LECTURE NOTES

COMPUTER SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE

PREPARED BY MRS. TAPASWINI RAUT

ASST. PROF. IN COMPUTER SCIENCE ENGINEERING

Chapter-1
Basic structure of computer hardware
Computer hardware includes the physical parts of a computer, such as a case, central
processing unit (CPU), random access memory (RAM), monitor, and mouse which processes
the input according to the set of instructions provided to it by the user and gives the desired
output.
The computer has mainly has two major components:
1. Hardware
2. Software
In this article, we only discuss computer hardware.

What is Computer Hardware?

Computer hardware is a physical device of computers that we can see and touch. For
e.g. Monitor, Central Processing Unit, Mouse, Joystick, etc. Using these devices, we can
control computer operations like input and output.
Computer Hardware Parts
These hardware components are further divided into the following categories, which are:
1. Input Devices
2. Output Devices
3. Storage Devices
4. Internal Components
1. Input Devices
Input devices are those devices with the help of which the user interacts with the computer.
Or, In other words, with the help of input devices, the user enters the data or information
into the computer. This information or data is accepted by the input devices and converted
into a computer-acceptable format, which is further sent to the computer system for
processing.
Now we discuss some input devices:
 Keyboard: It is the most common and main input device for computers. The
data is inputted by typing on the keyboard. It consists of 104 keys in total. It
contains numeric keys, alphabet keys, and different function keys as well.
Earlier, it was connected to the computer via cable, now as technology has
advanced, you can connect a keyboard using Bluetooth.
 Mouse: A mouse is a kind of pointing device which is rolled over to control the
cursor on the screen and it has functional keys like left, middle, and right
buttons. Using these functional keys, on by the click of which an object is
selected or to open a file by just a click of a mouse. It also consists of a sensor
inside which notifies its speed to the computer and according to which the
cursor is moved on the screen.
 Scanner: As the name suggests, it scans images, documents, etc., and converts
them into digital form and that can be further edited and used. It works just like
a Xerox machine.
 Track Ball: It is a device much like an upside-down mouse. It does not use much
space for movement like a mouse. As the trackball remains stationary and the
user moves the ball in various directions, it affects the screen movements
directly.
 Light Pen: It is a light-sensitive device and it is touched to the CRT screen where
it can detect, a raster on the screen as it passes by and, with the help of this
user can draw anything like lines, figures, or any objects.
 Microphone: It is a kind of voice input system that can be attached to a
computer system to record sounds. It converts human speech or voice
into electrical signals. This electrical signal is processed by the computer and
the word is recognized.
 Optical Character Reader: It is used to detect alphanumeric characters that are
written or printed on paper using a low-frequency light source. This light is
absorbed by the dark areas and reflected by the light areas, now this reflected
light is received by the photocells. It is like a scanner.
 Bar Code Reader: It is used to read bar codes and convert them into electric
pulse which will further processed by the computer. Here, the barcode is data
that is coded into white and black lines(or light and dark lines).
2. Output Devices
These are the devices that are used to display the output of any task given to the computer
in human-readable form.
Now we discuss some output devices:
 Monitor: The monitor is the main output device. It is also called VDU(visual
display unit) and it looks like a TV screen. The Monitor displays the information
from the computer. It is used to display text, video, images, etc.
  Printer: A printer is an output device that transfers data from the computer in a
printed format by using text or images on paper. There are both colored and
black & white printers. Further, there are also different types of printers,
like Laser Printer, Dot-matrix printers, and Inkjet printers.
 Plotter: It is similar to a printer but potters are large in size. A plotter is used to
generate large drawings, architectural blueprints, etc. on paper and these are
high-quality images and drawings and large in size.
 Speakers: It is a very common output device and it gives sound as an output.
Speaker is generally used to play music or anything having sound.
3. Storage Devices
There are some devices that are used for storage purposes and are known as secondary
storage devices. Some of them were discussed below:
1. CD (Compact disc): A CD is circular in shape and made up of thin platted glass and plastic
polycarbonate material. It has a storage capacity of 600 MB to 700 MB of data. It has a
standard size of 12 cm with a hole in the center of about 1.5 cm and 1.2 mm in thickness.
There are basically 3 types of CDs, which are:
 CD-ROM (CD – Read Only Memory): Contents of this type of CD cannot be
erased by the user. Only the publisher is allowed to access the data imprinted
on this CD. CD-ROM is basically used for commercial purposes like for a music
album or any application package by a software company.
 CD-R (CD-Recordable): In this, content or data can be stored once. After that,
they can be read many times but the data or content cannot be rewritten or
erased. (Kind of one-time use)
 CD-RW(CD-Rewritable): As the name suggests, this type of CD is used to
rewrite the content or erase previous content and again write new content
many times.
2. DVD (Digital Video/Versatile Disc): A DVD is the same as a CD but with some more
features. A DVD comes in single and dual-layer formats. It has much greater storage capacity
in comparison to CD. The storage capacity of a DVD with one-sided single layer is – 4.7 GB,
one-sided double layer – 8.5 GB, double-sided single layer – 9.4 GB, and double-sided
double layer – 17 GB. There are also some types in DVDs, which are :
 DVD-ROM: In this type, the contents of the DVD cannot be written on or erased
by the user. DVD ROM is used for applications and database for distributing
them in large amounts.
 DVD-R / DVD+R: DVD-R (DVD minus R) and DVD+R (DVD plus R) are two
different kinds of discs and they are once recordable format. Also, they have no
difference virtually.
 DVD-RW / DVD+RW: This is a kind of rewritable disc and it allows up to 1,000
rewrites.
 DVD-RAM: DVD RAM is accessed like a hard disk. It provides high data
security and storage capacity. This is a kind of rewritable disc and it allows up to
1,00,000 rewrites.
3. Hard Disk: An hard disk is a non-volatile storage device that uses its read/write heads to
store digital data on a magnetic surface of a rigid plate. It is generally 3.5 inches in size for
desktops and 2.5 inches in size for laptops. A hard disk can be classified further into 3 types,
which are:
  Internal Hard Disk: It has a common storage capacity stated as GB or TB. A
system case or cabinet is the place where it is located. It can perform faster
operations and its storage is fixed. It is mainly used to store large data files and
programs.
 Internal Cartridges: The Internal hard disk can’t be removed from the system
cabinet easily. To resolve this problem Internal Cartridges are introduced. So,
Internal cartridges are easy to remove CDs. It has a storage capacity of 2 GB to
160 GB. It is used as an alternative to an internal hard disk.
 Hard Disk Packs: It is used by organizations such as banks, and government
sector organizations to store large amounts of data. It has a storage capacity of
a range of PB( Peta Bytes).
Hardware Components
Some important hardware devices known as the internal components are discussed below:
1. CPU (Central Processing Unit)
The CPU is also known as the heart of the computer. It consists of three units, generally
known as the control unit, Arithmetic Logical Unit (ALU), and the memory unit. Below is the
block diagram of the CPU is given:

As shown in the diagram input is given to the CPU through input devices. This input goes to
memory and the control unit gets instructions from memory. The control unit now decides
what to do with the input or instructions and transfers it to ALU. Now, ALU performs various
operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, logical operations, etc. After
that, the final result gets stored in memory and finally passed to output devices to give the
output. So, this is how the CPU works.
2. Motherboard
It is the main circuit board inside a computer and it contains most of the electronic
components together. All the components of the computer are directly or indirectly
connected to the motherboard. It includes RAM slots, controllers, system chipsets, etc.
3. RAM (Random Access Memory)
It is also known as temporary or volatile memory. It holds the program and data, which are
currently in process or processing. All the data is erased as soon as the computer is turned
off or in case of a power failure. Data stored in this memory can be changed. There are two
types of RAM:-
1. SRAM (Static RAM): SRAM basically consists of a flip-flop using a transistor or
Mosfet (MOS). It is fast and has less access time. In this refreshing circuits are
not required. But it is costly and requires more space. For e.g. cache memory.
2. DRAM (Dynamic RAM): DRAM consists of capacitors and the data is stored in
the form of capacitors. Capacitors charge when data is 1 and don’t charge if
data is 0. It requires refreshing circuits, as leakage of current in the capacitor
can occur, so they need to be refreshed to the data. It is slower and has a higher
access time. It is cheaper in comparison with SRAM. For e.g. Main memory.
4. Video Graphics Array Port
A video input commonly used on computer monitors is called a video graphics array (VGA)
port. Verifying that there isn’t a loose connection, a damaged cable, or a broken display is
one step in troubleshooting a VGA port. Compressed air can also be sprayed inside the VGA
port by a computer expert to make sure it’s dust-free.
5. Power Supply
All of a computer system’s parts are powered by a power source. Typically, a power cord is
used to connect a computer tower to an electrical outlet. By turning off the computer,
unplugging and separating the power supply cord, or trying a different cord or socket, a
technician can diagnose the power supply.
6. Cooling Fan
A computer’s system to prevent overheating uses cooling fans. To aid customers who use
their computers intensively, such as when streaming video or playing games, many
computers contain more than one cooling fan. If a user detects their computer overheating,
a computer expert might need to repair the cooling fan. The blades may be examined for
any damage and cleared of any foreign objects. A technician’s standard method
of troubleshooting may involve replacing computer fans.
7. Hard Drive
On a computer system, files, programs, and other types of information are stored on hard
drives, which are data storage devices. They utilise hard drives, which are magnetically
coated discs used to store digital versions of information. A computer technician can
suspect a corrupt hard disk when a hard drive dies.
Relationship Between Computer Hardware and Software
 Both the Hardware and software are mutually dependent on each other. Each
should function properly so that the computer produces an output.
 Software utilization can not be done without supporting of the hardware.
 Relevant software should be loaded into the hardware to get the latest
software.
 Hardware is a one-time expense while software is not.
  Software development is very expensive while hardware cant be developed if in
use once.
 Many software applications and their sub-applications can be loaded on
hardware to run different jobs.
 The software acts as an interface between the user and the hardware.

Functional units of computer

A computer consists of five functionally independent main parts input, memory, arithmetic
logic unit (ALU), output and control unit

Input device accepts the coded information as source program i.e. high level language. This is
either stored in the memory or immediately used by the processor to perform the desired
operations. The program stored in the memory determines the processing steps. Basically the
computer converts one source program to an object program. i.e. into machine language.
Finally the results are sent to the outside world through output device. All of these actions are
coordinated by the control unit.
Input unit: -
The source program/high level language program/coded information/simply data is fed to a
computer through input devices keyboard is a most common type. Whenever a key is pressed,
one corresponding word or number is translated into its equivalent binary code over a cable
& fed either to memory or processor. Joysticks, trackballs, mouse, scanners etc are other input
devices.
Memory unit: - Its function into store programs and data. It is basically to two types
1. Primary memory
2. Secondary memory
1. Primary memory: -
Is the one exclusively associated with the processor and operates at the electronics speeds
programs must be stored in this memory while they are being executed. The memory contains
a large number of semiconductors storage cells. Each capable of storing one bit of information.
These are processed in a group of fixed site called word. To provide easy access to a word in
memory, a distinct address is associated with each word location. Addresses are numbers that
identify memory location. Number of bits in each word is called word length of the computer.
Programs must reside in the memory during execution. Instructions and data can be written
into the memory or read out under the control of processor. Memory in which any location
can be reached in a short and fixed amount of time after specifying its address is called
random-access memory (RAM). The time required to access one word in called memory
access time. Memory which is only readable by the user and contents of which can’t be altered
is called read only memory (ROM) it contains operating system. Caches are the small fast RAM
units, which are coupled with the processor and are aften contained on the same IC chip to
achieve high performance. Although primary storage is essential it tends to be expensive.
2 Secondary memory: -
Is used where large amounts of data & programs have to be stored, particularly information
that is accessed infrequently. Examples: - Magnetic disks & tapes, optical disks (ie CD-ROM’s),
floppies etc., Arithmetic logic unit (ALU):- Most of the computer operators are executed in ALU
of the processor like addition, subtraction, division, multiplication, etc. the operands are
brought into the ALU from memory and stored in high speed storage elements called register.
Then according to the instructions the operation is performed in the required sequence. The
control and the ALU are may times faster than other devices connected to a computer system.
This enables a single processor to control a number of external devices such as key boards,
displays, magnetic and optical disks, sensors and other mechanical controllers. Output unit:-
These actually are the counterparts of input unit. Its basic function is to send the processed
results to the outside world. Examples:- Printer, speakers, monitor etc.
Control unit:-
It effectively is the nerve center that sends signals to other units and senses their states. The
actual timing signals that govern the transfer of data between input unit, processor, memory
and output unit are generated by the control unit. Basic operational concepts: - To perform a
given task an appropriate program consisting of a list of instructions is stored in the memory.
Individual instructions are brought from the memory into the processor, which executes the
specified operations. Data to be stored are also stored in the memory.

Examples: - Add LOCA, R0 This instruction adds the operand at memory location LOCA, to
operand in register R0 & places the sum into register.
This instruction requires the performance of several steps,
1. First the instruction is fetched from the memory into the processor.
2. The operand at LOCA is fetched and added to the contents of R0
3. Finally the resulting sum is stored in the register R0 The preceding add instruction combines
a memory access operation with an ALU Operations. In some other type of computers, these
two types of operations are performed by separate instructions for performance reasons. 3
Load LOCA, R1 Add R1, R0 Transfers between the memory and the processor are started by
sending the address of the memory location to be accessed to the memory unit and issuing
the appropriate control signals. The data are then transferred to or from the memory.

Computer components
Computer components are the essential building parts of developing a functional computer
system. The components that make up a computer are called computer components. The
processor (CPU), memory, and input/output devices are every computer's three main building
blocks. Initially computers were primarily used for numerical computations because any
information can be numerically encoded. The ability of computers to interpret information for
several purposes was quickly recognized.

There are 5 main computer components that are given below:

o Input Devices
o CPU
o Output Devices
o Primary Memory
o Secondary Memory

Let's look a bit further at each of them.

Input devices

A computer system's input devices are important because they allow users to enter
commands and data. Keyboards, mice, scanners, and microphones are numerous examples
of input devices.

o The keyboard is the most commonly utilized input device for inserting text and queries
into a computer system.
o Mice are another common input tool used to move the cursor on a computer screen.
o Scanners are used for inputting physical documents or images into a computer system.
o Microphones are used to input audio data into a system for computing. They can be
used for various tasks, including recording audio for podcasts, participating in video
conferences, and creating voice memos for later use.

CPU

A computer machine's "brain" is its central processing unit (CPU). It executes the calculations
and commands required for functioning of the computer device. The CPU comprises some
components: the control unit, the arithmetic logic unit (ALU), and registers.
 o The CPU's control unit is a crucial component. It is in charge of reading and decoding
instructions from memory. The right part of the CPU receives and executes these
instructions from the control unit.
o The ALU, often known as the arithmetic logic unit, is another crucial CPU part. The ALU
operates addition, subtraction, comparison calculations, and other logical and
mathematical processes. These operations are carried out using binary logic, which
limits operations to the 0 and 1 digits.
o Registers are compact, high-speed data and instruction storage spaces within the CPU.
They are utilized to store data that is being processed by the CPU momentarily.
Registers are used to accelerate data processing because they are much faster than
other forms of memory, such as RAM.
o The CPU's clock speed is yet another crucial aspect that affects overall performance.
The clock speed, measured in GHz (gigahertz), controls what number of commands
the integral processing unit can process in a second.

Modern CPUs also have additional features like cache memory, virtualization capability, and
a couple of cores in addition to the abovementioned components. A small, quick memory
called a cache is used to store data and instructions that are utilized frequently. A single CPU
may run numerous operating systems thanks to virtualization capability. The CPU can execute
numerous tasks simultaneously thanks to multiple cores, enhancing its performance and
multitasking capabilities.

Primary Memory

The CPU has direct access to primary memory, sometimes referred to as random access
memory (RAM). The data and instructions that are currently being processed are kept in
primary memory. The data and instructions are accessed by the CPU from primary memory
when a computer programme is running. The information is removed from primary memory
once the programme is completed.

Primary memory is classified into two types: random access memory (RAM) and read-only
memory (ROM).

o RAM is the most common form of primary memory and is used to store data and
instructions that the CPU wishes to access frequently. RAM is volatile, which means
that its contents are lost when the computer is turned off. But RAM can be effortlessly
and quickly written to and read from, making it a really perfect storage medium for
temporary data and instructions.
o ROM is a form of memory this is used to store data and instructions that don't change.
ROM is non-volatile, which means that its contents aren't lost while the computer is
turned off. ROM is used to keep firmware and the laptop's basic input/Output machine
(BIOS), that are required for the computer to boot up and function well.

Other primary memory types, including cache memory, are sometimes used in computer
systems. High-speed memory called cache saves information and instructions, which might
be utilized often. By lowering the time, the CPU has to wait for data to be received from RAM
or secondary storage devices, it is used to speed up the processing of records.
Secondary Memory:

Secondary memory, also called auxiliary storage, is a type of computer memory that is used
to store data and programs that aren't currently being utilized by the CPU. In contrast to
primary memory, secondary memory is non-volatile, which means that its contents are not
lost when the computer is turned off.

There are several types of secondary memory devices, such as hard disk drives (HDD), solid-
state drives (SSD), optical disks (including CDs and DVDs), and USB flash drives. These devices
have varying storage capacities, read and write speeds, and different capabilities that make
them appropriate for different types of applications.

o Hard disc drives are the most typical secondary memory tool in computing devices and
laptop computers. They come in various sizes and speeds and keep data on magnetic
discs. However, solid-state drives employ flash memory to store data and are typically
quicker and more reliable despite being extra high-priced than HDDs.
o Optical discs are a secondary memory that reads and writes data to discs using lasers.
They are frequently used for data backup, distribution of software, and other digital
information. Small, portable storage devices known as USB flash drives are connected
to a computer's USB connection.

Users can store a lot of data and programmes in secondary memory, which is useful since it
makes them accessible fast and readily when needed. Users can also protect crucial data from
loss due to system crashes or other issues by using secondary memory devices as backups.

Output Devices:

Output devices are hardware components of a computer system that are used to show or
send data from the pc to the user or any other device. They enable customers to view and
engage with the information and applications the computer is processing. Speakers,
projectors, printers, and monitors are a few examples of output devices.
 o Monitors are the most frequently used output devices used to show data on a
computer machine. They may be used to show photos, videos, and different forms of
data and exist in various sizes and resolutions.
o Printers are another form of output device this is used to print hard copies of papers
and other styles of data. They include inkjet and laser printers and are available in
various sizes and brands. While laser printers utilize toner to make speedy, high-
volume prints, inkjet printers employ liquid ink to produce high-quality prints.
o Speakers are used to output sound from a computer system. They can be connected
externally or incorporated into the computer system. They enable users to interact
with other forms of multimedia material, view videos, and listen to music.
o Projectors are output device that displays huge images and videos on a screen or wall.
They are frequently utilized in presentations and other occasions that call for a sizable
display.

Operations of Computer Components

The operations of computer components are given below:

Computer components collaborate to carry out the numerous tasks necessary for a computer
system to run. The following are some of the major operations carried out by computer
components:

1. Inputting: It is the process of entering raw data, instructions and information into the
computer. Keyboards, mice, and scanners are used as input devices to help with the
process. These tools are used to enter information and instructions into a computer
system. Data is transferred to the CPU for processing after inputting by an input device.
 2. Processing: It is the process of converting the raw data into useful information. This
process is performed by the CPU of the computer. It takes the raw data from storage,
processes it and then sends back the processed data to storage. The CPU performs
arithmetic computations, logical operations, and data transport processes.
3. Storing: The computer has primary memory and secondary storage to store data and
instructions. It stores the data before sending it to CPU for processing and also stores
the processed data before displaying it as output. The primary memory, sometimes
called RAM, is where the CPU processes the data and instructions. Hard disc drives and
solid-state drives, which serve as secondary memory, offer long-term storage for data
and programmes that are not currently used.
4. Outputting: It is the process of presenting the processed data through output devices
like monitor, printer and speakers. These devices display or produce the results of the
processing performed by the CPU. The results are sent to an output device for display
or printing after the CPU has finished processing the data and instructions.
5. Controlling: This operation is performed by the control unit that is part of CPU. The
control unit ensures that all basic operations are executed in a right manner and
sequence. The main circuit board connects all the parts of the computer. It also
regulates the data flow between them, ensuring they function properly and
connecting them all.

Performance Measures
In computer organization, performance refers to the speed and efficiency at which a
computer system can execute tasks and process data. A high-performing computer system
is one that can perform tasks quickly and efficiently while minimizing the amount of time
and resources required to complete these tasks.
There are several factors that can impact the performance of a computer system, including:
 Processor speed: The speed of the processor, measured in GHz (gigahertz),
determines how quickly the computer can execute instructions and process
data.
 Memory: The amount and speed of the memory, including RAM (random
access memory) and cache memory, can impact how quickly data can be
accessed and processed by the computer.
 Storage: The speed and capacity of the storage devices, including hard drives
and solid-state drives (SSDs), can impact the speed at which data can be stored
and retrieved.
 I/O devices: The speed and efficiency of input/output devices, such
as keyboards, mice, and displays, can impact the overall performance of the
system.
  Software optimization: The efficiency of the software running on the system,
including operating systems and applications, can impact how quickly tasks can
be completed.
Improving the performance of a computer system typically involves optimizing one or more
of these factors to reduce the time and resources required to complete tasks. This can
involve upgrading hardware components, optimizing software, and using specialized
performance-tuning tools to identify and address bottlenecks in the system.
Computer performance is the amount of work accomplished by a computer system. The
word performance in computer performance means “How well is the computer doing the
work it is supposed to do?”. It basically depends on the response time, throughput, and
execution time of a computer system. Response time is the time from the start to
completion of a task. This also includes:
 Operating system overhead.
 Waiting for I/O and other processes
 Accessing disk and memory
 Time spent executing on the CPU or execution time.
Throughput is the total amount of work done in a given time. CPU execution time is the
total time a CPU spends computing on a given task. It also excludes time for I/O or running
other programs. This is also referred to as simply CPU time. Performance is determined by
execution time as performance is inversely proportional to execution time.
Performance = (1 / Execution time)
And,
(Performance of A / Performance of B)
= (Execution Time of B / Execution Time of A)
If given that Processor A is faster than processor B, that means execution time of A is less
than that of execution time of B. Therefore, performance of A is greater than that of
performance of B. Example – Machine A runs a program in 100 seconds, Machine B runs
the same program in 125 seconds
(Performance of A / Performance of B)
= (Execution Time of B / Execution Time of A)
= 125 / 100 = 1.25
That means machine A is 1.25 times faster than Machine B. And, the time to execute a given
program can be computed as:
Execution time = CPU clock cycles x clock cycle time
Since clock cycle time and clock rate are reciprocals, so,
Execution time = CPU clock cycles / clock rate
The number of CPU clock cycles can be determined by,
CPU clock cycles
= (No. of instructions / Program ) x (Clock cycles / Instruction)
= Instruction Count x CPI
Which gives,
Execution time
= Instruction Count x CPI x clock cycle time
= Instruction Count x CPI / clock rate
Units for CPU Execution Time

How to Improve Performance?

To improve performance you can either:
 Decrease the CPI (clock cycles per instruction) by using new Hardware.
 Decrease the clock time or Increase clock rate by reducing propagation delays
or by use pipelining.
 Decrease the number of required cycles or improve ISA or Compiler.

Execution Upgrade Procedures

The Exhibition upgrade on computer chip execution time is worked with by the
accompanying variables in a significant manner.
1.Internal Engineering of the computer chip
2.Instruction Arrangement of the central processor
3.Memory Speed and transmission capacity
4.Percentage utilization of the registers in execution (note: Registers are something like
multiple times quicker than memory).
Further, the accompanying highlights of a framework likewise improve the general
presentation:
Compositional Augmentations (Register set/GPRs/Register Document)
1.Special guidelines and tending to modes
2.Status register contents
3.Program control stack
4.Pipelining
5.Multiple degrees of Store Memory
6.Use of co-processors or particular equipment for Drifting Point tasks, Vector handling,
Media handling.
7.Virtual Memory and Memory the executives Unit execution.
8.System Transport execution.
9.Super Scalar Handling

Uses and Benefits of Performance of Computer

Some of the key uses and benefits of a high-performing computer system include:
 Increased productivity: A high-performing computer can help increase
productivity by reducing the time required to complete tasks, allowing users to
complete more work in less time.
 Improved user experience: A fast and efficient computer system can provide a
better user experience, with smoother operation and fewer delays or
interruptions.
 Faster data processing: A high-performing computer can process data more
quickly, enabling faster access to critical information and insights.
 Enhanced gaming and multimedia performance: High-performance computers
are better suited for gaming and multimedia applications, providing smoother
and more immersive experiences.
 Better efficiency and cost savings: By optimizing the performance of a
computer system, it is possible to reduce the time and resources required to
complete tasks, leading to better efficiency and cost savings.

Chapter-2
2.1 Fundamentals to instruction
Instruction
Set of commands that we give to processor to which task to do and how to perform that task.

So whatever be the processor (like X86,AMD,intel Pentium etc.) it will perform the task
according to the instruction on the basis of provided commands.

Instruction has 3 parts

Types of instruction
1. Data transfer instruction
2. Data manipulation instruction
3. Program control instruction
1. Data transfer instruction
We can assume that according to the name, if we want to transfer data then these
instruction we can use
MOV,LD,STA,XCHG, PUSH, POP etc.

If we want to transfer the data between the register to register, register to memory & vice-
versa, memory to memory, from input device to O/P device & vice-versa then we need the
help of these instruction.

2.Data manipulation instruction

Whenever we want to change to change the existing data we can take the help of the
operation in order to perform addition, subtraction, multiplication, AND, OR, Left shift etc.
- Arithmetic (+,-,*,/)
- Logical(AND, OR ,NOT, NOR, NAND, XOR)
- Shift/conversion(left shift, right shift, binary to decimal, octal to hexadecimal etc.)
3.Program control instruction
Whenever we want to use the decision making or control or repetitive statement based
instruction we can go for these instruction
- Decision making(if, if-else, nested-if)
- Control statement(do, do-while, for)
2.2 Opcode

- Opcode stands for operation code

- It is the first part of the instruction that tells the computer what function/task is to be
perform

E.g. MOV, ADD, SUB etc.

2.3 Operand

- it is the second part of the instruction which indicates the computer system with whom the
task is going to perform/where to store the data/where to manipulate the data

- operand may be register, memory or constant

E.g.: MOV R1, R2
Here R1 & R2 are the operand
2.4 Instruction format

These consists of 3 parts

1.addressing mode – in which instruction mode we are going to perform the instruction
2.operation code – what is the operation code

3.operand – what are the operand , to whom with perform the operation

Instruction Formats (Zero, One, Two and Three Address Instruction)

In computer organization, instruction formats refer to the way instructions are encoded and
represented in machine language. There are several types of instruction formats, including
zero, one, two, and three-address instructions.
Each type of instruction format has its own advantages and disadvantages in terms of code
size, execution time, and flexibility. Modern computer architectures typically use a
combination of these formats to provide a balance between simplicity and power.

What are the Different Types of Filed in Instruction?

A computer performs a task based on the instruction provided. Instruction in computers
comprises groups called fields. These fields contain different information for computers
everything is in 0 and 1 so each field has different significance based on which a CPU decides
what to perform. The most common fields are:
  The operation field specifies the operation to be performed like addition.
 Address field which contains the location of the operand, i.e., register or
memory location.
 Mode field which specifies how operand is to be founded.
Instruction is of variable length depending upon the number of addresses it contains.
Generally, CPU organization is of three types based on the number of address fields:
 Single Accumulator organization
 General register organization
 Stack organization
In the first organization, the operation is done involving a special register called the
accumulator. In the second multiple registers are used for the computation purpose. In the
third organization the work on stack basis operation due to which it does not contain any
address field. Only a single organization doesn’t need to be applied, a blend of various
organizations is mostly what we see generally.
Types of Instructions
Based on the number of addresses, instructions are classified as:
NOTE: We will use the X = (A+B)*(C+D) expression to showcase the procedure.

Zero Address Instructions

These instructions do not specify any operands or addresses. Instead, they operate on data
stored in registers or memory locations implicitly defined by the instruction. For example,
a zero-address instruction might simply add the contents of two registers together without
specifying the register names.

Zero Address Instruction

A stack-based computer does not use the address field in the instruction. To evaluate an
expression first it is converted to reverse Polish Notation i.e. Postfix Notation.
Expression: X = (A+B)*(C+D)
Postfixed : X = AB+CD+*
TOP means top of stack
M[X] is any memory location

PUSH A TOP = A

PUSH B TOP = B

ADD TOP = A+B

PUSH C TOP = C

PUSH D TOP = D

ADD TOP = C+D

MUL TOP = (C+D)*(A+B)

POP X M[X] = TOP

One Address Instructions

These instructions specify one operand or address, which typically refers to a memory
location or register. The instruction operates on the contents of that operand, and the result
may be stored in the same or a different location. For example, a one-address instruction
might load the contents of a memory location into a register.
This uses an implied ACCUMULATOR register for data manipulation. One operand is in the
accumulator and the other is in the register or memory location. Implied means that the
CPU already knows that one operand is in the accumulator so there is no need to specify it.

One Address Instruction

Expression: X = (A+B)*(C+D)
AC is accumulator
M[] is any memory location
M[T] is temporary location

LOAD A AC = M[A]

ADD B AC = AC + M[B]

STORE T M[T] = AC

LOAD C AC = M[C]

ADD D AC = AC + M[D]

MUL T AC = AC * M[T]

STORE X M[X] = AC

Two Address Instructions

These instructions specify two operands or addresses, which may be memory locations or
registers. The instruction operates on the contents of both operands, and the result may be
stored in the same or a different location. For example, a two-address instruction might add
the contents of two registers together and store the result in one of the registers.
This is common in commercial computers. Here two addresses can be specified in the
instruction. Unlike earlier in one address instruction, the result was stored in the
accumulator, here the result can be stored at different locations rather than just
accumulators, but require more number of bit to represent the address.

Two Address Instruction

Here destination address can also contain an operand.

Expression: X = (A+B)*(C+D)
R1, R2 are registers
M[] is any memory location
 MOV R1, A R1 = M[A]

ADD R1, B R1 = R1 + M[B]

MOV R2, C R2 = M[C]

ADD R2, D R2 = R2 + M[D]

MUL R1, R2 R1 = R1 * R2

MOV X, R1 M[X] = R1

Three Address Instructions

These instructions specify three operands or addresses, which may be memory locations or
registers. The instruction operates on the contents of all three operands, and the result may
be stored in the same or a different location. For example, a three-address instruction might
multiply the contents of two registers together and add the contents of a third register,
storing the result in a fourth register.
This has three address fields to specify a register or a memory location. Programs created
are much short in size but number of bits per instruction increases. These instructions make
the creation of the program much easier but it does not mean that program will run much
faster because now instructions only contain more information but each micro-operation
(changing the content of the register, loading address in the address bus etc.) will be
performed in one cycle only.

Three Address Instruction

Expression: X = (A+B)*(C+D)
R1, R2 are registers
M[] is any memory location
 ADD R1, A, B R1 = M[A] + M[B]

ADD R2, C, D R2 = M[C] + M[D]

MUL X, R1, R2 M[X] = R1 * R2

Advantages of Zero-Address, One-Address, Two-Address and Three-

Address Instructions
Zero-address instructions
 They are simple and can be executed quickly since they do not require any
operand fetching or addressing. They also take up less memory space.
One-address instructions
 They allow for a wide range of addressing modes, making them more flexible
than zero-address instructions. They also require less memory space than two
or three-address instructions.
Two-address instructions
 They allow for more complex operations and can be more efficient than one-
address instructions since they allow for two operands to be processed in a
single instruction. They also allow for a wide range of addressing modes.
Three-address instructions
 They allow for even more complex operations and can be more efficient than
two-address instructions since they allow for three operands to be processed in
a single instruction. They also allow for a wide range of addressing modes.

Disadvantages of Zero-Address, One-Address, Two-Address and Three-

Address Instructions
Zero-address instructions
 They can be limited in their functionality and do not allow for much flexibility in
terms of addressing modes or operand types.
One-address instructions
 They can be slower to execute since they require operand fetching and
addressing.
Two-address instructions
 They require more memory space than one-address instructions and can be
slower to execute since they require operand fetching and addressing.
Three-address instructions
 They require even more memory space than two-address instructions and can
be slower to execute since they require operand fetching and addressing.
2.5 Addressing Modes
The term addressing modes refers to the way in which the operand of an instruction is
specified. The addressing mode specifies a rule for interpreting or modifying the address
field of the instruction before the operand is actually executed.
Types of addressing modes
1. Implied addressing mode
2. Immediate addressing mode
3. Register addressing mode
4. Register indirect addressing mode
5. Auto increment decrement addressing mode
6. Direct addressing mode
7. Indirect addressing mode
8. Relative addressing mode
9. Base register addressing mode
10. Indexed addressing mode

1. Implied addressing mode

- Operand is specified implicitly in the definition of the instruction
- Used for zero address & one-address instruction
- Means the value of operand is implicitly defined in the instruction itself

E.g. INC A
CLC (used to reset Carry flag to 0)

2. Immediate addressing mode

Operand is directly provided as constant in this addressing mode.

No computation required to calculate effective address because the value of constant is
same throughout the program.
Here we don’t go to any address location or any register, we are dealing with only constants
E.g.: ADD R1, #3

3.Register addressing mode

Operand is present in the register

Register number is present in the instruction.
We have to go to the register no. as specified by the instruction ,pick the value & execute
the instruction as specified by the opcode

4.Register indirect addressing mode

Register contains the address of operand rather than operand itself

5.Auto increment & auto decrement addressing mode

In the case of auto increment mode, the content present in the register is initially
incremented, and then the content that is incremented in the register is used in the form of
an effective address. Once the content present in the register in the auto-increment
addressing mode is accessed by its instruction, the content of the register is incremented to
refer to the next operand.
In the case of auto decremented mode, the content present in the register is initially
decremented, and then the content that is decremented in the register is used in the form of
an effective address. Once the content present in the register in the auto- decrement
addressing mode is accessed by its instruction, the content of the register is decremented to
refer to the next operand.

6.Direct addressing mode

In this addressing mode actual address given in the instruction. CPU reads the address, goes
to the address & fetches the data

Eg: Add R1, (1001)

Here 1001 is the address where the operand is stored.

7.Indirect addressing mode

Used to implement pointers & implement parameters
Here, the address field in the instruction contains the memory location or register where
the effective address of the operand is present
Two memory access is required

8.Relative addressing mode

This mode is another version of the displacement address mode. The program counter’s
content is added to the instruction’s address part to obtain the effective address.

EA = A + (PC)
Here, EA: Effective address, PC: program counter.

9.Base register addressing mode

This addressing mode is used to relocate the program.

In our PC/laptop we have limited RAM & it can contain/handle limited number of programs.
So to avoid this limitation we have switch in and switch out in between programs. So in this
switch in/switch out process programs get different address
10.Indexed addressing mode

Indexed addressing means that the final address for the data is determined by adding an
offset to a base address.
This memory address mode is ideal to store and access values stored in arrays. Arrays are
often stored as a complete block in memory (A block of consecutive memory locations). The
array has a base address which is the location of the first element, then an index is used that
adds an offset to the base address in order to fetch the specified element within the array.
Chapter-3
Register File

Program counter
Program counter stores the address of the next instruction to be executed which is going to
perform.
So program counter contains the address, as it is containing the address the size of the
Program counter depends upon size of address bits
Instruction Cycle
Memory address registers(MAR) : It is connected to the address lines of the system bus. It
specifies the address in memory for a read or write operation.
Memory Buffer Register(MBR) : It is connected to the data lines of the system bus. It
contains the value to be stored in memory or the last value read from the memory.
Program Counter(PC) : Holds the address of the next instruction to be fetched.
Instruction Register(IR) : Holds the last instruction fetched.
In computer organization, an instruction cycle, also known as a fetch-decode-execute
cycle, is the basic operation performed by a central processing unit (CPU) to execute an
instruction. The instruction cycle consists of several steps, each of which performs a
specific function in the execution of the instruction. The major steps in the instruction
cycle are:
1. Fetch: In the fetch cycle, the CPU retrieves the instruction from memory. The
instruction is typically stored at the address specified by the program counter
(PC). The PC is then incremented to point to the next instruction in memory.
2. Decode: In the decode cycle, the CPU interprets the instruction and determines
what operation needs to be performed. This involves identifying the opcode
and any operands that are needed to execute the instruction.
3. Execute: In the execute cycle, the CPU performs the operation specified by the
instruction. This may involve reading or writing data from or to memory,
performing arithmetic or logic operations on data, or manipulating the control
flow of the program.
4. There are also some additional steps that may be performed during the
instruction cycle, depending on the CPU architecture and instruction set:
5. Fetch operands: In some CPUs, the operands needed for an instruction are
fetched during a separate cycle before the execute cycle. This is called the fetch
operands cycle.
6. Store results: In some CPUs, the results of an instruction are stored during a
separate cycle after the execute cycle. This is called the store results cycle.
7. Interrupt handling: In some CPUs, interrupt handling may occur during any
cycle of the instruction cycle. An interrupt is a signal that the CPU receives from
 an external device or software that requires immediate attention. When an
interrupt occurs, the CPU suspends the current instruction and executes an
interrupt handler to service the interrupt.
These cycles are the basic building blocks of the CPU’s operation and are performed for
every instruction executed by the CPU. By optimizing these cycles, CPU designers can
improve the performance and efficiency of the CPU, allowing it to execute instructions
faster and more efficiently.
The Instruction Cycle –
Each phase of Instruction Cycle can be decomposed into a sequence of elementary micro-
operations. In the above examples, there is one sequence each for the Fetch, Indirect,
Execute and Interrupt Cycles.

The Indirect Cycle is always followed by the Execute Cycle. The Interrupt Cycle is always
followed by the Fetch Cycle. For both fetch and execute cycles, the next cycle depends on
the state of the system.
 The Fetch Cycle –
At the beginning of the fetch cycle, the address of the next instruction to be
executed is in the Program Counter(PC).
 Step 1: The address in the program counter is moved to the memory address
register(MAR), as this is the only register which is connected to address lines of
the system bus.

 Step 2: The address in MAR is placed on the address bus, now the control unit
issues a READ command on the control bus, and the result appears on the data
bus and is then copied into the memory buffer register(MBR). Program counter
is incremented by one, to get ready for the next instruction. (These two action
can be performed simultaneously to save time)
 Step 3: The content of the MBR is moved to the instruction register(IR).

 Thus, a simple Fetch Cycle consist of three steps and four micro-operation.
Symbolically, we can write these sequence of events as follows:-
Hardware control
It is a control unit that uses a fixed set of logic gates & circuits to execute the instruction
The control signals for each instruction are hardwared into control unit, so the control unit
has a dedicated circuit for each possible instructions.
Hardwared control units are complex & fast but they can be inflexible & difficult to modify

The control hardware can be viewed as a state machine that changes from one state to
another in every clock cycle, depending on the contents of the instruction register, condition
codes & external I/P.
The o/p of the state machine are the control signals.

RISC architecture based on hardwared control unit

Microprogram control
It is a control unit that uses a microcode to execute instruction. The microcode is a set of
instructions that can be modified/updated allowing for greater flexibility & ease of
modification
The control signals for each instruction are generated by a microprogram that is stored in
memory rather than being hardwared into the control unit
Microprogram control unit are slower than the hardwared control unit because they require
an extra step of decoding the microcode to generate computer signals but they are more
flexible &,easier to modify.
They are commonly used in modern CPUs because they allow for easier implementation of
complex instruction sets & better support for instruction set extension
Hardware control vs microprogram control
Parameter Hardware control microprogram control
implementation Fixed set of logic gates & circuits Micro code stored in memory
Flexibility Less flexible, difficult to modify More flexible, easy to modify
Instruction set Supports limited instruction Supports complex instruction
Complexity of Complex design, hard to implement Simple design & easy to implement
design
Speed Faster operation Slower execution due to microcode
Debugging & Difficult to debug & test Easy to debug & test
testing
Size & cost Large size, high cost Small size, low cost
Maintenance & Difficult to upgrade & maintain Easy to upgrade & maintain
upgradability
Chapter-4
Memory characteristics
1. Capacity: It is the global volume of information the memory can store. As we move
from top to bottom in the Hierarchy, the capacity increases.
2. Access Time: It is the time interval between the read/write request and the
availability of the data. As we move from top to bottom in the Hierarchy, the access
time increases.
3. Performance: Earlier when the computer system was designed without a Memory
Hierarchy design, the speed gap increased between the CPU registers and Main
Memory due to a large difference in access time. This results in lower performance
of the system and thus, enhancement was required. This enhancement was made in
the form of Memory Hierarchy Design because of which the performance of the
system increases. One of the most significant ways to increase system performance
is minimizing how far down the memory hierarchy one has to go to manipulate data.
4. Cost Per Bit: As we move from bottom to top in the Hierarchy, the cost per bit
increases i.e. Internal Memory is costlier than External Memory.
Reliability – It is related to the lifetime of the device. Measured as Mean Time Between
Failure (MTBF), in the units of days/years. Ex: Think of how frequently you replace your Hard
disk while the CPU is still usable.

Memory hierarchy
In the Computer System Design, Memory Hierarchy is an enhancement to organize the
memory such that it can minimize the access time. The Memory Hierarchy was developed
based on a program behavior known as locality of references. The figure below clearly
demonstrates the different levels of the memory hierarchy.
Why Memory Hierarchy is Required in the System?
Memory Hierarchy is one of the most required things in Computer Memory as it helps in
optimizing the memory available in the computer. There are multiple levels present in the
memory, each one having a different size, different cost, etc. Some types of memory like
cache, and main memory are faster as compared to other types of memory but they are
having a little less size and are also costly whereas some memory has a little higher storage
value, but they are a little slower. Accessing of data is not similar in all types of memory,
some have faster access whereas some have slower access.
Types of Memory Hierarchy
This Memory Hierarchy Design is divided into 2 main types:
 External Memory or Secondary Memory: Comprising of Magnetic Disk, Optical
Disk, and Magnetic Tape i.e. peripheral storage devices which are accessible by
the processor via an I/O Module.
 Internal Memory or Primary Memory: Comprising of Main Memory, Cache
Memory & CPU registers. This is directly accessible by the processor.
Memory Hierarchy Design

1. Registers

Registers are small, high-speed memory units located in the CPU. They are used to store the
most frequently used data and instructions. Registers have the fastest access time and the
smallest storage capacity, typically ranging from 16 to 64 bits.

2. Cache Memory

Cache memory is a small, fast memory unit located close to the CPU. It stores frequently
used data and instructions that have been recently accessed from the main memory. Cache
memory is designed to minimize the time it takes to access data by providing the CPU with
quick access to frequently used data.

3. Main Memory
Main memory, also known as RAM (Random Access Memory), is the primary memory of a
computer system. It has a larger storage capacity than cache memory, but it is slower. Main
memory is used to store data and instructions that are currently in use by the CPU.
Types of Main Memory
 Static RAM: Static RAM stores the binary information in flip flops and
information remains valid until power is supplied. It has a faster access time and
is used in implementing cache memory.
 Dynamic RAM: It stores the binary information as a charge on the capacitor. It
requires refreshing circuitry to maintain the charge on the capacitors after a few
milliseconds. It contains more memory cells per unit area as compared to SRAM.

4. Secondary Storage

Secondary storage, such as hard disk drives (HDD) and solid-state drives (SSD), is a non-
volatile memory unit that has a larger storage capacity than main memory. It is used to store
data and instructions that are not currently in use by the CPU. Secondary storage has the
slowest access time and is typically the least expensive type of memory in the memory
hierarchy.

5. Magnetic Disk

Magnetic Disks are simply circular plates that are fabricated with either a metal or a plastic
or a magnetized material. The Magnetic disks work at a high speed inside the computer and
these are frequently used.

6. Magnetic Tape

Magnetic Tape is simply a magnetic recording device that is covered with a plastic film. It is
generally used for the backup of data. In the case of a magnetic tape, the access time for a
computer is a little slower and therefore, it requires some amount of time for accessing the
strip.

Advantages of Memory Hierarchy

 It helps in removing some destruction, and managing the memory in a better
way.
 It helps in spreading the data all over the computer system.
 It saves the consumer’s price and time.

RAM & ROM ORGANISATION

Memory is the most essential element of a computing system because without it computer
can’t perform simple tasks. Both types of memory (RAM and ROM) are important for the
computer, but they serve different purposes. RAM is used to store data that the computer
is currently using, while ROM is used to store data that the computer needs to boot and
operate. RAM is faster than ROM, as the data stored in it can be accessed and modified in
any order, while data stored in ROM can only be read.
Computer memory is of two basic types:
1. Primary memory (RAM and ROM)
2. Secondary memory (Hard Drive, CD, etc).

Random Access Memory (RAM)

 It is also called read-write memory or the main memory or the primary memory.
 The programs and data that the CPU requires during the execution of a program
are stored in this memory.
 It is a volatile memory as the data is lost when the power is turned off.
Types of Random Access Memory (RAM)

 Static RAM (SRAM)

 Dynamic RAM (DRAM)
1. Static RAM: SRAM stands for Static Random Access Memory. It is a type of semiconductor
which is widely used in computing devices and microprocessors.
2. Dynamic RAM: DRAM stands for Dynamic Random Access Memory. It is made of
Capacitors and has smaller data life span than Static RAM.

Advantages of Random Access Memory (RAM)

 Speed: RAM is much faster than other types of storage, such as a hard drive or
solid-state drive, which means that the computer can access the data stored in
RAM more quickly.
 Flexibility: RAM is volatile memory, which means that the data stored in it can
be easily modified or deleted. This makes it ideal for storing data that the
computer is currently using or processing.
 Capacity: The capacity of RAM can be easily upgraded, which allows the
computer to store more data in memory and thus improve performance.
 Power Management: RAM consumes less power compared to hard drives, and
solid-state drives, which makes it an ideal memory for portable devices.
Disadvantages of Random Access Memory (RAM)

 Volatility: RAM is volatile memory, which means that the data stored in it is lost
when the power is turned off. This can be a problem for important data that
needs to be preserved, such as unsaved work or files that have not been backed
up.
 Capacity: The capacity of RAM is limited, and although it can be upgraded, it may
still not be sufficient for certain applications or tasks that require a lot of memory.
 Cost: RAM can be relatively expensive compared to other types of memory, such
as hard drives or solid-state drives, which can make upgrading the memory of a
computer or device more costly.

Read-Only Memory (ROM)

 Stores crucial information essential to operate the system, like the program
essential to boot the computer.
 It is non-volatile.
 Always retains its data.
 Used in embedded systems or where the programming needs no change.
 Used in calculators and peripheral devices.
 ROM is further classified into four types- MROM, PROM, EPROM, and EEPROM.

Types of Read-Only Memory (ROM)

1. PROM (Programmable Read-Only Memory)
 2. EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory)
3. EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory)
4. MROM (Mask Read Only Memory)
1. PROM (Programmable read-only memory): It can be programmed by the user. Once
programmed, the data and instructions in it cannot be changed.
2. EPROM (Erasable Programmable read-only memory): It can be reprogrammed. To erase
data from it, expose it to ultraviolet light. To reprogram it, erase all the previous data.
3. EEPROM (Electrically erasable programmable read-only memory): The data can be
erased by applying an electric field, with no need for ultraviolet light. We can erase only
portions of the chip.
4. MROM(Mask ROM): Mask ROM is a kind of read-only memory, that is masked off at the
time of production. Like other types of ROM, mask ROM cannot enable the user to change
the data stored in it. If it can, the process would be difficult or slow.

Advantages of Read Only Memory (ROM)

 Non-volatility: ROM is non-volatile memory, which means that the data stored
in it is retained even when the power is turned off. This makes it ideal for storing
data that does not need to be modified, such as the BIOS or firmware for other
hardware devices.
 Reliability: Because the data stored in ROM is not easily modified, it is less prone
to corruption or errors than other types of memory.
 Power Management: ROM consumes less power compared to other types of
memory, which makes it an ideal memory for portable devices.

Disadvantages of Read Only Memory (ROM)

 Limited Flexibility: ROM is read-only memory, which means that the data stored
in it cannot be modified. This can be a problem for applications or firmware that
need to be updated or modified.
 Limited Capacity: The capacity of ROM is typically limited, and upgrading it can
be difficult or expensive.
 Cost: ROM can be relatively expensive compared to other types of memory, such
as hard drives or solid-state drives, which can make upgrading the memory of a
computer or device more costly.

Difference between RAM and ROM

Virtual memory
Virtual memory is a memory management technique where secondary memory can be used
as if it were a part of the main memory. Virtual memory is a common technique used in a
computer's operating system (OS).
Virtual memory uses both hardware and software to enable a computer to compensate for
physical memory shortages, temporarily transferring data from random access memory (RAM)
to disk storage. Mapping chunks of memory to disk files enables a computer to treat
secondary memory as though it were main memory.
Today, most personal computers (PCs) come with at least 8 GB (gigabytes) of RAM. But,
sometimes, this is not enough to run several programs at one time. This is where virtual
memory comes in. Virtual memory frees up RAM by swapping data that has not been used
recently over to a storage device, such as a hard drive or solid-state drive (SSD).
Virtual memory is important for improving system performance, multitasking and using large
programs. However, users should not overly rely on virtual memory, since it is considerably
slower than RAM. If the OS has to swap data between virtual memory and RAM too often, the
computer will begin to slow down -- this is called thrashing.
Virtual memory was developed at a time when physical memory -- also referenced as RAM --
was expensive. Computers have a finite amount of RAM, so memory will eventually run out
when multiple programs run at the same time. A system using virtual memory uses a section
of the hard drive to emulate RAM. With virtual memory, a system can load larger or multiple
programs running at the same time, enabling each one to operate as if it has more space,
without having to purchase more RAM.

How virtual memory works

Virtual memory uses both hardware and software to operate. When an application is in use,
data from that program is stored in a physical address using RAM. A memory management
unit (MMU) maps the address to RAM and automatically translates addresses. The MMU can,
for example, map a logical address space to a corresponding physical address.
If, at any point, the RAM space is needed for something more urgent, data can be swapped
out of RAM and into virtual memory. The computer's memory manager is in charge of keeping
track of the shifts between physical and virtual memory. If that data is needed again, the
computer's MMU will use a context switch to resume execution.

While copying virtual memory into physical memory, the OS divides memory with a fixed
number of addresses into either pagefiles or swap files. Each page is stored on a disk, and
when the page is needed, the OS copies it from the disk to main memory and translates the
virtual addresses into real addresses.
However, the process of swapping virtual memory to physical is rather slow. This means using
virtual memory generally causes a noticeable reduction in performance. Because of swapping,
computers with more RAM are considered to have better performance.
What are the benefits of using virtual memory?

The advantages to using virtual memory include:

 It can handle twice as many addresses as main memory.

 It enables more applications to be used at once.
 It frees applications from managing shared memory and saves users from having to
add memory modules when RAM space runs out.
 It has increased speed when only a segment of a program is needed for execution.
 It has increased security because of memory isolation.
 It enables multiple larger applications to run simultaneously.
 Allocating memory is relatively inexpensive.
 It does not need external fragmentation.
 CPU use is effective for managing logical partition workloads.
 Data can be moved automatically.
 Pages in the original process can be shared during a fork system call operation that
creates a copy of itself.

In addition to these benefits, in a virtualized computing environment, administrators can use

virtual memory management techniques to allocate additional memory to a virtual machine
(VM) that has run out of resources. Such virtualization management tactics can improve VM
performance and management flexibility.

Cache memory
Cache Memory is a special very high-speed memory. The data or contents of the main
memory that are used frequently by CPU are stored in the cache memory so that the
processor can easily access that data in a shorter time. Whenever the CPU needs to access
memory, it first checks the cache memory. If the data is not found in cache memory, then the
CPU moves into the main memory.

Cache memory is placed between the CPU and the main memory. The block diagram for a
cache memory can be represented as:

The cache is the fastest component in the memory hierarchy and approaches the speed of
CPU components.
Cache memory is organised as distinct set of blocks where each set contains a small fixed
number of blocks.

Characteristics of Cache Memory

Cache memory is an extremely fast memory type that acts as a buffer between RAM and
the CPU.
Cache Memory holds frequently requested data and instructions so that they are
immediately available to the CPU when needed.
Cache memory is costlier than main memory or disk memory but more economical than
CPU registers.

Cache Memory is used to speed up and synchronize with a high-speed CPU.

Levels of Memory
Level 1 or Register: It is a type of memory in which data is stored and accepted that are
immediately stored in the CPU. The most commonly used register is Accumulator, Program
counter, Address Register, etc.
Level 2 or Cache memory: It is the fastest memory that has faster access time where data
is temporarily stored for faster access.
Level 3 or Main Memory: It is the memory on which the computer works currently. It is
small in size and once power is off data no longer stays in this memory.
Level 4 or Secondary Memory: It is external memory that is not as fast as the main memory
but data stays permanently in this memory .

Cache Performance
When the processor needs to read or write a location in the main memory, it first checks
for a corresponding entry in the cache.

If the processor finds that the memory location is in the cache, a Cache Hit has occurred and
data is read from the cache.

If the processor does not find the memory location in the cache, a cache miss has occurred.
For a cache miss, the cache allocates a new entry and copies in data from the main memory,
then the request is fulfilled from the contents of the cache.

The performance of cache memory is frequently measured in terms of a quantity called Hit
ratio.

Hit Ratio(H) = hit / (hit + miss) = no. of hits/total accesses

Miss Ratio = miss / (hit + miss) = no. of miss/total accesses = 1 - hit ratio(H)
We can improve Cache performance using higher cache block size, and higher associativity,
reduce miss rate, reduce miss penalty, and reduce the time to hit in the cache.

Application of Cache Memory

Here are some of the applications of Cache Memory.
1. Primary Cache: A primary cache is always located on the processor chip. This
cache is small and its access time is comparable to that of processor registers.
2. Secondary Cache: Secondary cache is placed between the primary cache and the
rest of the memory. It is referred to as the level 2 (L2) cache. Often, the Level 2
cache is also housed on the processor chip.
3. Spatial Locality of Reference: Spatial Locality of Reference says that there is a
chance that the element will be present in close proximity to the reference point
and next time if again searched then more close proximity to the point of
reference.
 4. Temporal Locality of Reference: Temporal Locality of Reference uses the Least
recently used algorithm will be used. Whenever there is page fault occurs within
a word will not only load the word in the main memory but the complete page
fault will be loaded because the spatial locality of reference rule says that if you
are referring to any word next word will be referred to in its register that’s why
we load complete page table so the complete block will be loaded.
Advantages of Cache Memory
 Cache Memory is faster in comparison to main memory and secondary memory.
 Programs stored by Cache Memory can be executed in less time.
 The data access time of Cache Memory is less than that of the main memory.
 Cache Memory stored data and instructions that are regularly used by the CPU,
therefore it increases the performance of the CPU.
Disadvantages of Cache Memory
 Cache Memory is costlier than primary memory and secondary memory.
 Data is stored on a temporary basis in Cache Memory.
 Whenever the system is turned off, data and instructions stored in cache
memory get destroyed.
 The high cost of cache memory increases the price of the Computer System.

Interleaved Memory

Interleaved memory is designed to compensate for the relatively slow speed of dynamic
random-access memory (DRAM) or core memory by spreading memory addresses evenly
across memory banks. In this way, contiguous memory reads and writes use each memory
bank, resulting in higher memory throughput due to reduced waiting for memory banks to
become ready for the operations.
It is different from multi-channel memory architectures, primarily as interleaved memory does
not add more channels between the main memory and the memory controller. However,
channel interleaving is also possible, for example, in Freescale i.MX6 processors, which allow
interleaving to be done between two channels. With interleaved memory, memory addresses
are allocated to each memory bank.
Example of Interleaved Memory
It is an abstraction technique that divides memory into many modules such that successive
words in the address space are placed in different modules.
Suppose we have 4 memory banks, each containing 256 bytes, and then the Block Oriented
scheme (no interleaving) will assign virtual addresses 0 to 255 to the first bank and 256 to 511
to the second bank. But in Interleaved memory, virtual address 0 will be with the first bank, 1
with the second memory bank, 2 with the third bank and 3 with the fourth, and then 4 with
the first memory bank again.
Chapter – 5
Input-Output Interface
When we type something from our keyboard, the input data is transferred to the computer's
CPU, and the screen displays the output data. But how does our computer's CPU or processors
share information with the external Input-Output devices? Well, we can achieve this with the
input-output Interface.
The Input-output interface allows transferring information between external input/output
devices (i.e., peripherals) and processors. This article will discuss the Input-Output Interface,
its structure, and function.

The input-output interface allows transferring information between external input/output

devices (i.e., peripherals) and processors. A peripheral device provides input/output for the
computer, and it is also known as an Input-Output device.
This input-output interface in a computer system exists in a particular hardware component
between the system's bus and peripherals. This component is known as the "interface unit".
The below figure shows a typical input-output interface between the processor and different
peripherals:

1. In the above figure, we see that every peripheral device has an interface unit
associated with it.
2. For example, A mouse or keyboard that provides input to the computer is called an
input device while a printer or monitor that provides output to the computer is called
an output device.

Why Input-Output Interface

We require the input-output Interface because many differences exist between each
peripheral and the central computer while transferring data. Some significant differences
between the peripheral and CPU are:
 The nature of the CPU is electronic, and that of the peripheral device is electro-
mechanical and electromagnetic. So, we can see many differences in the mode
of operation of both CPU and peripheral devices.
  We have a synchronization mechanism because the data transfer rate is slower
in peripheral devices than CPU.
 In peripheral devices, data code and formats differ from the format in the CPU.
 The operating modes of peripheral devices are different, and each can be
controlled not to disturb the operation of any other peripheral devices connected
to the CPU.

Functions of Input-Output Interface

The primary functions of the input-output Interface are listed below:
 It can synchronize the operating speed of the CPU to peripherals.
 It selects the peripheral appropriate for the interpretation of the input-output
devices.
 It provides signals like timing and control signals.
 In this, data buffering may be possible through the data bus.
 It has various error detectors.
 It can convert serial data into parallel and vice versa.
 It can convert digital data into analogue signals and vice versa.
I/O Bus and Interface Modules
I/O buses are the routes used for peripheral devices to interact with the processor. A typical
connection of the I/O buses to I/O devices is displayed in the figure.

The I/O buses include control lines, address lines, and data lines. In any general computer, the
printer, keyboard, magnetic disk, and display terminal are commonly connected. Every
peripheral unit has an interface associated with it. Every interface decodes the address and
control received from the I/O bus.
It can describe the control and address received from the computer peripheral and supports
signals for the computer peripheral controller. It can also conduct the transfer of information
or data between peripheral and processor and can also integrate the data flow.
The I/O buses are linked to all the peripheral interfaces from the computer processor. The
processor locates a device address on the address line for interaction with a specific device.
Every interface contains an address decoder that monitors the address lines, attached to the
I/O bus.
When the interface recognizes the address, it activates the direction between the bus and the
device that it controls. The interface will disable the peripherals whose address is not
equivalent to the address in the bus.

Modes of Transfer in COA

In computer organization and architecture, the "modes of transfer" refer to the
different methods used for transferring data between components of a computer
system
In computer organization and architecture (COA), there are several modes of transfer, but
three of the most common are:
1. Programmed I/O transfer
2. Interrupt-driven transfer
3. Direct Memory Access (DMA)
1. Programmed I/O transfer
Programmed I/O transfer is a data transfer mode in computer organization and architecture.
In this mode of transfer, data is transferred between an I/O device and the computer's
memory under the control of a program. The central processing unit (CPU) actively manages
the transfer, sending commands to the I/O device to initiate the transfer and monitor its
progress.
In a programmed I/O transfer, the CPU sends a command to the I/O device to initiate the
transfer and then waits for the transfer to complete. During the transfer, the CPU cannot
perform other tasks as it is busy managing the transfer.
Programmed I/O transfer provides low-level control over the transfer, as the CPU can issue
commands to the I/O device to control the transfer. This can be useful for certain applications
where fine-grained control over the transfer is required. However, it also means that the CPU
is tied up during the transfer, potentially slowing down other tasks that the computer
performs.
Programmed I/O transfer is typically slower than other transfer modes, such as direct memory
access (DMA). However, it can still be useful in certain situations, such as when low-level
control over the transfer is required or when the amount of data is small.

Programmed I/O transfer works as follows:

1. The CPU sends a command to the I/O device to initiate the transfer. This command may
specify the transfer direction (i.e., from memory to the I/O device or from the I/O device to
memory), the starting address in memory where the data is to be stored or retrieved, and the
number of bytes to be transferred.
2. The I/O device receives the command and begins the transfer. It transfers the data to or
from the specified memory location, one byte at a time.
3. The CPU repeatedly polls the status register of the I/O device to monitor the progress of
the transfer. The status register contains information about the current state of the I/O
device, including whether the transfer is complete.
4. When the transfer is complete, the I/O device sets a flag in the status register to indicate
that the transfer is done. The CPU reads the status register, and when it sees the flag, it knows
that the transfer is complete.
5. The CPU can resume other tasks after the transfer is finished. In programmed I/O transfer,
the CPU manages the transfer and monitors its progress. This allows for low-level control over
the transfer but also means that the CPU is tied up during the transfer and cannot perform
other tasks. Programmed I/O transfer is typically slower than other transfer modes, such as
direct memory access (DMA), as the CPU must repeatedly poll the status register to monitor
the transfer.
Here are a few examples of how programmed I/O transfer might be used in a computer system:
1. Keyboard input: When a user types on the keyboard, the keyboard sends a signal to the
CPU indicating that data is ready for transfer. The CPU uses programmed I/O transfer to
receive the data from the keyboard, one character at a time.
2. Serial communication: When a computer communicates with another device over a serial
connection, the CPU uses programmed I/O transfer to send and receive data. The CPU sends
a command to the serial communication device to initiate the transfer and then waits for the
transfer to complete.
3. Disk I/O: When a computer reads data from a disk or writes data to a disk, the CPU uses
programmed I/O transfer to transfer the data. The CPU sends a command to the disk
controller to initiate the transfer and then waits for the transfer to complete.
4. Display output: When a computer displays data on a screen, the CPU uses programmed
I/O transfer to send the data to the display adapter. The CPU sends a command to the display
adapter to initiate the transfer and then waits for the transfer to complete.
These are just a few examples of how programmed I/O transfer might be used in a computer
system. The specific details of the transfer will vary depending on the I/O device and the
architecture of the computer system.
Advantages of Programmed I/O Transfer
1. Flexibility: Programmed I/O transfer allows for fine-grained control over the transfer. The
CPU can issue commands to the I/O device to control the transfer, which can be useful for
certain applications requiring low-level control.
2. Compatibility: Programmed I/O transfer works with a wide range of I/O devices, making it
a versatile transfer mode.
3. Debugging: As the CPU actively manages the transfer, diagnosing and fixing problems that
may occur during the transfer is easier.
4. Simple Implementation: Programmed I/O transfer can be implemented using simple
programming constructs, such as loops and status register polling.
5. Cost Effective: Programmed I/O transfer does not require specialized hardware, making it
a cost-effective solution for transferring data in certain situations.
These are just a few advantages of programmed I/O transfer. The advantages will
depend on the particular system used and the application's requirements.

Disadvantages of Programmed I/O transfer:

1. Slow performance: As the CPU must manage the transfer and poll the status register,
programmed I/O transfer is slower than other transfer modes, such as direct memory access
(DMA).
2. CPU utilization: During the transfer, the CPU is tied up, which can negatively impact the
system's overall performance.
3. Complexity: Implementing programmed I/O transfer can be more complex than other
modes of transfer, such as DMA, which can make it more difficult to diagnose and fix problems
that may occur during the transfer.
4. Lack of scalability: Programmed I/O transfer could be better suited for high-speed
transfers, as the CPU cannot manage multiple transfers simultaneously.
5. Limited to low-level control: While the low-level control offered by programmed I/O
transfer can be an advantage in some cases, it can also be a disadvantage, as it does not allow
for higher-level abstractions that may be desirable for certain applications.

2. Interrupt-driven I/O Transfer

The interrupt-driven transfer is a data transfer mode in computer organization and
architecture. In this transfer mode, the CPU is notified of incoming data through an interrupt
request. An interrupt is a signal sent to the CPU indicating that an I/O device has data ready
for transfer.
When the CPU receives an interrupt, it suspends its current task and handles it. The CPU
communicates with the I/O device to initiate the data transfer and then waits for the transfer
to complete. Once the transfer is complete, the CPU returns to its previous task.
The interrupt-driven transfer balances the control offered by programmed I/O transfer and
the speed offered by direct memory access (DMA). The CPU controls the transfer, but the
transfer occurs in the background, freeing up the CPU to perform other tasks. This transfer
mode is commonly used in systems requiring high-speed data transfer and low-level control
over the transfer. Examples include keyboard input, serial communication, disk I/O, and
display output.
Interrupt-driven transfer works as follows:
1. The CPU sends a command to the I/O device to initiate the transfer. Depending on the
specific device, this command could be as simple as a write to a control register or more
complex.
2. The I/O device responds to the command by making the data available for transfer.
3. The CPU polls the status register of the I/O device to determine when the data is ready for
transfer.
4. When the data is ready, the CPU transfers the data from the I/O device to memory or from
memory to the I/O device, one word at a time.
5. The CPU repeats the process until all data has been transferred.
In programmed I/O transfer, the CPU actively manages the transfer, providing fine-grained
control. However, this also means that the CPU is tied up during the transfer, which can
negatively impact performance.

Here are a few examples of Interrupt-driven transfer

The interrupt-driven transfer is a common data transfer mode in computer organization and
architecture used in various applications. Here are a few examples:
1. Keyboard Input: When a user presses a key on the keyboard, an interrupt is generated to
notify the CPU that data is ready for transfer. The CPU handles the interrupt, reads the data
from the keyboard, and stores it in memory.
2. Serial Communication: When a serial device, such as a modem or a serial-to-USB converter,
has data ready to transfer, it generates an interrupt to notify the CPU. The CPU handles the
interrupt, reads the data from the device, and stores it in memory.
3. Disk I/O: When a disk drive has data to transfer, it generates an interrupt to notify the CPU.
The CPU handles the interrupt, reads the data from the disk drive, and stores it in memory.
4. Display Output: When the graphics card has data to transfer to the display, it generates an
interrupt to notify the CPU. The CPU handles the interrupt, reads the data from the graphics
card, and transfers it to the display.
These are just a few examples of the many applications that use interrupt-driven transfer. The
specific applications will depend on the particular system being used and the application's
requirements.

Here are a few advantages of Interrupt-driven transfer

The interrupt-driven transfer has several advantages over other modes of data transfer,
including:
1. Improved System Performance: Interrupt-driven transfer allows the CPU to perform other
tasks while waiting for the I/O transfer to complete, which can result in improved system
performance.
2. Real-time Processing: Interrupt-driven transfer can be used for real-time processing, as the
CPU is notified immediately when data is ready for transfer. This can be important for
applications that require the timely processing of data.
3. Lower CPU Overhead: Unlike programmed I/O transfer, interrupt-driven transfer requires
less CPU overhead, as the CPU is not constantly polling the status register of the I/O device.
4. Dynamic Load Balancing: Interrupt-driven transfer allows the CPU to dynamically balance
the load between processing tasks and I/O tasks, as it can handle interrupts as they occur.
5. Improved Responsiveness: Interrupt-driven transfer improves responsiveness, as the CPU
can quickly respond to incoming data. This is especially important in interactive applications,
such as games or multimedia applications.
Overall, the interrupt-driven transfer provides a balance between the control offered by
programmed I/O transfer and the speed offered by direct memory access (DMA), making it a
versatile mode of data transfer in computer organization and
architecture.

Here are a few disadvantages of Interrupt-driven transfer

Like any mode of data transfer, the interrupt-driven transfer has its disadvantages as well,
including:
1. Complexity: Interrupt-driven transfer can be more complex to implement than other
transfer modes, as it requires interrupting handlers and managing interrupt priority levels.
2. Latency: Interrupt-driven transfer can introduce latency into the system, as the CPU must
handle the interrupt and perform the data transfer. This can be especially problematic in real-
time applications that require fast response times.
3. Overhead: Interrupt-driven transfer introduces additional overhead into the system, as the
CPU must handle the interrupt and perform the data transfer. This can be especially
problematic in systems with limited processing power.
4. Unpredictable Interrupt Latency: The latency associated with interrupt-driven transfer can
be unpredictable, as it can be affected by the number of other interrupts being processed by
the CPU at the time.
5. Error Handling: Error handling can be more complex in interrupt-driven transfer, as errors
can occur at any point in the transfer.
Overall, interrupt-driven transfer is a powerful mode of data transfer in computer
organization and architecture, but it requires careful consideration of the
trade-offs between performance, complexity, and overhead.

Direct Memory Access (DMA)

Direct Memory Access (DMA) is a data transfer method in computer organization and
architecture that allows an I/O device to transfer data directly to or from memory without
the involvement of the CPU. DMA allows I/O devices to transfer data to or from memory at
high speeds without putting additional strain on the CPU.
In DMA, a DMA controller is used to manage data transfer between the I/O device and
memory. The DMA controller is responsible for setting up the transfer, starting it, and
monitoring it to ensure it is completed successfully. The CPU is not involved in the actual data
transfer but is notified when it is complete.
DMA is often used for high-bandwidth I/O devices, such as disk drives, network interfaces,
and graphics cards, where the CPU is not fast enough to manage the data transfer in real time.
DMA allows these devices to transfer data to or from memory at high speeds without putting
additional strain on the CPU.
Direct Memory Access (DMA) works as follows:
1. Initialization: The CPU initializes the DMA transfer by setting up the source and destination
addresses, the size of the transfer, and any other relevant parameters.
2. Request: The I/O device requests a DMA transfer by asserting a request signal to the DMA
controller.
3. Grant: The DMA controller grants the request and starts the transfer by asserting a grant
signal to the I/O device.
4. Data Transfer: The I/O device transfers the data directly to or from memory without
involving the CPU. The DMA controller manages the transfer and provides necessary
addresses and control signals.
5. Completion: When the transfer is complete, the I/O device asserts a completion signal to
the DMA controller. The DMA controller then informs the CPU that the transfer is complete.
The CPU can perform other tasks during the transfer as the DMA controller handles the data
transfer. This allows the CPU to improve its overall performance and responsiveness.
Overall, DMA provides a high-speed data transfer method that allows I/O devices to transfer
data to or from memory without putting additional strain on the CPU. This improves system
performance and responsiveness, especially for high-bandwidth I/O devices.

Some examples of Direct Memory Access (DMA) in action:

1. Disk Drives: DMA is often used for disk drives, where high-speed data transfer is
critical for good performance. DMA allows disk drives to transfer data to or from
memory at high speeds without putting additional strain on the CPU.
2. Network Interfaces: Network interfaces also use DMA to transfer data to or from
memory at high speeds. This allows the CPU to handle other tasks while the network
interface performs the data transfer.
3. Graphics Cards: Graphics cards use DMA to transfer large amounts of video data to
or from memory. This allows the GPU to render images quickly without putting
additional strain on the CPU.
4. Sound Cards: Sound cards use DMA to transfer audio data to or from memory,
which allows the CPU to handle other tasks while the sound card is playing or recording
audio.
5. Peripheral Devices: Many peripheral devices, such as printers, scanners, and USB
devices, also use DMA to transfer data to or from memory. This allows the CPU to
handle other tasks while the peripheral device performs the data transfer.
These are just a few examples of Direct Memory Access (DMA). DMA is widely used in
computer systems to provide high-speed data transfer for I/O devices, which helps to
improve system performance and responsiveness.

Advantages of Direct Memory Access (DMA):

1. Improved Performance: DMA allows I/O devices to transfer data directly to or from
memory at high speeds without involving the CPU. This improves system performance and
responsiveness, especially for high-bandwidth I/O devices.
2. CPU Offload: By handling the data transfer, DMA reduces the load on the CPU. This allows
the CPU to perform other tasks more efficiently and improves system performance.
3. High Bandwidth: DMA provides a high-speed method of data transfer that is well suited to
high-bandwidth I/O devices. This results in improved system performance and responsiveness
for these devices.
4. Increased Efficiency: DMA allows I/O devices to transfer data directly to or from memory
without CPU intervention. This results in increased efficiency and improved system
performance.
5. Real-time Processing: DMA is often used for real-time processing applications, such as
audio and video playback, where high-speed data transfer is critical for good performance.
Overall, DMA provides a high-speed data transfer method that allows I/O devices to transfer
data to or from memory without putting additional strain on the CPU.
This results in improved system performance and responsiveness and makes DMA a key
component of many computer systems.

Disadvantages of Direct Memory Access (DMA):

1. Complexity: DMA requires a significant amount of hardware and software support, which
makes the overall system more complex and difficult to manage.
2. Resource Management: DMA requires careful management of system resources, such as
memory and I/O device access, to ensure that data transfers do not interfere with other
system operations.
3. Latency: In some cases, DMA may introduce latency into the system, as the CPU may have
to wait for the DMA transfer to complete before it can perform other tasks.
4. Security Risks: DMA provides direct access to memory, which can introduce security risks
if the system is not properly secured. For example, malware or other malicious software could
use DMA to bypass security measures and access sensitive data.
5. Interrupt Latency: DMA can introduce additional interrupt latency into the system, as the
CPU may have to handle additional interrupt requests from the DMA controller.
These are a few disadvantages of Direct Memory Access (DMA). While DMA provides many
benefits for computer systems, it is important to consider these limitations and design
systems accordingly to ensure that the advantages of DMA outweigh the disadvantages.
Conclusion
In conclusion, the transfer mode in Computer Organization and Architecture is a critical aspect
of the overall system design. There are three main transfer modes: Programmed I/O transfer,
Interrupt-driven transfer, and Direct Memory Access (DMA).
Programmed I/O transfer is a straightforward data transfer method, but it can put a heavy
load on the CPU and result in low system performance.
The interrupt-driven transfer is more efficient than Programmed I/O transfer but can
introduce additional interrupt latency into the system.
Direct Memory Access (DMA) is the most efficient and high-performance data transfer
method. DMA allows I/O devices to transfer data directly to or from memory without
involving the CPU, resulting in improved system performance and responsiveness. However,
DMA is also the most complex and challenging transfer mode, requiring careful system
resource management and addressing potential security risks.
Each transfer mode has its advantages and disadvantages, and the appropriate mode of
transfer for a particular system will depend on its specific requirements and design
constraints. Understanding the modes of transfer and their benefits and limitations is crucial
for effective computer organization and architecture design.

Input-Output Processor
The DMA mode of data transfer reduces the CPU’s overhead in handling I/O operations. It
also allows parallelism in CPU and I/O operations. Such parallelism is necessary to avoid the
wastage of valuable CPU time while handling I/O devices whose speeds are much slower as
compared to CPU. The concept of DMA operation can be extended to relieve the CPU
further from getting involved with the execution of I/O operations. This gives rise to the
development of special purpose processors called Input-Output Processor (IOP) or IO
channels.
The Input-Output Processor (IOP) is just like a CPU that handles the details of I/O operations.
It is more equipped with facilities than those available in a typical DMA controller. The IOP
can fetch and execute its own instructions that are specifically designed to characterize I/O
transfers. In addition to the I/O-related tasks, it can perform other processing tasks like
arithmetic, logic, branching, and code translation. The main memory unit takes a pivotal
role. It communicates with the processor by means of DMA.
The Input-Output Processor is a specialized processor which loads and stores data in
memory along with the execution of I/O instructions. It acts as an interface between the
system and devices. It involves a sequence of events to execute I/O operations and then
store the results in memory.
Features of an Input-Output Processor
 Specialized Hardware: An IOP is equipped with specialized hardware that is
optimized for handling input/output operations. This hardware includes
input/output ports, DMA controllers, and interrupt controllers.
 DMA Capability: An IOP has the capability to perform Direct Memory Access
(DMA) operations. DMA allows data to be transferred directly between
peripheral devices and memory without going through the CPU, thereby freeing
up the CPU for other tasks.
 Interrupt Handling: An IOP can handle interrupts from peripheral devices and
manage them independently of the CPU. This allows the CPU to focus on
executing application programs while the IOP handles interrupts from peripheral
devices.
 Protocol Handling: An IOP can handle communication protocols for different
types of devices such as Ethernet, USB, and SCSI. This allows the IOP to interface
with a wide range of devices without requiring additional software support from
the CPU.
 Buffering: An IOP can buffer data between the CPU and peripheral devices. This
allows the IOP to handle large amounts of data without overloading the CPU or
the peripheral devices.
 Command Processing: An IOP can process commands from peripheral devices
independently of the CPU. This allows the CPU to focus on executing application
programs while the IOP handles peripheral device commands.
 Parallel Processing: An IOP can perform input/output operations in parallel with
the CPU. This allows the system to handle multiple tasks simultaneously and
improve overall system performance.
Applications of I/O Processors
 Data Acquisition Systems: I/O processors can be used in data acquisition systems
to acquire and process data from various sensors and input devices. The I/O
processor can handle high-speed data transfer and perform real-time processing
of the acquired data.
 Industrial Control Systems: I/O processors can be used in industrial control
systems to interface with various control devices and sensors. The I/O processor
can provide precise timing and control signals, and can also perform local
processing of the input data.
 Multimedia Applications: I/O processors can be used in multimedia applications
to handle the input and output of multimedia data, such as audio and video. The
I/O processor can perform real-time processing of multimedia data, including
decoding, encoding, and compression.
 Network Communication Systems: I/O processors can be used in network
communication systems to handle the input and output of data packets. The I/O
processor can perform packet routing, filtering, and processing, and can also
perform encryption and decryption of the data.
 Storage Systems: I/O processors can be used in storage systems to handle the
input and output of data to and from storage devices. The I/O processor can
handle high-speed data transfer and perform data caching and prefetching
operations.

Advantages of Input-Output Processor

 The I/O devices can directly access the main memory without the intervention of
the processor in I/O processor-based systems.
 It is used to address the problems that arise in the Direct memory access method.
 Reduced Processor Workload: With an I/O processor, the main processor
doesn’t have to deal with I/O operations, allowing it to focus on other tasks. This
results in more efficient use of the processor’s resources and can lead to faster
overall system performance.
 Improved Data Transfer Rates: Since the I/O processor can access memory
directly, data transfers between I/O devices and memory can be faster and more
efficient than with other methods.
 Increased System Reliability: By offloading I/O tasks to a dedicated processor,
the system can be made more fault-tolerant. For example, if an I/O operation
fails, it won’t affect other system processes.
 Scalability: I/O processor-based systems can be designed to scale easily, allowing
for additional I/O processors to be added as needed. This can be particularly
useful in large-scale data centres or other environments where the number of
I/O devices is constantly changing.
 Flexibility: I/O processor-based systems can be designed to handle a wide range
of I/O devices and interfaces, providing more flexibility in system design and
allowing for better customization to meet specific requirements.
Disadvantages of Input-Output Processor
 Cost: I/O processors can add significant costs to a system due to the additional
hardware and complexity required. This can be a barrier to adoption, especially
for smaller systems.
 Increased Complexity: The addition of an I/O processor can increase the overall
complexity of a system, making it more difficult to design, build, and maintain.
This can also make it harder to diagnose and troubleshoot issues.
 Limited Performance Gains: While I/O processors can improve system
performance by offloading I/O tasks from the main processor, the gains may not
be significant in all cases. In some cases, the additional overhead of the I/O
processor may actually slow down the system.
 Synchronization Issues: With multiple processors accessing the same memory,
synchronization issues can arise, leading to potential data corruption or other
errors.
 Lack of Standardization: There are many different I/O processor architectures
and interfaces available, which can make it difficult to develop standardized
software and hardware solutions. This can limit interoperability and make it
harder for vendors to develop compatible products.
Chapter – 6

Input-Output Interface
Introduction
When we type something from our keyboard, the input data is transferred to the computer's
CPU, and the screen displays the output data. But how does our computer's CPU or processors
share information with the external Input-Output devices? Well, we can achieve this with the
input-output Interface.
The Input-output interface allows transferring information between external input/output
devices (i.e., peripherals) and processors. This article will discuss the Input-Output Interface,
its structure, and function.

The input-output interface allows transferring information between external input/output

devices (i.e., peripherals) and processors. A peripheral device provides input/output for the
computer, and it is also known as an Input-Output device.
This input-output interface in a computer system exists in a particular hardware component
between the system's bus and peripherals. This component is known as the "interface unit".
The below figure shows a typical input-output interface between the processor and different
peripherals:

1. In the above figure, we see that every peripheral device has an interface unit
associated with it.
2. For example, A mouse or keyboard that provides input to the computer is called an
input device while a printer or monitor that provides output to the computer is called
an output device.

What Is A System Bus?

 A bus is a set of electrical wires (lines) that connects the various hardware components
of a computer system.
 It works as a communication pathway through which information flows from one
hardware component to the other hardware component.
  Bus structures in computer plays important role in connecting the internal
components of the computer. The bus in the computer is the shared transmission
medium. This means multiple components or devices use the same bus structure to
transmit the information signals to each other.

Components Of A System Bus-

The system bus consists of three major components-

 Data Bus
 Address Bus
 Control Bus

Address Lines:
 Used to carry the address to memory and IO.
 Unidirectional.
 Based on the width of an address bus we can determine the capacity of a main
memory
 The width of the address bus determines the memory capacity of the system.
The content of address lines is also used for addressing I/O ports. The higher-
order bits determine the bus module, and the lower-ordered bits determine
the address of memory locations or I/O ports.

 The content of the address lines of the bus determines the source or
destination of the data present on the data bus. The number of address lines
together is referred to as the address bus. The number of address lines in
the address bus determines its width.
  Whenever the processor has to read a word from memory, it simply places
the address of the corresponding word on the address line.

Data Lines

 Data lines coordinate in transferring the data among the system

components. The data lines are collectively called data bus. A data bus may
have 32 lines, 64 lines, 128 lines, or even more lines. The number of lines
present in the data bus defines the width of the data bus.

 Each data line is able to transfer only one bit at a time. So the number of
data lines in a data bus determines how many bits it can transfer at a time.
The performance of the system also depends on the width of the data bus.

 Used to carry the binary data between the CPU, memory and IO.
 Bidirectional.
 Based on the width of a data bus we can determine the word length of a CPU.
 Based on the word length we can determine the performance of a CPU.

Control Lines:
 Used to carry the control signals and timing signals
 Control signals indicate the type of operation. The control signal consists
of the command and timing information
 Timing Signals are used to synchronize the memory and IO operations with
a CPU clock.
 Typical Control Lines may include Memory Read/Write, IO Read/Write, Bus
Request/Grant, etc.

Basic parameters of Bus Design

1) Bus Types
2) Method of Arbitration
3) Timing
4) Bus Width
5) Data Transfer Type
6) Block Data Transfer
1) Bus Types
A) Dedicated
 A line is permanently assigned either to one function.
 An example of functional dedication is the use of separate dedicated
address and data line.
B) Multiplexed
 Using the same lines for multiple purpose.
 Eg:- Address and data information may be transmitted over the same set of
lines.
 At the beginning of the data transfer the address is placed on the bus and
the address valid line is activated.
 The address is then remove from the same bus line is used for data transfer.
C) Physical Dedication
 The use of multiple buses, each of which connects to only a subset of
modules.

2) Method of Arbitration
 Determining who can use the bus at a particular time.
A) Centralized
 A single hardware device called the bus controller or arbiter allocate time on
the bus.
 The device may be a separate or a part of a processor.
B) Distributed
 There is no centralized controllers.
 Each module contains assess control logic and the modules act together.

3) Timing
A) Synchronous Timing
 Bus includes a clock line upon which a clock transmits a regular sequence of
alternating 1's and 0's
 A single 1-0 transition is referred to as a clock cycle or bus cycle.
 All other devices on the bus can read the clock line.
 All events start at the beginning of a clock cycle
B) Asynchronous Timing

 The occurrence of one event on a bus follows and depends on the occurrence
of a previous event.
 Harder to implement and text than synchronous timing.
4) Bus Width
 The width of data bus has an impact on the databus has an impact on the
system performance.
 The wider data bus, the greater number of bit transferred at one time.
 The wider address bus, the greater range of location that can be referenced.
5) Data Transfer Type
 Read-Modify-Write : A read followed immediately by a write to the same
address.
 Read-After-Write : Consisting of a write followed immediately by a read
from the same address (for error checking purposes).

6) Block Data Transfer

 One address cycle followed by n data cycles.
 First data item to or from specified address.
 Remaining data items to or from subsequent addresses.

Small Computer systems interface (SCSI)

What Does Small Computer System Interface Mean?

A small computer systems interface (SCSI) is a standard interface for connecting peripheral
devices to a PC. Depending on the standard, generally it can connect up to 16 peripheral
devices using a single bus including one host adapter. SCSI is used to increase performance,
deliver faster data transfer transmission and provide larger expansion for devices such as CD-
ROM drives, scanners, DVD drives and CD writers. SCSI is also frequently used with RAID,
servers, high-performance PCs and storage area networks SCSI has a controller in charge of
transferring data between the devices and the SCSI bus. It is either embedded on the
motherboard or a host adapter is inserted into an expansion slot on the motherboard. The
controller also contains SCSI basic input/output system, which is a small chip providing the
required software to access and control devices. Each device on a parallel SCSI bus must be
assigned a number between 0 and 7 on a narrow bus or 0 and 15 on a wider bus. This number
is called an SCSI ID. Newer serial SCSI IDs such as serial attached SCSI (SAS) use an automatic
process assigning a 7-bit number with the use of serial storage architecture initiators.
USB was designed to standardize the connection of peripherals like pointing devices,
keyboards, digital still, and video cameras. But soon devices such as printers, portable media
players, disk drives, and network adaptors to personal computers used USB to communicate
and to supply electric power. It is commonplace to many devices and has largely replaced
interfaces such as serial ports and parallel ports. USB connectors have replaced other types
of battery chargers for portable devices with themselves.
USB(Universal Serial Bus)
Universal Serial Bus (USB) is an industry standard that establishes specifications for
connectors, cables, and protocols for communication, connection, and power supply
between personal computers and their peripheral devices. There have been 3 generations
of USB specifications:
 USB 1.x
 USB 2.0
 USB 3.x
The first USB was formulated in the mid-1990s. USB 1.1 was announced in 1995 and
released in 1996. It was too popular and grab the market till about the year 2000. In the
duration of USB 1.1 Intel announced a USB host controller and Philips announced USB audio
for isochronous communication with consumer electronics devices.
In April of 2000, USB 2.0 was announced. USB 2.0 has multiple updates and additions. The
USB Implementer Forum (USB IF) currently maintains the USB standard and it was released
in 1996.

Where are the USB ports?

In modern times, all computers contain at least one USB port in different locations. Below, a
list is given that contains USB port locations on the devices that may help you out to find
them.

Laptop computer: A laptop computer may contain one to four ports on the left or right side,
and some laptops have on the behind of the laptop computer.

Desktop computer: Usually, a desktop computer has 2 to 4 USB ports in the front and 2 to 8
ports on the backside.

Tablet computer: On the tablet, a USB connection is situated in the charging port and is
sometimes USB-C and usually micro USB.

Smartphone: In the form of micro USB or USB-C, a USB port is used for both data transfer and
charging, similar to tablets on smartphones.

USB connector types

There are different shapes and sizes available for the USB connector. Also, there are
numerous versions of USB connectors, such as Mini USB, Micro USB, etc.
1. Mini -USB: Mini USB is used with digital cameras and computer peripherals and
divided into A-type, B-type and AB-type. It is also known as mini-B and is the most
common type of interface. On the latest devices, Micro-USB and USB-C cables have
largely replaced the mini-USB. It transfers data and power between two devices as it
is made of coaxial cable. Also, it is applied to MP3 players, digital cameras, and mobile
hard drives. In a mini USB cable, one-end is a much smaller quadrilateral hub, and the
other end is a standard flat-head USB hub. Thus, it is easily plugged into mobile
devices. The mini USB can also be used to transfer data between computers with at
least one USB port but is mainly used for charging devices. It includes two advantages:
Waterproofness and Portability.
2. Micro-USB: It is a reduced version of the USB (Universal Serial Bus). It was announced
in 2007 and designed to replace mini-USB and developed for connecting compact and
mobile devices such as digital cameras, smartphones, GPS devices, Mp3 players and
photo printers.
Micro A, micro B and micro USB 3 are the three varieties of Micro-USB. The type
Micro-A and Micro-B have a connector size of 6.85 x 1.8 mm, although the Micro-A
connector has a greater maximum overmild size. USB 3 micro is more similar to micro
B, but it has better speed as compared to micro B because it includes an additional
collection of pins on the side for twice the wires. Micro versions are hot-swappable,
and plug-and-play like standard USB and micro-USB is still widely used with electronic
devices.
3. USB Type-C: On most modern newer Android smartphones and other USB-connected
devices, a USB Type-C cable is a relatively new type of connector. It is used for
delivering data and power to computing devices. As compared to other forms of USB
 connections, USB-C cables are reversible; they can be plugged either way in the
devices, whether they are upside down.

USB transfer speed

o USB 1.0 is capable of supporting up to 127 peripheral devices and also able to support
data transfer rates of 12 Mbps as it is an external bus standard.
o In 2001, USB 2.0 was developed by Phillips, Lucent, Microsoft, Hewlett Packard, Intel,
NEC, and Compaq that is also known as hi-speed USB. It has the ability to support a
transfer rate of 60 megabytes per second or up to 480 Mbps (megabits per second).
o In November 2009, USB 3.0 was available for the first time by Buffalo Technology,
which is also called as SuperSpeed USB. But until January 2010, the first certified
devices were not available. The performance and increased speed in USB 3.0, also
helped to improve upon the USB 2.0 technology, power management and increased
bandwidth capability.
It includes a feature to offer two unidirectional data paths to send and receive data in
one go. It can support transfer rates of 640 megabytes per second, or up to 5.0 gigabits
per second (Gbps). Its name was changed to USB 3.1 Gen1 for making purposes after
releasing the USB 3.1. The first certified devices were designed with motherboards of
Gigabyte and ASUS Technology. In April 2011, Dell started to introduce USB 3.0 ports
with their Dell XPS and Inspiron series of computers.
o USB 3.1 is the latest version of the USB protocol that was made available till 31 July
2013, which is also known as SuperSpeed It can support transfer rates of up to 10
Gbps. Nowadays, USB 3.0 and 3.1 revisions are used by various devices to improve
speed and performance.

USB version compatibility

Every version of the USB port can support any version of USB (Universal Serial Bus), as it has
the ability to compatible with both backward and forward. For example, devices are able to
work in a 3.0 designing with USB 1.1 and 2.0 technology. Even though USB 3.0 is capable of
higher speed, devices with lower versions run at their native transfer speed. Therefore, if a
USB 3.1 device is connected with a USB 2.0 port, its max transfer rate is limited to that of the
2.0 port.
Parallel processing
Parallel processing is a computing technique when multiple streams of calculations or data
processing tasks co-occur through numerous central processing units (CPUs) working
concurrently. This article explains how parallel processing works and examples of its
application in real-world use cases.

What Is Parallel Processing?

Parallel processing is a computing technique when multiple streams of calculations or data
processing tasks co-occur through numerous central processing units (CPUs) working
concurrently.

Pictorial Representation of Parallel Processing and its Inner Workings

Parallel processing uses two or more processors or CPUs simultaneously to handle various
components of a single activity. Systems can slash a program’s execution time by dividing a
task’s many parts among several processors. Multi-core processors, frequently found in
modern computers, and any system with more than one CPU are capable of performing
parallel processing.
For improved speed, lower power consumption, and more effective handling of several
activities, multi-core processors are integrated circuit (IC) chips with two or more CPUs. Most
computers can have two to four cores, while others can have up to twelve. Complex
operations and computations are frequently completed in parallel processing.

How Does Parallel Processing Work?

In general, parallel processing refers to dividing a task between at least two microprocessors.
The idea is very straightforward: a computer scientist uses specialized software created for
the task to break down a complex problem into its component elements. Then, they designate
a specific processor for each part. To complete the entire computing problem, each processor
completes its portion. The software reassembles the data to solve the complex initial
challenge.
When processing is done in parallel, a big job is broken down into several smaller jobs better
suited to the number, size, and type of available processing units. After the task is divided,
each processor starts working on its part without talking to the others. Instead, they use
software to stay in touch with each other and find out how their tasks are going.
After all the program parts have been processed, the result is a fully processed program
segment. This is true whether the number of processors and tasks and processors were equal
and they all finished simultaneously or one after the other.
There are two types of parallel processes: fine-grained and coarse-grained. Tasks
communicate with one another numerous times per second in fine-grained parallelism to
deliver results in real-time or very close to real-time. The slower speed of coarse-grained
parallel processes results from their infrequent communication.
A parallel processing system can process data simultaneously to complete tasks more quickly.
For instance, the system could receive the next instruction from memory as the current
instruction is processed by the CPU’s arithmetic-logic unit (ALU). The main goal of parallel
processing is to boost a computer’s processing power and increase throughput, or the volume
of work one can do in a given time. One can use many functional units to create a parallel
processing system by carrying out similar or dissimilar activities concurrently.
This is a more sophisticated way of saying that dividing the work makes things easier. You
could still split the load between different processors in the same computer, or it could be
split between different computers connected by a computer network. Users can accomplish
the same objective in several ways.
A computer scientist typically uses a software tool to break a complex task into smaller parts
and assign each portion to a processor. Each processor will then solve its part, and the data
will be put back together by a software tool to read the answer or carry out the operation.
Each CPU will normally function and carry out parallel tasks as directed while reading data
from the computer’s memory. Processors will also use the software to communicate and keep
track of changes in data values. After a task, the software will fit all the data fragments
together, assuming that all the processors stay in sync. If computers are networked to form a
cluster, one can use those without multiple processors for parallel computing.

Types of Parallel Processing

There are various varieties of parallel processing, such as MMP, SIMD, MISD, SISD, and MIMD,
of which SIMD is probably the most popular. Single instruction multiple data, or SIMD, is a
parallel processing type where a computer has two or more processors that all follow the
same instruction set but handle distinct data types. Let us now take a look at the various kinds
of parallel processing and how they work:
Types of Parallel Processing

1. Single Instruction, Single Data (SISD)

In the type of computing called Single Instruction, Single Data (SISD), a single processor is
responsible for simultaneously managing a single algorithm as a single data source. A
computer organization having a control unit, a processing unit, and a memory unit is
represented by SISD. It is similar to the current serial computer. Instructions are carried out
sequentially by SISD, which may or may not be capable of parallel processing, depending on
its configuration.
Sequentially carried-out instructions may cross over throughout their execution phases.
There may be more than one functional unit inside a SISD computer. However, one control
unit is in charge of all functional units. Such systems allow for pipeline processing or using
numerous functional units to achieve parallel processing.

2. Multiple Instruction, Single Data (MISD)

Multiple processors are standard in computers that use the Multiple Instruction, Single Data
(MISD) instruction set. While using several algorithms, all processors share the same input
data. MISD computers can simultaneously perform many operations on the same batch of
data. As expected, the number of operations is impacted by the number of processors
available.
The MISD structure consists of many processing units, each operating under its instructions
and over a comparable data flow. One processor’s output becomes the input for the following
processor. This organization’s debut garnered little notice and wasn’t used in architecture.

3. Single Instruction, Multiple Data (SIMD)

Computers that use the Single Instruction, Multiple Data (SIMD) architecture have multiple
processors that carry out identical instructions. However, each processor supplies the
instructions with its unique collection of data. SIMD computers apply the same algorithm to
several data sets. The SIMD architecture has numerous processing components.
All of these components fall under the supervision of a single control unit. While processing
numerous pieces of data, each processor receives the same instruction from the control unit.
Multiple modules included in the shared subsystem aid in simultaneous communication with
every CPU. This is further separated into organizations that use bit-slice and word-slice
modes.

4. Multiple Instruction, Multiple Data (MIMD)

Multiple Instruction, Multiple Data, or MIMD, computers are characterized by the presence
of multiple processors, each capable of independently accepting its instruction stream. These
kinds of computers have many processors. Additionally, each CPU draws data from a different
data stream. A MIMD computer is capable of running many tasks simultaneously.
Although MIMD computers are more adaptable than SIMD or MIMD computers, developing
the sophisticated algorithms that power these machines is more challenging. Since all
memory flows are changed from the shared data area transmitted by all processors, a MIMD
computer organization incorporates interactions between the multiprocessors.
The multiple SISD operation is equivalent to a collection of separate SISD systems if the many
data streams come from various shared memories.

5. Single Program, Multiple Data (SPMD)

SPMD systems, which stand for Single Program, Multiple Data, are a subset of MIMD.
Although an SPMD computer is constructed similarly to a MIMD, each of its processors is
responsible for carrying out the same instructions. SPMD is a message passing programming
used in distributed memory computer systems. A group of separate computers, collectively
called nodes, make up a distributed memory computer.
Each node launches its application and uses send/receive routines to send and receive
messages when interacting with other nodes. Systems can also use messages to provide
barrier synchronization. It is possible to transfer the messages via a wide range of
communication techniques, such as transmission control protocol (TCP/IP) over Ethernet and
specialized high-speed interconnects, such as Supercomputer Interconnect and Myrinet.

6. Massively Parallel Processing (MPP)

A storage structure called Massively Parallel Processing (MPP) is made to manage the
coordinated execution of program operations by numerous processors. With each CPU using
its operating system and memory, this coordinated processing can be applied to different
program sections. As a result, MPP databases can handle enormous amounts of data and
deliver analyses based on large datasets considerably faster. MPP processors typically
communicate through a messaging interface and can have up to 200 or more processors
working on an application. It functions by enabling the transmission of messages between
processes via a set of corresponding data links.
The most common types of computers used in parallel processing systems are SIMD and
MIMD. Although SISD computers can’t run in parallel on their own, a cluster can be created
by connecting many of them. In a more extensive parallel system, the CPU of each computer
can function as a processor. The computers work as a single supercomputer when used
collectively. Grid computing is the name of this method.

Parallel Processing Examples

Parallel processing or parallel computing, has many important uses today. This includes:

1. Supercomputers for use in astronomy

The universe revolves slowly, and astrophysicists must use computer simulations to examine
these phenomena since star collisions, galaxy mergers, and black hole ingestion can take
millions of years. Such intricate models also require a lot of computing power. Recent
advancements in the understanding of black holes, for instance, were made possible by a
parallel supercomputer.
Researchers have proven that the innermost portion of stuff that circles black holes before
collapsing into them corresponds with those black holes, solving a four-decade-old enigma.
That is crucial in assisting scientists in better comprehending the behavior of this still unknown
phenomenon.

2. Making predictions in agriculture

The U.S. Department of Agriculture calculates supply and demand ratios for various essential
crops each month. The projections may affect everyone, including policymakers attempting
to stabilize markets and farmers trying to manage their budgets.
Researchers in the Department of Natural Resources and Environmental Sciences at the
University of Illinois outperformed the federal government’s industry-standard forecast in
2018 by adding more data, such as estimates of crop growth, seasonal climate data, and
satellite data. This allowed the researchers to outperform the federal government’s forecast.
The petascale supercomputer, Blue Waters at the university, was responsible for parallel
processing this data using machine learning algorithms.

3. Risk calculations and cryptocurrencies in banking

Most of today’s banking processes, including credit scoring, risk modeling, and fraud
detection, are GPU-accelerated. The shift away from conventional CPU-driven analysis was
inevitable. Around 2008, as lawmakers introduced numerous waves of post-crash financial
regulations, GPU offloading reached its maturity.
One of the early adopters was JPMorgan Chase, which said in 2011 that it was switching from
CPU-only processing to hybrid GPU-CPU processing. This resulted in a 40% improvement in
the accuracy at its data centers in terms of risk calculations and enabled savings of 80%. The
crypto-mining frenzy, a 2019-2020 financial trend, also put GPUs in the spotlight. Without
parallel processing, Bitcoin and the blockchain cannot function. The “chain” component of
blockchain would disappear in without parallel computing.

4. Video post-production effects

Several high-budget film releases, such as Brad Pitt’s Ad Astra and John Wick’s intricately
staged assassination operation, depend on parallel processing for post-production special
effects. Blackmagic Design’s DaVinci Resolve Studio, among only a few Hollywood-standard
post-production facilities with GPU-accelerated capabilities, was used in both instances.
These powerful computers carry out state-of-the-art rendering depending on the ray-tracing
method. 3D animation and color correction both require GPU parallel processing regularly.

5. The American Summit computer

The American Summit is among the most notable supercomputers in the world. The device
was designed by the Oak Ridge National Laboratory of the United States Department of
Energy. It has a processing speed of 200 petaFLOPS, or 200 quadrillion operations per second.
If every person on the planet performed one computation every second, it would take them
ten months to accomplish what Summit can in only one.
The machine requires 4,000 gallons of water per minute to cool and weighs 340 tons. It is
being used by scientists to better understand weather patterns, earthquakes, genetics, and
physics and to create new materials that will make our lives easier.
See More: What Is Distributed Computing? Architecture Types, Key Components, and
Examples

6. Accurate medical imaging

Medical imaging was one of the first sectors to undergo a fundamental transformation due
to parallel processing, particularly the GPU-for-general-computing revolution. There is
currently a large body of scientific literature describing how increased computation and
bandwidth capacities have resulted in considerable increases in speed and resolution for
practically every area of medical imaging, including MRI, CT, X-rays, and optical tomography.
Similar parallel-focused advancements will probably mark the next significant improvement
in medical imaging, and Nvidia is leading the way. Radiologists now have better access
to artificial intelligence capacities due to the company’s newly introduced parallel processing
toolkit, which assists imaging systems in handling increased data and computational loads.

7. Desktops and laptops

Another example of parallel processing is Intel processors, which run most high-power
modern computers. The HP Specter Folio and HP EliteBook x360’s Intel Core i5 and Core i7
CPUs each have four processing cores. The HP Z8, among the most efficient workstations in
the industry, contains 56 computing cores, allowing it to handle complex 3D simulations and
real-time 8K video editing.

Pipelining

Pipelining is a process of arrangement of hardware elements of the CPU such that its overall
performance is increased. Simultaneous execution of more than one instruction takes place
in a pipelined processor. Let us see a real-life example that works on the concept of
pipelined operation. Consider a water bottle packaging plant. Let there be 3 stages that a
bottle should pass through, Inserting the bottle(I), Filling water in the bottle(F), and Sealing
the bottle(S). Let us consider these stages as stage 1, stage 2, and stage 3 respectively. Let
each stage take 1 minute to complete its operation. Now, in a non-pipelined operation, a
bottle is first inserted in the plant, after 1 minute it is moved to stage 2 where water is filled.
Now, in stage 1 nothing is happening. Similarly, when the bottle moves to stage 3, both
stage 1 and stage 2 are idle. But in pipelined operation, when the bottle is in stage 2, another
bottle can be loaded at stage 1. Similarly, when the bottle is in stage 3, there can be one
bottle each in stage 1 and stage 2. So, after each minute, we get a new bottle at the end of
stage 3. Hence, the average time taken to manufacture 1 bottle is:
Without pipelining = 9/3 minutes = 3m
IFS||||||
|||IFS|||
| | | | | | I F S (9 minutes)
With pipelining = 5/3 minutes = 1.67m
IFS||
|IFS|
| | I F S (5 minutes)
Thus, pipelined operation increases the efficiency of a system.
Design of a basic pipeline
 In a pipelined processor, a pipeline has two ends, the input end and the output
end. Between these ends, there are multiple stages/segments such that the
output of one stage is connected to the input of the next stage and each stage
performs a specific operation.
 Interface registers are used to hold the intermediate output between two
stages. These interface registers are also called latch or buffer.
 All the stages in the pipeline along with the interface registers are controlled by
a common clock.
Execution in a pipelined processor Execution sequence of instructions in a pipelined
processor can be visualized using a space-time diagram. For example, consider a processor
having 4 stages and let there be 2 instructions to be executed. We can visualize the
execution sequence through the following space-time diagrams:
Non-overlapped execution:
Stage / Cycle 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

S1 I1 I2

S2 I1 I2

S3 I1 I2

S4 I1 I2

Total time = 8 Cycle

Overlapped execution:
Stage / Cycle 1 2 3 4 5

S1 I1 I2

S2 I1 I2

S3 I1 I2
Stage / Cycle 1 2 3 4 5

S4 I1 I2

Total time = 5 Cycle Pipeline Stages RISC processor has 5 stage instruction pipeline to
execute all the instructions in the RISC instruction set. Following are the 5 stages of the
RISC pipeline with their respective operations:
 Stage 1 (Instruction Fetch) In this stage the CPU reads instructions from the
address in the memory whose value is present in the program counter.
 Stage 2 (Instruction Decode) In this stage, instruction is decoded and the
register file is accessed to get the values from the registers used in the
instruction.
 Stage 3 (Instruction Execute) In this stage, ALU operations are performed.
 Stage 4 (Memory Access) In this stage, memory operands are read and written
from/to the memory that is present in the instruction.
 Stage 5 (Write Back) In this stage, computed/fetched value is written back to
the register present in the instructions.
Performance of a pipelined processor Consider a ‘k’ segment pipeline with clock cycle
time as ‘Tp’. Let there be ‘n’ tasks to be completed in the pipelined processor. Now, the
first instruction is going to take ‘k’ cycles to come out of the pipeline but the other ‘n – 1’
instructions will take only ‘1’ cycle each, i.e, a total of ‘n – 1’ cycles. So, time taken to
execute ‘n’ instructions in a pipelined processor:
ETpipeline = k + n – 1 cycles
= (k + n – 1) Tp
In the same case, for a non-pipelined processor, the execution time of ‘n’ instructions will
be:
ETnon-pipeline = n * k * Tp
So, speedup (S) of the pipelined processor over the non-pipelined processor, when ‘n’
tasks are executed on the same processor is:
S = Performance of non-pipelined processor /
Performance of pipelined processor
As the performance of a processor is inversely proportional to the execution time, we
have,
S = ETnon-pipeline / ETpipeline
=> S = [n * k * Tp] / [(k + n – 1) * Tp]
S = [n * k] / [k + n – 1]
When the number of tasks ‘n’ is significantly larger than k, that is, n >> k
S=n*k/n
S=k
where ‘k’ are the number of stages in the pipeline. Also, Efficiency = Given speed up / Max
speed up = S / Smax We know that Smax = k So, Efficiency = S / k Throughput = Number of
instructions / Total time to complete the instructions So, Throughput = n / (k + n – 1) * Tp
Note: The cycles per instruction (CPI) value of an ideal pipelined processor is 1 Please see Set
2 for Dependencies and Data Hazard and Set 3 for Types of pipeline and Stalling.
Performance of pipeline is measured using two main metrices as Throughput and latency.
Throughput:
 It measure number of instruction completed per unit time.
  It represents overall processing speed of pipeline.
 Higher throughput indicate processing speed of pipeline.
 Calculated as, throughput= number of instruction executed/ execution time.
 It can be affected by pipeline length, clock frequency. efficiency of instruction
execution and presence of pipeline hazards or stalls.
Latency:
 It measure time taken for a single instruction to complete its execution.
 It represents delay or time it takes for an instruction to pass through pipeline
stages.
 Lower latency indicates better performance .
 It is calculated as, Latency= Execution time/ Number of instruction executed.
 It in influenced by pipeline length, depth, clock cycle time, instruction
dependencies and pipeline hazards.

Linear Pipelining
Linear pipeline is a pipeline in which a series of processors are connected together in a
serial manner. In linear pipeline the data flows from the first block to the final block of
processor. The processing of data is done in a linear and sequential manner. The input is
supplied to the first block and we get the output from the last block till which the
processing of data is being done. The linear pipelines can be further be divided into
synchronous and asynchronous models. Linear pipelines are typically used when the data
transformation process is straightforward and can be performed in a single path.

In linear pipeline a series of processors are connected together in a serial manner.

Linear pipeline is also called as static pipeline as it performs fixed functions.
The output is always produced from the last block

Linear pipeline has linear connections.

It generates a single reservation table.
It allows easy functional partitioning.
Multiprocessor
A Multiprocessor is a computer system with two or more central processing units (CPUs)
share full access to a common RAM. The main objective of using a multiprocessor is to boost
the system’s execution speed, with other objectives being fault tolerance and application
matching. There are two types of multiprocessors, one is called shared memory
multiprocessor and another is distributed memory multiprocessor. In shared memory
multiprocessors, all the CPUs shares the common memory but in a distributed memory
multiprocessor, every CPU has its own private memory .

Applications of Multiprocessor –
1. As a uniprocessor, such as single instruction, single data stream (SISD).
2. As a multiprocessor, such as single instruction, multiple data stream (SIMD),
which is usually used for vector processing.
3. Multiple series of instructions in a single perspective, such as multiple
instruction, single data stream (MISD), which is used for describing hyper-
threading or pipelined processors.
4. Inside a single system for executing multiple, individual series of instructions in
multiple perspectives, such as multiple instruction, multiple data stream
(MIMD).
Benefits of using a Multiprocessor –
 Enhanced performance.
 Multiple applications.
 Multi-tasking inside an application.
 High throughput and responsiveness.
 Hardware sharing among CPUs.
Advantages:

Improved performance: Multiprocessor systems can execute tasks faster than single-
processor systems, as the workload can be distributed across multiple processors.
Better scalability: Multiprocessor systems can be scaled more easily than single-processor
systems, as additional processors can be added to the system to handle increased
workloads.
Increased reliability: Multiprocessor systems can continue to operate even if one
processor fails, as the remaining processors can continue to execute tasks.
Reduced cost: Multiprocessor systems can be more cost-effective than building multiple
single-processor systems to handle the same workload.
Enhanced parallelism: Multiprocessor systems allow for greater parallelism, as different
processors can execute different tasks simultaneously.

Disadvantages:

Increased complexity: Multiprocessor systems are more complex than single-processor

systems, and they require additional hardware, software, and management resources.
Higher power consumption: Multiprocessor systems require more power to operate than
single-processor systems, which can increase the cost of operating and maintaining the
system.
Difficult programming: Developing software that can effectively utilize multiple
processors can be challenging, and it requires specialized programming skills.
Synchronization issues: Multiprocessor systems require synchronization between
processors to ensure that tasks are executed correctly and efficiently, which can add
complexity and overhead to the system.
Limited performance gains: Not all applications can benefit from multiprocessor systems,
and some applications may only see limited performance gains when running on a
multiprocessor system.
Multicomputer: A multicomputer system is a computer system with multiple
processors that are connected together to solve a problem. Each processor has its
own memory and it is accessible by that particular processor and those processors
can communicate with each other via an interconnection network.
As the multicomputer is capable of messages passing between the processors, it is
possible to divide the task between the processors to complete the task. Hence, a
multicomputer can be used for distributed computing. It is cost effective and easier to
build a multicomputer than a multiprocessor.
Difference between multiprocessor and Multicomputer:
1. Multiprocessor is a system with two or more central processing units (CPUs)
that is capable of performing multiple tasks where as a multicomputer is a
system with multiple processors that are attached via an interconnection
network to perform a computation task.
2. A multiprocessor system is a single computer that operates with multiple CPUs
where as a multicomputer system is a cluster of computers that operate as a
singular computer.
3. Construction of multicomputer is easier and cost effective than a
multiprocessor.
4. In multiprocessor system, program tends to be easier where as in
multicomputer system, program tends to be more difficult.
5. Multiprocessor supports parallel computing, Multicomputer supports
distributed computing.

Advantages:

Improved performance: Multicomputer systems can execute tasks faster than single-
computer systems, as the workload can be distributed across multiple computers.
Better scalability: Multicomputer systems can be scaled more easily than single-computer
systems, as additional computers can be added to the system to handle increased
workloads.
Increased reliability: Multicomputer systems can continue to operate even if one
computer fails, as the remaining computers can continue to execute tasks.
Reduced cost: Multicomputer systems can be more cost-effective than building a single
large computer system to handle the same workload.
Enhanced parallelism: Multicomputer systems allow for greater parallelism, as different
computers can execute different tasks simultaneously.

Disadvantages:
Increased complexity: Multicomputer systems are more complex than single-computer
systems, and they require additional hardware, software, and management resources.
Higher power consumption: Multicomputer systems require more power to operate than
single-computer systems, which can increase the cost of operating and maintaining the
system.
Difficult programming: Developing software that can effectively utilize multiple
computers can be challenging, and it requires specialized programming skills.
Synchronization issues: Multicomputer systems require synchronization between
computers to ensure that tasks are executed correctly and efficiently, which can add
complexity and overhead to the system.
Network latency: Multicomputer systems rely on a network to communicate between
computers, and network latency can impact system performance.
Flynn’’s Classification
Parallel computing is computing where the jobs are broken into discrete parts that can be
executed concurrently. Each part is further broken down into a series of instructions.
Instructions from each piece execute simultaneously on different CPUs. The breaking up of
different parts of a task among multiple processors will help to reduce the amount of time
to run a program. Parallel systems deal with the simultaneous use of multiple computer
resources that can include a single computer with multiple processors, a number of
computers connected by a network to form a parallel processing cluster, or a combination
of both. Parallel systems are more difficult to program than computers with a single
processor because the architecture of parallel computers varies accordingly and the
processes of multiple CPUs must be coordinated and synchronized. The difficult problem of
parallel processing is portability.
An Instruction Stream is a sequence of instructions that are read from memory. Data Stream
is the operations performed on the data in the processor.
Flynn’s taxonomy is a classification scheme for computer architectures proposed by Michael
Flynn in 1966. The taxonomy is based on the number of instruction streams and data
streams that can be processed simultaneously by a computer architecture.
There are four categories in Flynn’s taxonomy:
1. Single Instruction Single Data (SISD): In a SISD architecture, there is a single
processor that executes a single instruction stream and operates on a single data
stream. This is the simplest type of computer architecture and is used in most
traditional computers.
2. Single Instruction Multiple Data (SIMD): In a SIMD architecture, there is a single
processor that executes the same instruction on multiple data streams in parallel.
This type of architecture is used in applications such as image and signal
processing.
3. Multiple Instruction Single Data (MISD): In a MISD architecture, multiple
processors execute different instructions on the same data stream. This type of
architecture is not commonly used in practice, as it is difficult to find applications
that can be decomposed into independent instruction streams.
4. Multiple Instruction Multiple Data (MIMD): In a MIMD architecture, multiple
processors execute different instructions on different data streams. This type of
architecture is used in distributed computing, parallel processing, and other high-
performance computing applications.
Flynn’s taxonomy is a useful tool for understanding different types of computer
architectures and their strengths and weaknesses. The taxonomy highlights the importance
of parallelism in modern computing and shows how different types of parallelism can be
exploited to improve performance.
systems are classified into four major categories:

Flynn’s classification –
1. Single-instruction, single-data (SISD) systems – An SISD computing system is a
uniprocessor machine that is capable of executing a single instruction, operating
on a single data stream. In SISD, machine instructions are processed in a
sequential manner and computers adopting this model are popularly called
sequential computers. Most conventional computers have SISD architecture. All
the instructions and data to be processed have to be stored in primary memory.
 The speed of the processing element in the SISD model is limited(dependent) by
the rate at which the computer can transfer information internally. Dominant
representative SISD systems are IBM PC, and workstations.

2. Single-instruction, multiple-data (SIMD) systems – An SIMD system is a

multiprocessor machine capable of executing the same instruction on all the
CPUs but operating on different data streams. Machines based on a SIMD model
are well suited to scientific computing since they involve lots of vector and matrix
operations. So that the information can be passed to all the processing elements
(PEs) organized data elements of vectors can be divided into multiple sets(N-sets
for N PE systems) and each PE can process one data set.

Dominant representative SIMD systems are Cray’s vector processing machines.

3. Multiple-instruction, single-data (MISD) systems – An MISD computing system
is a multiprocessor machine capable of executing different instructions on
different PEs but all of them operate on the same dataset.

Example Z = sin(x)+cos(x)+tan(x) The system performs different operations on the

same data set. Machines built using the MISD model are not useful in most
applications, a few machines are built, but none of them are available
commercially.

4. Multiple-instruction, multiple-data (MIMD) systems – An MIMD system is a

multiprocessor machine that is capable of executing multiple instructions on
multiple data sets. Each PE in the MIMD model has separate instruction and data
streams; therefore machines built using this model are capable of any
application. Unlike SIMD and MISD machines, PEs in MIMD machines work
asynchronously.
 MIMD machines are broadly categorized into shared-memory
MIMD and distributed-memory MIMD based on the way PEs are coupled to the
main memory. In the shared memory MIMD model (tightly coupled
multiprocessor systems), all the PEs are connected to a single global memory and
they all have access to it. The communication between PEs in this model takes
place through the shared memory, modification of the data stored in the global
memory by one PE is visible to all other PEs. The dominant representative shared
memory MIMD systems are Silicon Graphics machines and Sun/IBM’s SMP
(Symmetric Multi-Processing). In Distributed memory MIMD machines (loosely
coupled multiprocessor systems) all PEs have a local memory. The
communication between PEs in this model takes place through the
interconnection network (the inter-process communication channel, or IPC). The
network connecting PEs can be configured to tree, mesh, or in accordance with
the requirement. The shared-memory MIMD architecture is easier to program
but is less tolerant to failures and harder to extend with respect to the distributed
memory MIMD model. Failures in a shared-memory MIMD affect the entire
system, whereas this is not the case in the distributed model, in which each of
the PEs can be easily isolated. Moreover, shared memory MIMD architectures are
less likely to scale because the addition of more PEs leads to memory contention.
This is a situation that does not happen in the case of distributed memory, in
which each PE has its own memory. As a result of practical outcomes and user
requirements, distributed memory MIMD architecture is superior to the other
existing models.
Flynn’s taxonomy itself does not have any inherent advantages or disadvantages. It is simply
a classification scheme for computer architectures based on the number of instruction
streams and data streams that can be processed simultaneously.
However, the different types of computer architectures that fall under Flynn’s taxonomy
have their own advantages and disadvantages. Here are some examples:
 1. SISD architecture: This is the simplest and most common type of computer
architecture. It is easy to program and debug and can handle a wide range of
applications. However, it does not offer significant performance gains over
traditional computing systems.

2. SIMD architecture: This type of architecture is highly parallel and can offer
significant performance gains for applications that can be parallelized. However,
it requires specialized hardware and software and is not well-suited for
applications that cannot be parallelized.

3. MISD architecture: This type of architecture is not commonly used in practice, as

it is difficult to find applications that can be decomposed into independent
instruction streams.

4. MIMD architecture: This type of architecture is highly parallel and can offer
significant performance gains for applications that can be parallelized. It is well-
suited for distributed computing, parallel processing, and other high-
performance computing applications. However, it requires specialized hardware
and software and can be challenging to program and debug.
Overall, the advantages and disadvantages of different types of computer architectures
depend on the specific application and the level of parallelism that can be exploited. Flynn’s
taxonomy is a useful tool for understanding the different types of computer architectures
and their potential uses, but ultimately the choice of architecture depends on the specific
needs of the application.
Some additional features of Flynn’s taxonomy include:

Concurrency: Flynn’s taxonomy provides a way to classify computer architectures based on

their concurrency, which refers to the number of tasks that can be executed simultaneously.

Performance: Different types of architectures have different performance characteristics,

and Flynn’s taxonomy provides a way to compare their performance based on the number
of concurrent instructions and data streams.
Parallelism: Flynn’s taxonomy highlights the importance of parallelism in computer
architecture and provides a framework for designing and analyzing parallel processing
systems.