ARUL INSTITUTE, CHENNAI

CBSE – CLASS XII – PHYSICS – CHAPTER 14

SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS – PART 1

INTRODUCTION

Vacuum tubes

Devices in which a controlled flow of electrons can be obtained, are the basic building blocks

of all the electronic circuits. Before the discovery of transistor in 1948, such devices were

mostly vacuum tubes (also called valves) like the vacuum diode which has two electrodes, viz.,

anode (often called plate) and cathode ; triode which has three electrodes – cathode, plate and

grid ; tetrode and pentode (respectively with 4 and 5 electrodes).

In a vacuum tube, the electrons are supplied by a heated cathode and the controlled flow of

these electrons in vacuum is obtained by varying the voltage between its different electrodes.

Vacuum is required in the inter-electrode space ; otherwise the moving electrons may lose

their energy on collision with the air molecules in their path. In these devices the electrons can

flow only from the cathode to the anode (i.e., only in one direction). Therefore, such devices

are generally referred to as valves.

These vacuum tube devices are bulky, consume high power, operate generally at high voltages

(~100 V) and have limited life and low reliability.

 ARUL INSTITUTE, CHENNAI
Semiconductor Electronics

The seed of the development of modern solid-state semiconductor electronics goes back to

1930’s when it was realised that some solid state semiconductors and their junctions offer the

possibility of controlling the number and the direction of flow of charge carriers through

them. Simple excitations like light, heat or small applied voltage can change the number of

mobile charges in a semiconductor.

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Note that the supply and flow of charge carriers in the semiconductor devices are within the

solid itself, while in the earlier vacuum tubes/valves, the mobile electrons were obtained from
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a heated cathode and they were made to flow in an evacuated space or vacuum. No external
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heating or large evacuated space is required by the semiconductor devices.
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They are small in size, consume low power, operate at low voltages and have long life and
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high reliability.
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 ARUL INSTITUTE, CHENNAI
CLASSIFICATION OF METALS, SEMICONDUCTORS & INSULATORS

On the basis of the relative values of electrical conductivity (σ) or resistivity (ρ = 1/σ), the

solids are broadly classified as:

(1) Metals: They possess very low resistivity (or high conductivity).

ρ = 10–2 to 10–8 Ω m ; σ = 102 to 108 S m–1

(2) Semiconductors: They have resistivity or conductivity intermediate to metals & insulators.

ρ = 10–5 to 106 Ω m ; σ = 105 to 10–6 S m–1

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(3) Insulators: They have high resistivity (or low conductivity).

ρ = 1011 to 1019 Ω m ; σ = 10–11 to 10–19 S m–1

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Our interest in this chapter is in the study of semiconductors which could be:
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(1) Elemental semiconductors: Si and Ge

(2) Compound semiconductors:

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• Inorganic Compounds : CdS, GaAs, CdSe, InP, etc.

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• Organic Compounds : Anthracene, Doped pthalocyanines, etc.

• Organic polymers : Polypyrrole, Polyaniline, Polythiophene, etc.

Most of the currently available semiconductor devices are based on elemental semiconductors

Si or Ge and compound inorganic semiconductors.

However after 1990, a few semiconductor devices using organic semiconductors and

semiconducting polymers have been developed signalling the birth of a futuristic technology

of polymer-electronics and molecular-electronics.

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ENERGY BANDS

According to the Bohr atomic model, in an isolated atom the energy of any of its electrons is

decided by the orbit in which it revolves. But when the atoms come together to form a solid

they are close to each other. So the outer orbits of electrons from neighbouring atoms would

come very close or could even overlap. This would make the nature of electron motion in a

solid very different from that in an isolated atom.

Inside the crystal each electron has a unique position and no two electrons see exactly the

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same pattern of surrounding charges. Because of this, each electron will have a different

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energy level. These different energy levels with continuous energy variation are called energy
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bands. The energy band which includes the energy levels of the valence electrons is called the
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valence band. The energy band above the valence band is called the conduction band.

With no external energy, all the valence electrons will reside in the valence band. Normally
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the conduction band is empty. But when the conduction band overlaps on the valence band,
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electrons can move freely into it. This is the case with metallic conductors.

If there is some gap between the conduction band and the valence band, electrons in the
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valence band all remain bound and no free electrons are available in the conduction band.

This makes the material an insulator.

In semiconductors, some of the electrons from the valence band may gain external energy to

cross the gap between the conduction band and the valence band. Then these electrons will

move into the conduction band. At the same time they will create vacant energy levels in the

valence band where other valence electrons can move. Thus the process creates the possibility of

conduction due to electrons in conduction band as well as due to vacancies in the valence band.
 ARUL INSTITUTE, CHENNAI
Let us consider what happens in the case of Si or Ge crystal containing N atoms. For Si, the

outermost orbit is the third orbit (n=3), while for Ge it is the fourth orbit (n=4). The number

of electrons in the outermost orbit is 4. Hence, the total number of outer electrons in the

crystal is 4N. The maximum possible number of electrons in the outer orbit is 8. So, for the 4N

valence electrons there are 8N available energy states. These 8N discrete energy levels can

either form a continuous band or they may be grouped in different bands depending upon the

distance between the atoms in the crystal.

In the crystal lattices of Si and Ge, the energy band of these 8N states is split apart into two

which are separated by an energy gap Eg (shown in the Figure). The lower band which is

completely occupied by the 4N valence electrons at temperature of absolute zero is the valence

band. The other band consisting of 4N energy states, called the conduction band is completely

empty at absolute zero.

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The lowest energy level in the conduction band is shown as EC and highest energy level in the

valence band is shown as EV. Above EC and below EV there are a large number of closely

spaced energy levels, as shown in Figure. The gap between the top of the valence band and

bottom of the conduction band is called the energy gap (Eg). It may be large, small or zero

depending upon the material.

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Case I : Energy Band Structure of Metals

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In this case, as shown in the figure (a), either metals can have their conduction band partially
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filled and partially empty or their conduction and valance bands overlap. When there is
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overlap, electrons from valence band can easily move into the conduction band. This situation
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makes a large number of electrons available for electrical conduction. When the valence band

is partially empty, electrons from its lower level can move to higher level making conduction
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possible. Therefore, the resistance of such materials is low or the conductivity is high.
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 ARUL INSTITUTE, CHENNAI
Case II : Energy Band Structure of Insulators

In this case, as shown in the figure (b), a large band gap Eg exists (Eg > 3 eV). There are no

electrons in the conduction band and therefore no electrical conduction is possible. Note that

the energy gap is so large that electrons cannot be excited from the valence band to the

conduction band by thermal excitation. This is the case of insulators.

Case III : Energy Band Structure of Semiconductors

In this case, as shown in Figure (c), a finite but small band gap (Eg < 3 eV) exists. Because of

the small band gap, at room temperature some electrons from valence band can acquire

enough energy to cross the energy gap and enter the conduction band. These electrons

(though small in numbers) can move in the conduction band. Hence, the resistance of

semiconductors is not as high as that of the insulators.

 ARUL INSTITUTE, CHENNAI
INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR

Pure semiconductors are called ‘intrinsic semiconductors’.

Three-dimensional diamond-like crystal structure for Carbon, Silicon or Germanium with

respective lattice spacing ‘a’ equal to 3.56 Å, 5.43 Å and 5.66 Å is shown in the figure (a).

Figure (a)

Each atom is surrounded by four nearest neighbours. Si and Ge have four valence electrons.

In its crystalline structure, every Si or Ge atom tends to share one of its four valence electrons

with each of its four nearest neighbour atoms and also to take share of one electron from each

such neighbour. These shared electron pairs are involved in the formation of covalent bonds.
 ARUL INSTITUTE, CHENNAI
Figure (b) shows the 2-dimensional representation of Si or Ge structure. It shows an idealised

picture in which no bonds are broken (all bonds are intact). Such a situation arises at low

temperatures.

Figure (b)

As the temperature increases, more thermal energy becomes available to these electrons and

some of these electrons may break–away (becoming free electrons contributing to conduction)

and creates a vacancy in the bond as shown in the Figure (c).

Figure (c)

When the free electron (with charge –e) has come out leaves a vacancy with an effective

charge (+e). This vacancy with the effective positive electronic charge is called a hole. The

hole behaves as an apparent free particle with effective positive charge.

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In intrinsic semiconductors, the number of free electrons (ne) is equal to the number of holes (nh)

ne = nh = ni

where ni is called intrinsic carrier concentration.

Semiconductors possess the unique property in which, apart from electrons, the holes also

move. Suppose there is a hole at site 1 as shown in the figure (c). The movement of holes can

be visualised as shown in the figure (d).

Figure (d)

An electron from the covalent bond at site 2 may jump to the vacant site 1 (hole). Thus, after

such a jump, the hole is at site 2 and the electron at site 1. Therefore, apparently, the hole has

moved from site 1 to site 2. Note that the electron originally set free is not involved in this

process of hole motion.

Under the action of an electric field, the free electrons move towards the positive potential

giving rise to an electron current (Ie) and the holes move towards negative potential giving

rise to the hole current (Ih). The total current I is thus the sum of the electron current Ie and

the hole current Ih.

I = Ie + Ih
 ARUL INSTITUTE, CHENNAI
It may be noted that apart from the process of generation of conduction electrons and holes, a

simultaneous process of recombination occurs in which the electrons recombine with the

holes. At equilibrium, the rate of generation is equal to the rate of recombination of charge

carriers. The recombination occurs due to an electron colliding with a hole.

Energy Band Structure of Intrinsic Semiconductors

An intrinsic semiconductor will behave like an insulator at T = 0 K as shown in the figure (e).

At higher temperatures (T > 0K), due to thermal energy some electrons are excited from the

valence band to the conduction band. These thermally excited electrons at T > 0K, partially

occupy the conduction band.

Therefore, the energy-band diagram of an intrinsic semiconductor at the temperature T > 0K

will be as shown in the figure (f). Here, some electrons are shown in the conduction band.

These have come from the valence band leaving equal number of holes there.

Figure (e) Figure (f)

At T = 0K At T > 0K
 ARUL INSTITUTE, CHENNAI
EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR

The conductivity of an intrinsic semiconductor depends on its temperature, but at room

temperature its conductivity is very low. As such, no important electronic devices can be

developed using these semiconductors. Hence there is a necessity of improving their

conductivity. This can be done by making use of impurities.

When a small amount (a few parts per million) of a suitable impurity is added to the pure

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semiconductor, the conductivity of the semiconductor is increased many times. Such materials

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are known as extrinsic semiconductors or impurity semiconductors.
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The deliberate addition of a desirable impurity is called doping and the impurity atoms are
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called dopants. Such a material is also called a doped semiconductor. The dopant has to be

such that it does not distort the original pure semiconductor lattice. It occupies only a very
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few of the original semiconductor atom sites in the crystal. A necessary condition to attain this
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is that the sizes of the dopant and the semiconductor atoms should be nearly the same.
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There are two types of dopants used in doping the tetravalent Si or Ge:

(i) Pentavalent (valency 5) ; like Arsenic (As), Antimony (Sb), Phosphorous (P), etc.

(ii) Trivalent (valency 3) ; like Indium (In), Boron (B), Aluminium (Al), etc.

Si or Ge belongs to the fourth group in the Periodic table and therefore, we choose the dopant

element from nearby fifth or third group, so that the size of the dopant atom is nearly the

same as that of Si or Ge.

 ARUL INSTITUTE, CHENNAI
n–TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR

A n-type semiconductor is obtained by doping a pure silicon (or germanium) crystal with

pentavalent impurity atoms such as phosphorus, arsenic and antimony as shown in the figure.

Figure (a) Figure (b)

When a pentavalent atom occupies the position of an atom in the crystal lattice of Si, four of

its electrons bond with the four silicon neighbours while the fifth remains very weakly bound

to its parent atom. As a result the ionisation energy required to set this electron free is very

small and even at room temperature it will be free to move in the lattice of the semiconductor.

For example, the energy required is ~ 0.01 eV for germanium and 0.05 eV for silicon, to

separate this electron from its atom. This is in contrast to the energy required for the electron

to jump from the valence band to the conduction band (about 0.72 eV for germanium and

about 1.1 eV for silicon) at room temperature in the intrinsic semiconductor.

 ARUL INSTITUTE, CHENNAI
Thus, the pentavalent dopant is donating one extra electron for conduction and hence is

known as donor impurity. The number of electrons made available for conduction by dopant

atoms depends strongly upon the doping level and is independent of any increase in the

surrounding temperature.

In n-type semiconductor, the total number of conduction electrons (ne) is due to the electrons

contributed by donors and those generated by thermally broken covalent bonds, while the

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total number of holes (nh) is only due to the holes generated by thermally broken covalent

bonds. But the rate of recombination of holes would increase due to the increase in the
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number of electrons. As a result, the number of holes would get reduced further.
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∴ In n-type semiconductors, ne > > nh
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Hence in n-type semiconductors, electrons are majority carriers & holes are minority carriers.
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 ARUL INSTITUTE, CHENNAI
p–TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR

A p-type semiconductor is obtained by doping a pure silicon (or germanium) crystal with

trivalent impurity atoms like boron, aluminium, Indium etc

Figure (a) Figure (b)

The dopant has one valence electron less than Si or Ge and therefore, this atom can form

covalent bonds with neighbouring three Si atoms but does not have any electron to offer to

the fourth Si atom. So the bond between the fourth neighbour and the trivalent atom has a

vacancy or hole as shown in the figure.

Since the neighbouring Si atom in the lattice wants an electron in place of a hole, an electron

in the outer orbit of an atom in the neighbourhood may jump to fill this vacancy, leaving a

vacancy or hole at its own site. Thus the hole is available for conduction.

Note that the trivalent atom becomes effectively negatively charged when it shares fourth

electron with neighbouring Si atom. Therefore, the trivalent atom of p-type material can be

treated as core of one negative charge along with its associated hole as shown in the figure (b).

It is obvious that one acceptor atom gives one hole.

 ARUL INSTITUTE, CHENNAI
In p-type semiconductor, the total number of holes (nh) is due to the holes contributed by

trivalent atoms and those generated by thermally broken covalent bonds, while the total

number of conduction electrons (ne) is only due to the electrons generated by thermally

broken covalent bonds.

∴ In p-type semiconductors, nh > > ne

Hence in p-type semiconductors, holes are majority carriers & electrons are minority carriers.

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Note that the crystal maintains an overall charge neutrality as the charge of additional charge
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carriers is just equal and opposite to that of the ionised cores in the lattice.
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 ARUL INSTITUTE, CHENNAI
ENERGY BAND STRUCTURE OF n–TYPE & p–TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR

The semiconductor’s energy band structure is affected by doping.

In the case of extrinsic semiconductors, additional energy states due to donor impurities (ED)

and acceptor impurities (EA) also exist.

In the energy band diagram of n-type Si semiconductor, the donor energy level ED is slightly

below the bottom EC of the conduction band and electrons from this level move into the

conduction band with very small supply of energy. At room temperature, most of the donor

atoms get ionised but very few (~1012) atoms of Si get ionised. So the conduction band will

have most electrons coming from the donor impurities, as shown in the figure (a).

Energy band diagram Energy band diagram

of n–type semiconductor at T > 0K of p–type semiconductor at T > 0K

Similarly for p-type semiconductor, the acceptor energy level EA is slightly above the top EV

of the valence band as shown in the figure (b). With very small supply of energy, an electron

from the valence band can jump to the level EA and ionise the acceptor negatively.

(Alternately, we can also say that with very small supply of energy, the hole from level EA

sinks down into the valence band. Electrons rise up and holes fall down when they gain
 ARUL INSTITUTE, CHENNAI
external energy) At room temperature, most of the acceptor atoms get ionised leaving holes in

the valence band. Thus at room temperature the density of holes in the valence band is high.

The electron and hole concentration in a semiconductor in thermal equilibrium is given by

nenh = n i2

The difference in the resistivity of C, Si and Ge depends upon the energy gap between their

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conduction and valence bands.

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For C (diamond), Si and Ge, the energy gaps are 5.4 eV, 1.1 eV and 0.7 eV, respectively. Sn
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also is a group IV element but it is a metal because the energy gap in its case is 0 eV.
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 ARUL INSTITUTE, CHENNAI
CBSE – CLASS XII – PHYSICS – CHAPTER 14
SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS – PART 2

p–n JUNCTION FORMATION

Consider a thin p-type silicon (p-Si) semiconductor wafer. By adding precisely a small

quantity of pentavalent impurity, part of the p-Si wafer can be converted into n-Si. There are

several processes by which a semiconductor can be formed. The wafer now contains p-region

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and n-region and a metallurgical junction between p- and n- region.

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Two important processes occur during the formation of a p-n junction: Diffusion and Drift.

In an n-type semiconductor, the concentration of electrons is more compared to the

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concentration of holes. Similarly, in a p-type semiconductor, the concentration of holes is

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more than the concentration of electrons. During the formation of p-n junction and due to the
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concentration gradient across p- and n- sides, holes diffuse from p-side to n-side (p → n) and

electrons diffuse from n-side to p-side (n → p). This motion of charge carriers gives rise to
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diffusion current across the junction.

When an electron diffuses from n → p, it leaves behind an ionised donor on n-side. This

ionised donor (positive charge) is immobile as it is bonded to the surrounding atoms. As the

electrons continue to diffuse from n → p, a layer of positive charge on n-side of the junction is

developed.
 ARUL INSTITUTE, CHENNAI
Similarly, when a hole diffuses from p → n, it leaves behind an ionised acceptor (negative

charge) which is immobile. As the holes continue to diffuse, a layer of negative charge on the

p-side of the junction is developed.

The thin region near the junction which is free from charge carriers (free electrons and holes)

is called depletion region.

The thickness of depletion region is of the order of one-tenth of a micrometre. Due to the

positive space-charge region on n-side of the junction and negative space-charge region on p-

side of the junction, an electric field directed from positive charge towards negative charge

develops. Due to this field, an electron on p-side of the junction moves to n-side and a hole on

n-side of the junction moves to p-side. The motion of charge carriers due to the electric field is

called drift. Thus a drift current, which is opposite in direction to the diffusion current starts.

Initially, diffusion current is large and drift current is small. As the diffusion process

continues, the space-charge regions on either side of the junction extend, thus increasing the

electric field strength and hence drift current. This process continues until the diffusion

current equals the drift current. Thus a p-n junction is formed. In a p-n junction under

equilibrium there is no net current.

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The loss of electrons from the n-region and the gain of electron by the p-region causes a

difference of potential across the junction of the two regions. The polarity of this potential is

such as to oppose further flow of carriers so that a condition of equilibrium exists.

Figure shows the p-n junction at equilibrium and the potential across the junction. The n-

material has lost electrons and p-material has acquired electrons. The n-material is thus

positive relative to the p-material. Since this potential tends to prevent the movement of

electron from the n region into the p region, it is often called a barrier potential.
 ARUL INSTITUTE, CHENNAI
SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE

A semiconductor diode is basically a p-n junction with metallic contacts provided at the ends

for the application of an external voltage. It is a two terminal device.

A p-n junction diode is symbolically represented as shown in the figure.

The direction of arrow indicates the conventional direction of current (when the diode is

under forward bias).

The equilibrium barrier potential can be altered by applying an external voltage V across the

diode.
 ARUL INSTITUTE, CHENNAI
p – n JUNCTION DIODE UNDER FORWARD BIAS

When an external voltage V is applied across a semiconductor diode such that p-side is

connected to the positive terminal of the battery and n-side to the negative terminal, it is said

to be forward biased.

Figure (a)

p-n junction diode under forward bias

Figure (b)

Barrier Potential (1) Without Battery (2) Low Voltage Battery (3) High Voltage Battery

The applied voltage mostly drops across the depletion region and the voltage drop across the

p-side and n-side of the junction is negligible. This is because the resistance of the depletion

region (a region where there are no charges) is very high compared to the resistance of n-side

and p-side.

The direction of the applied voltage (V) is opposite to the built-in potential (Vo) as shown in

the figure (b). As a result, the depletion layer width decreases and the barrier height is

reduced. The effective barrier height under forward bias is (Vo – V).
 ARUL INSTITUTE, CHENNAI
If the applied voltage is small, the barrier potential will be reduced only slightly below the

equilibrium value and only a small number of charged carriers will possess enough energy to

cross the junction. So the current will be small.

If we increase the applied voltage significantly, the barrier height will be reduced and more

number of charged carriers will have the required energy. Thus the current increases.

Due to the applied voltage, electrons from n-side cross the depletion region and reach p-side

(where they are minority carriers). Similarly, holes from p-side cross the junction and reach

the n-side (where they are minority carriers). This process under forward bias is known as

minority carrier injection.

Forward bias – Minority Carrier Injection

At the junction boundary, on each side, the minority carrier concentration increases

significantly compared to the locations far from the junction.

Due to this concentration gradient, the injected electrons on p-side diffuse from the junction

edge of p-side to the other end of p-side. Likewise, the injected holes on n-side diffuse from the

junction edge of n-side to the other end of n-side (as shown in the figure). This motion of

charged carriers on either side gives rise to current. The total diode forward current is sum of

hole diffusion current and electron diffusion current. The magnitude of this current is usually

in mA.
 ARUL INSTITUTE, CHENNAI
p–n JUNCTION DIODE UNDER REVERSE BIAS

When an external voltage V is applied across the diode such that n-side is connected to the

positive terminal of the battery & p-side to the negative terminal, it is said to be reverse biased.

Figure (a)

Figure (b)

The applied voltage mostly drops across the depletion region. The direction of applied voltage

is same as the direction of barrier potential. As a result, the barrier height increases and the

depletion region widens.

The effective barrier height under reverse bias is (Vo + V) as shown in the figure (b).

This suppresses the flow of electrons from n → p and holes from p → n. Thus, diffusion

current, decreases enormously compared to the diode under forward bias.

Due to the electric field across the junction, an electron on p-side of the junction moves to

n-side and a hole on n-side of the junction moves to p-side. This drift of carriers gives rise to

drift current. The drift current is of the order of a few µA. This is quite low because it is due

to the flow of minority charge carriers across the junction.

 ARUL INSTITUTE, CHENNAI
The diode reverse current is not very much dependent on the applied voltage. Even a small

voltage is sufficient to sweep the minority carriers from one side of the junction to the other

side of the junction. The current is not limited by the magnitude of the applied voltage but is

limited due to the concentration of the minority carrier on either side of the junction.

The current under reverse bias is essentially voltage independent upto a critical reverse bias

voltage, known as breakdown voltage (Vbr). When V=Vbr, the diode reverse current increases

sharply. Even a slight increase in the bias voltage causes large change in the current. If the

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reverse current is not limited by an external circuit below the rated value (specified by the

manufacturer) the p-n junction will get destroyed. Once it exceeds the rated value, the diode
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gets destroyed due to overheating. This can happen even for the diode under forward bias, if
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the forward current exceeds the rated value.
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 ARUL INSTITUTE, CHENNAI
V–I CHARACTERISTICS OF A DIODE

The circuit arrangement for studying the V – I characteristics of a diode, (i.e., the variation of

current as a function of applied voltage) are shown in Figure (a) and (b).

The battery is connected to the diode through a potentiometer (or rheostat) so that the

applied voltage to the diode can be changed. For different values of voltages, the value of the

current is noted. A graph between V and I is obtained as shown in Figure (c).

 ARUL INSTITUTE, CHENNAI
A milli-ammeter is used to measure the current during forward bias while a micro-ammeter

is used to measure the current during reverse bias.

During forward bias, the current first increases very slowly, almost negligibly, till the voltage

across the diode crosses a certain value. After that characteristic voltage, the diode current

increases significantly (exponentially). This voltage is called the threshold voltage or cut-in

voltage (~0.2V for germanium diode and ~0.7 V for silicon diode).

During reverse bias, the current is very small (~µA) and almost remains constant with change

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in bias. It is called reverse saturation current. However, for special cases, at very high reverse
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bias (break down voltage), the current suddenly increases. The general purpose diode are not

used beyond the reverse saturation current region.

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The above discussion shows that the p-n junction diode primarily allows the flow of current
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only in one direction (forward bias). The forward bias resistance is low as compared to the

reverse bias resistance. This property is used for rectification of ac voltages.

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For diodes, we define a quantity called dynamic resistance as the ratio of small change in
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voltage ∆V to a small change in current ∆I:

∆V
rd =
∆I
 ARUL INSTITUTE, CHENNAI
APPLICATION OF JUNCTION DIODE AS A RECTIFIER

The process in which alternating voltage or alternating current is converted into direct

voltage or direct current is known as rectification. The device used for this process is called

as rectifier.

A junction diode allows current to pass only when it is forward biased. So if an alternating

voltage is applied across a diode the current flows only in that part of the cycle when the

diode is forward biased. This property is used to rectify alternating voltages and the circuit

used for this purpose is called a rectifier.

HALF WAVE RECTIFIER

The half wave rectifier circuit consists of a transformer, a p-n junction diode and a load

resistor as shown in the figure.

The secondary of a transformer supplies the desired ac voltage across terminals A and B.
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When the positive half cycle of the AC input signal passes through the circuit, the terminal A

is positive with respect to terminal B. The diode is forward biased and hence it conducts. The

current flows through the load resistor RL and the output voltage is developed across RL as

shown in the figure.

When the negative half cycle of the AC input signal passes through the circuit, the terminal A

is negative with respect to terminal B. Now the diode is reverse biased and does not conduct.

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The reverse saturation current of a diode is negligible and hence no current flows through RL.

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The output of the half wave rectifier is not a steady DC voltage but a pulsating voltage. This
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pulsating voltage cannot be used for electronic equipments. A steady voltage is required
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which can be obtained with the help of filter circuits.
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Since only one half of the ac input wave is rectified, it is called as half wave rectifier.
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 ARUL INSTITUTE, CHENNAI
FULL WAVE RECTIFIER

The positive and negative half cycles of the AC input signal are rectified in this circuit and

hence it is called the full wave rectifier.

Here the p-side of the two diodes are connected to the ends of the secondary of the

transformer. The n-side of the diodes are connected together and the output is taken between

this common point of diodes and the midpoint of the secondary of the transformer. So for a

full-wave rectifier, the secondary of the transformer is provided with a centre tapping and so

it is called centre-tap transformer.

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Suppose if the input voltage at A is positive with respect to the centre tap, then the input

voltage at B will be negative (out of phase) as shown in the figure (b). The diode D1 is forward

biased and conducts whereas the diode D2 is reverse biased and does not conduct. Hence the

current flows through the load resistor RL and the output voltage is developed across RL as

shown in the figure (c).

At any instant if the input voltage at A is negative with respect to the centre tap, then the

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input voltage at B will be positive. So, the diode D1 is reverse biased and does not conduct

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whereas the diode D2 is forward biased and conducts. Hence the current again flows through
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the load resistor RL and the output voltage is developed across RL as shown in the figure (c).
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Since both the positive and negative half cycles of the AC input signal are rectified in this

circuit, it is more efficient than half-wave rectifier.

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 ARUL INSTITUTE, CHENNAI
FULL WAVE RECTIFIER WITH CAPACITOR FILTER

The rectified voltage is in the form of pulses of the shape of half sinusoids. Though it is

unidirectional it does not have a steady value. To get steady dc output from the pulsating

voltage normally a capacitor is connected across the output terminals (parallel to the load

RL). One can also use an inductor in series with RL for the same purpose. Since these

additional circuits appear to filter out the ac ripple and give a pure dc voltage, so they are

called filters.

When the voltage across the capacitor is rising, it gets charged. If there is no external load, it

remains charged to the peak voltage of the rectified output. When there is a load, it gets

discharged through the load and the voltage across it begins to fall. In the next half-cycle of

rectified output it again gets charged to the peak value. The rate of fall of the voltage across

the capacitor depends inversely upon the product of capacitance C and the effective resistance

RL used in the circuit and is called the time constant. To make the time constant large value,

C should be large. So capacitor input filters use large capacitors. The output voltage obtained

by using capacitor input filter is nearer to the peak voltage of the rectified voltage. This type

of filter is most widely used in power supplies.