower altitude). Fluid flow can also arise due to shearing force along the surface of a
fluid.
Properties of dynamic fluids
Fluid flow can be steady or unsteady. In a steady flow, any property (e.g. molecule
speed and direction) of a fluid is constant whenever any fluid molecule passes a
point along its flow. In a steady fluid flow, quantity of fluid flow that passes any point
per unit time is the does not change. On the other hand, for an unsteady fluid flow, at
least one of the properties at a point vary with time.
A fluid flow that appears as sliding layers that are parallel to each other, without ever
interfering with each other’s flow, is classified as being laminar or streamlined. A fluid
flow which is not laminar, but undergoes velocity and pressure changes at any point
along its flow is classified as a turbulent flow.
Fluid flow can also be rotational, if its molecules rotate about some axis at each or
some point/s of motion, and irrotational if they do not.
Fluid flow that when subjected to a change of pressure applied to it, does not
undergo change of volume (or undergoes a negligible change) is characterised as
being incompressible. On the other hand, when pressure change on a fluid result in
its volumetric change, it is said to be compressible.
A fluid that flows smoothly, without any resistance (or has negligible resistance)
amongst its molecules, is non-viscous. While, viscous fluid flow does not flow
smoothly, but its flow suffers from internal resistance; e.g. honey and dense oil.
Note: We shall restrict ourselves to fluid flows that are steady, incompressible,
laminar and non-viscous, unless stated otherwise.
Equation of continuity
On a windy day, when one travels through a tunnel, one can observe that wind
speed in a narrow cross-sectional part of a tunnel tends to travel faster than in a
wider part.
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This phenomenon can be observed in a confined fluid flow that is steady and
streamlined. In addition, the tunnel\tube through which the fluid flows no ‘pockets’ (in
which fluid can be stored along its flow) nor entry and/or exit points along the length
(except at beginning and end point/s of the tunnel). This would imply that mass per
unit time of fluid entering the initial point/s of the interval of interest would be equal to
mass per unit time exiting at the exit point/s of the interval.
For example, in the sketch on the right, steady
laminar fluid enters through section of the pipe at
area A1 area and exits through area A2. The
amount of fluid mass per second that enters A1 is
exactly equal to that which leaves at the other end,
A2; i.e. (Δm1/Δt) = (Δm2/Δt).
This implies that, for a steady laminar fluid flow, mass flow rate through a section of
a continuous pipe is constant.
Since, mass density results in: m = ρV; and ΔV = A(Δl), mass flow rate through a
‘continuous’ pipe can be expressed as:
(ρ1ΔV1/Δt) = (ρ2ΔV2/Δt) → ρ A (Δl )/(Δt) = ρ A (Δl )/(Δt) ... (i)
1 1 1 2 2 2
Thus, ρ1A1v1 = ρ2A2v2
If the fluid is incompressible throughout (usually, the case with liquids), its ‘volume’
flow rate within a continuous interval is: A1v1 = A2v2 (as ρ1 = ρ2)
Thus, Q (= Av) is constant for an incompressible laminar flow.
Note: Q is known as the fluid volume flow rate.
e.g. 1 A 0.1 m radius pipe is used to empty a cylindrical tank which is 2.0-m-tall and
1.2-m-wide in 8 minutes. At what rate is water flowing out of the pipe?
Soln. Qtank = Qpipe (since the fluid is uniform
and incompressible)
2.0 m
((πd2/4)h/Δt)tank = πrpipe2(Δy/Δt))pipe
1.2 m
Where dtank = 1.2 m, htank = 2.0 m,
rpipe = 0.1 m and Δttank = 480 s.
Therefore, (Δy/Δt)pipe = m.s-1
Δy
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Bernoulli’s principle and Torricelli’s theorem
When a uniform fluid flows through a pipe or a tube or anything of that nature, work
is done on and by any portion of the fluid. The amount of work done can be
determined using the work-energy theorem.
In the figure above, a non-viscous, incompressible fluid undergoes a steady, laminar
flow between areas A1 and A2. Using the work-energy theorem on the portion of the
fluid between these two areal sections, we obtain:
WNC = ΔKE + ΔPE = (KE2 - KE1) + (PE2 - PE1)
Here, non-conservative work is done on the portion of the fluid shown in blue
(by the fluid ‘pushing it from behind’ at area A1) over length Δl1. Thus, work
done on this fluid over interval Δl1 is positive.
At the same time interval, the front-end of this portion of the fluid (area A2)
does non-conservative work on the fluid, which is ahead of it. The work done
is by the blue portion over interval Δl2. Here, work is done by the fluid of
interest (shown in blue) is negative (as it is done by the fluid of interest; not
done upon it).
Therefore,
[+F1Δl1 + (-F2Δl2)] = (0.5m2v22 - 0.5m2v12) + (m2gy2 – m1gy1) … (ii)
Since, the fluid flow is steady, streamlined and incompressible, volume of the
fluid entering this section of the pipe is equal to the volume which exits (i.e. V1
= V2 = V). In addition, since we have the same fluid throughout the pipe
interval of interest, the amount of matter per volume is constant (ρ1 = ρ2 = ρ).
Dividing both sides of eqn. (ii) by the volume of the fluid, V, which passes
through areas A1 and A2 of respective lengths Δl1 and Δl2 respectively, we
obtain:
{(+F1Δl1 + (-F2Δl2))}/V = {(0.5m2v22 - 0.5m1v12) + (m2gy2 – m1gy1)}/V
Since V = A(Δl), ρ = m/V (which is constant throughout) and P = F/A, we
obtain:
P1 + (-P2) = (0.5ρv22 - 0.5ρv12) + (ρgy2 – ρgy1)
Therefore, P1 + 0.5ρv12 + ρgy1 = P2 + 0.5ρv22 + ρgy2 … (iia)
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The above equation is known as the Bernoulli’s equation, and is linked to Bernoulli’s
principle.
Bernoulli’s principle: The relationship between pressure, kinetic energy and potential
energy of the flow of a non-viscous, steady, streamlined and incompressible fluid is
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such that their sum is always constant at all points. i.e. P + 2ρv2 + ρgy = const.
Ex. 1 Show that 0.5ρv2 is equivalent to the fluid kinetic energy, while ρgy to its
potential energy.
e.g. 2 A 6.2 cm diameter pipe has its diameter gradually narrowing to 4.7 cm. When
water flows through the pipe, the gauge pressure in these areal sections is
32.0 kPa and 24.3 kPa, respectively. Determine,
2.1 fluid speed at each of the two pipe diameters, and
2.2 the fluid’s volume flow rate.
Soln.
1 2
2.1 d1 = 6.2 cm, d2 = 4.7 cm, P1 = 32.0 × 103 Pa, P2 = 24.3 × 103 Pa,
ρwater = 1000 kg.m-3 and h1 = h2.
Bernoulli’s implies: 0.5(1000)v12 + 32000 = 0.5(1000)v22 + 24000 . . . (i)
Continuity equation: v1(π× 0.0622)/4 = v2(π× 0.0472)/4 . . . (ii)
Using eqns. (i) and (ii), v1 = m.s-1 and v2 = m.s-1
2.2 From 2.1, we have Q = A1v1 = A2v2 = m3.s-1
e.g. 3 A Venturi meter is used to measure the flow speed of a fluid in a pipe, see the
figure on the right. A meter, with water within its U-tube is connected between
two sections of the pipe, see the figure. The cross-sectional area of the pipe is
A = 0.086 m2. Between the pipe entrance and exit, the fluid flows through the
pipe with speed V; while through a narrow ‘throat’, of cross-sectional area a =
0.041 m2, its speed is v. If the height difference between the arms of the U-
tube section is h = 18.9 cm, what is the speed of the fluid through the pipe?
Soln. The difference in pressure between points 1 and 2 (i.e. the pipe and the throat
of the Venturi meter) is observed by the height difference of the U-tube arms,
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i.e. h. (The left arm is connected to the pipe, while the right arm to the
constriction of the Venturi)
This implies that Pa – PA = ρwatergh … (i);
where ρwater = 1000 kg.m-3, g = 9.8 m.s-2 and h = 0.189 m.
The pressure difference
observed in the U-tube is
as a result of the A a
pressure difference
between the pipe (at A)
and throat areas of the
meter (a): Pa - PA.
Using the Bernoulli’s equation:
1 1
Pa + 2ρva2 + ρgya = PA + 2ρvA2 + ρgyA; where ya = yA
1 1
This leads to: Pa - PA = 2ρvA2 - 2ρva2 … (ii)
According to the continuity equation:
AAvA = Aava … (iii)
where Aa = 0.041 m2 and AA = 0.086 m2
Using eqns. (i), (ii) and (iii), vA = m.s-1
When a large container, filled with a liquid, has a hole on the side; the speed at
which the fluid flows out of the hole can be determined by the use of a theorem
linked to Bernoulli’s principle, known as Torricelli’s theorem.
Torricelli’s Theorem
If a container with a small hole is filled with a fluid, speed at which the fluid
leaves the hole is equal to that at which a fluid drop would pass the hole if the
drop fell from the same height as that of the fluid surface within the container.
Based on the Torricelli’s theorem: if the surface of a fluid within a large container is
at a height h above a hole along the surface of a container, the speed, v, at which
the fluid exits the hole is given by: v = √2gh + vo2 , where g is magnitude of the
gravitational acceleration and vo is speed of the fluid surface within a container.
When the tank width is very large compared to the size of the hole, v ≈ (2gh)0.5.
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e.g. 4 A cylindrical tank, 12.5 m tall and 2.0 m wide, is filled with water to the brim.
The tank has a very small opening, which is 50.0 cm above the floor.
4.1 Upon the opening being opened, at what speed does the water exit the
hole?
4.2 At the instant, when 5 800 l of water has spilled out of the tank, at what
horizontal position, from the tank base, shall the water land on the
floor?
Soln. 4.1 Given: h = 12.5 m, d = 2.0 m, x = 0.5 m,
ρ = 1000 kg.m-3
Initially, since the hole size is very small, then
h
vi = {2gyi}0.5, where yi = h - x ht
d
v Therefore, vi =
x
4.2 The speed at which water leaves the tank depends z
on the new level of the water inside, ht.
Water level has reduced due to water volume, within the tank,
reducing.
Change of water volume, ΔV = 5 800 × 10-3 m3 = Vo - Vt … (i), where
Vo is the original water volume (Vo = πd2h/4) and Vt its new volume.
Therefore, Vt = Vo - ΔV = πd2(ht)/4, … (ii)
where Vo = πd2h/4
Leading to ht = h – 4(ΔV)/(πd2) = m
Thus, water exits the tank at vt = {2gyt}0.5 … (iii), where yt = ht – x.
When water gets out of the opening, it undergoes projectile motion.
Thus, water range, z = (vt)t … (iv), where t is time taken by water to
travel from the hole to the floor.
The time it took water to get to the ground, t, can be obtained by
considering the vertical part of motion: x = 0.5gt2 … (v)
Substituting t (from eqn. v) and vt (from eqn. iii) into eqn. iv; we obtain
the range of the water leaving the hole.
Ex. 2 Using Bernoulli’s theorem, show how the equation linked the Torricelli’s
theorem equation can be obtained.
Viscous fluid flow
Viscosity in a fluid is due to frictional forces that fluid molecules exert upon each
other. In a case of a laminar flow, as each layer slides along the direction of fluid
flow, and in the process, neighbouring layers exert frictional forces upon each other.
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When the fluid flows along a pipe, a fluid layer that is in contact with the pipe inner
surface experiences the greatest resistance to its flow. This is as a result that the
pipe surface is stationary and made of a solid material. This leads to a fluid layer that
is in contact with the pipe surface to be regarded as almost stationary, relative to the
rest of the fluifd.
The layer next to the one in contact with the pipe surface slides a bit smoother than
it. Thus, it requires lesser force to slide along the flow direction.
Generally, the further away a fluid layer is from the
surface of a pipe, the lesser is the magnitude of the
shearing force required to slide it against its
neighbouring layers. Thus, F force α 1/L, where L
is the ‘average’ length from the surface to the pipe.
The larger the surface contact area, A, between
any layer and its immediate neighbouring layers,
Pipe surface
the larger is the force required for the flow of the
layer, F α A.
The other factor affecting the shearing force required by a fluid layer is the speed at
which the layer travels, v. To increase the speed of a layer, an increase of magnitude
of the shearing force is required; thus, force is directly proportional to the layer’s
speed of motion (F α v).
The above proportionality relationships lead to equation: F = ηvA/L, where η is
known as the coefficient of viscosity (which is also directly proportional to the amount
of shearing force and is measured in Pa.s (pascal second)).
Note. The greater the magnitude of viscosity, the greater is the amount of force
required to slide a layer of a fluid against its neighbouring layers. Thus, F is
proportional to η.
Coefficient of viscosity is a measure of viscosity experienced by a fluid during its
flow; and it is temperature dependent.
Ex. 3 Briefly discuss how and why, generally, viscosity of a fluid depends on
temperature.
Fluid (temperature) Coefficient of viscosity, η (×10-3 Pa.s)
Water (0 oC) 1.8
Water (20 oC) 1.0
Blood (37 oC) 4.0
Glycerine (20 oC) 1500
Engine oil (30 oC) 200
Water vapour (100 oC) 0.013
Air (20 oC) 0.018
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e.g. 5 Determine magnitude of a force required to overcome the retarding force, due
to viscosity of the air layer between a Pasco cart wheel and a track, as the
cart moves at 0.62 m.s-1, the wheel surface area is 9.1 × 10-3 m2, and the
thickness of the air layer is 6.0 × 10-6 m.
(Temperature of air is 20 oC)
Soln. Given, A = 9.1 × 10-3 m2, v = 0.62 m.s-1, L = 6.0 × 10-6 m, and
η = 0.018 ×10-3 Pa.s
Magnitude of the force is given by: F = ηvA/L,
Therefore, F = N
Poiseuille’s law
A laminar flow of an incompressible viscous fluid though a pipe/tube etc. requires a
pressure difference between any two points along its length.
The volume flow rate of a fluid, Q, between points, 2 and 1 (where pressure P2 > P1),
through a pipe of constant cross sectional area, is given by: Q = πR4(P2 – P1)/(8ηL),
where R is the radius of the pipe, L - length of the
pipe between point 2 and 1, η - viscosity coefficient
of the transported fluid.
The above equation is known as the Poiseuille’s
equation.
e.g. 6 The mass flow rate of water, at its boiling point, is 1 850 kg.s-1. The water
flows through a cylindrical pipe whose cross sectional area 0.8 m2 is
1 850 kg.s-1. Determine the pressure drop within the pipe of a length of 52 m.
Soln. Using Poiseuille’s equation, we have (P2 – P1) = 8QηL/(πR4)
Where L = 52 m, η = 1.3 ×10-2 Pa.s, πR4 = A2/π = (0.8 m2)2/π and
Q = (1 850 kg.s-1)/ρwater = (1 850 kg.s-1)/(1 000 kg.m-3)
Therefore, (P2 – P1) = Pa
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