Class 12 Physics: Current Electricity - Full Notes for CBSE 2025

1. Important Concepts

1.1 Electric Current (I)

• Definition: The rate of flow of electric charge through a conductor.

dq
• Formula: I = dt
• SI Unit: Ampere (A)

1.2 Current Density (J)

• Definition: Current per unit area of cross-section of a conductor.

• Formula: J = A I
= σE
• Vector quantity.

1.3 Drift Velocity (v_d)

• Definition: The average velocity with which free electrons move in response to an electric field.
• Formula: vd = nAeI

• Typically on the order of mm/s.

1.4 Mobility (μ )

• Definition: Drift velocity per unit electric field.

v
• Formula: μ = Ed = eτ m

1.5 Ohm’s Law

• Definition: The current through a conductor is directly proportional to the voltage across it, provided
temperature remains constant.
• Formula: V = IR
• Graph: Straight line passing through origin.

1.6 Resistance (R)

• Definition: Opposition offered to flow of current.

• Formula: R = ρ Al
• SI Unit: Ohm (Ω )

1.7 Resistivity (ρ ) and Conductivity (σ )

• ρ : Material property, increases with temperature (in metals).

1
•σ = ρ : Measures how well a material conducts electricity.

1
1.8 Effect of Temperature on Resistance

• Rt = R0 (1 + αΔT )
• α : Temperature coefficient of resistance.

1.9 EMF and Terminal Voltage

• EMF: Potential difference across terminals when no current flows.

• Terminal Voltage: Actual voltage during current flow.
• V = E − Ir

1.10 Internal Resistance (r)

• Originates from resistance of electrolyte and electrode.

• Influences terminal voltage.

1.11 Power in Electric Circuits

V2
•P = V I = I 2R = R
• Unit: Watt (W)

1.12 Energy Consumption

•W = Pt = V It = I 2 Rt
• 1 kWh = 3.6 × 10^6 J

1.13 Combination of Resistors

• Series: Req = R1 + R2 + ... , Current same.

• Parallel: R1 = R11 + R12 + ... , Voltage same.
eq

1.14 Combination of Cells

• Series: Eeq = nE, req = nr

• Parallel: Eeq = E, req = nr (for identical cells)

1.15 Kirchhoff’s Laws

Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL)

• At any junction, the sum of incoming currents = sum of outgoing currents.

•∑I = 0

Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)

• In any closed loop, sum of voltage gains and drops is zero.

•∑V = 0

2
1.16 Wheatstone Bridge

• Balanced condition: R
R
1
= R3
R4
2
• No current through galvanometer.

1.17 Meter Bridge

• Practical implementation of Wheatstone Bridge.

• Used to determine unknown resistance.

1.18 Potentiometer

• Based on zero current method.

• Used to compare EMFs, measure internal resistance, and potential difference accurately.

2. Important Derivations
1. I= nAve : Relation of current with drift velocity
2. Microscopic form of Ohm’s law: J = σE
3. V = E − Ir : EMF and terminal voltage
4. Series and parallel combination of resistors and cells
5. Balanced Wheatstone bridge: R R = R
1 R3
2 4
6. Meter bridge working and formula
7. Potentiometer principle and applications:
8. Comparing EMFs: EE = l
1 l1
2 2
9. Finding internal resistance
10. Measuring potential difference

3. Formulas

Quantity Formula
q
Current I= t

Drift Velocity vd = I
nAe
vd
Mobility μ= E

Resistance R = ρ Al

Ohm’s Law V = IR
V2
Power P = V I = I 2R = R

Energy W = V It = I 2 Rt

3
 Quantity Formula

Terminal Voltage V = E − Ir
E1 l1
Potentiometer E2 = l2
R1 R3
Wheatstone Bridge R2 = R4

KCL ∑I = 0

KVL ∑V = 0

4. Instruments & Devices

Device Use

Ammeter Measures current (series)

Voltmeter Measures voltage (parallel)

Galvanometer Detects small current

Rheostat Varies resistance

Potentiometer Measures EMF, internal resistance, V

Meter Bridge Measures unknown resistance

Battery Eliminator Provides constant voltage in experiments

5. Conceptual Tricks (MCQ Help)

• Drift velocity is slow despite high current
• Potentiometer is based on null method — more accurate
• In Wheatstone bridge balance, no current in galvanometer
• In series: I = same; V divides
• In parallel: V = same; I divides
• Use KCL at junctions and KVL in loops
• Power is maximized when load resistance = internal resistance

6. Board Question Types

Marks Type

1 Mark Definitions, Units, Concept checks

4
 Marks Type

2 Marks Short derivations, reasoning

3 Marks Numerical problems, explanations

5 Marks Potentiometer applications, bridge problems

Case Study Based on real-life or experimental setup

7. Priority Topics for Boards

Topic Importance

Drift velocity & relation to current 🔥🔥🔥

Ohm’s Law (micro & macro) 🔥🔥

Potentiometer use & derivations 🔥🔥🔥

Wheatstone Bridge & meter bridge 🔥🔥

Kirchhoff’s Laws ✅✅

Internal resistance concept ✅✅

Cell combinations ✅✅

8. Suggested Practice
• Write derivations clearly with assumptions and diagrams.
• Practice numericals with units and significant figures.
• Revise key formulas regularly.
• Use NCERT exercises and exemplar questions.
• Draw neat labeled circuit diagrams.

Let me know if you want: - Flashcards for formulas - Chapter summary in flowchart form - Practice
worksheets with answer key