VLDD- III ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF ANIMAL NUTRITION 1+1

Theory-
Introductory coverage only of following topics-

 Nutritional terms and their definitions.

 Introductory reference to feeds and Fodder, Dry Roughages, Green Fodder,
Ingredients of Concentrate, Feed Supplements, Additives, Non- Conventional Feed
Resources, Lipid and Protein in Animal Nutrition.
 Requirements for maintenance, growth, reproduction, lactation, egg production,
wool production and work/ draft.
 Primary methods of Nutritional Evaluation of Feed.
 Initial Concept of green and dry fodders for Kharif and rabi. Opening note on
grasses, hay, haylage, silage, blocks, ammonification of straw, their classification,
availability and importance for livestock and poultry production.
 Various physical, chemical and biological methods of feed processing for improving
the nutritive value of inferior quality roughages.
 General understanding about preparation, storage and conservation of livestock
feed though silage and hay and their uses in livestock feeding.
 Primary knowledge of importance of vitamins in health and production, their
requirements and supplementation in feed.
 General awareness about feed additives in the rations of livestock and poultry.
 Common principles of computation of rations.
 General statement about formulation of rations and feeding of dairy cattle and
buffaloes during different phases of growth, development and production (
neonate, young, mature, pregnant, lactating and dry animals; breeding bull and
working animals).
 General account about formulation of ration and feeding of sheep during different
phase of growth, development and production ( milk, meat and hairs). Formulation
of ration and feeding of poultry for egg production.
 Common account about balanced ration and its characteristics. Outline of feeding of
diseased animals. Introductory knowledge of Commonly used feed and forages for
equines.
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 Role of minerals and vitamins in equine feeding.
 Nutritional problems in equine.
 Skills to enable students to formulate ration for various species of animals including
ruminants and non- ruminants.
 Hands on training in Feed Mill operations, compounding of feed and least cost feed
formulation, reaspecific UMMB/ feed blocks, proximate analysis of the various feed
ingredients, the role of various nutrients viz. carbohydrate, protein, fat, mineral,
vitamin on animal health and production.
 Skill acquisition for guiding villagers regarding feed, fodder and cattle to increase
milk yield, procurement of seeds for demonstration plots, for improvement of poor
quality available feed fodder within reasonable cost.

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 CHAPTER-1
1. Additives: An ingredient or substance added to a basic feed mix, usually in small
quantities, for the purpose of fortifying it with certain nutrients, stimulants and/or
medicines.
2. AD Libitum: Free-choice access to feed
3. Air dry (approximately 90% dry matter): This refers to feed that is dried by
means of natural air movement, usually in the open. It may be either an actual or an
assumed dry matter content, the latter is approximately 90 per cent
4. Apparent Metabolizable energy (ME): It is the gross energy of the feed consumed
minus the gross energy contained in the faeces, urine and gaseous products of
digestion. For poultry the gaseous products are usually negligible, so ME represents
the gross energy of the feed minus the gross energy of the excreta.
5. Appetite: This immediate desire to eat when feed present. Loss of appetite in an
animal is usually caused by illness of stress.
6. Ash: The mineral matter of a feed. The residues that remain after complete
incineration of the organic matter.
7. Balanced Ration: One which provides an animal the proper amounts and
proportions of all the required nutrients.
8. Biological value of a protein: The percentage of the protein of a feed or feed
mixture which is usable as a protein by the animal. Thus, the biological value of a
protein is a reflection of the kinds of amounts of amino acid available to the animal
after digestion. A protein which has a high biological value is said to be of good
quality.
9. By-product feeds: The innumerable roughage and concentrates obtained as
secondary products from plant and animal processing and from industrial
manufacturing
10. Cake (press cake): The mass resulting from the pressing of seeds, meat or fish in
order to remove oils, fats or other liquids.
11. Cereals: A plant in the gross family (Graminae), the seeds of which are used for
human and animal food; e.g. Maize and wheat.
12. Coefficient or digestibility: The percentage value of a food nutrient that is
absorbed. For example, if a food contains 10 grams of nitrogen and it is found that 9.5
grams are absorbed, the digestibility is 95 per cent.
13. Concentrate: A broad classification of feedstuffs which are high in energy and low in
crude fibre (under 18%). For convenience concentrates are often broken down (1)
carbonaceous feeds and (2) nitrogenous feeds.
14. Crumbles: Pelleted feed reduced to granular form.
15. Decortications: Removal of the bark, hull, husk or shell from a plant, seed or root.
Removal of portions of the cortical substance of a structure or organ, as in the brain,
kidney and lung is called decortications.
16. Dehulled: Grains or other seeds with the outer covering removed.
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17. Dehydrate: To remove moist or all moisture from a substance for the purpose of
preservation, primarily through artificial drying.
18. Gross Energy (GE): is the energy released as heat when a substance is completely
oxidized to carbon dioxide and water. Gross energy is also referred to as the heat of
combustion. It is generally measured using 25 to 30 atmospheres of oxygen in a
bomb calorimeter.
19. Hulls: Outer covering of grain or other seed, especially when dry.
20. Hypocalcaemia: Below normal concentration of ionic calcium in blood resulting in
convulsion as in tetany or parturient paresis (milk fever).
21. Hypomagnesaemia: An abnormally low level of magnesium in the blood.
22. Malnutrition: Any disorder of nutrition, commonly used to indicate a state of
inadequate nutrition
23. Nutrients: The chemical substance found in feed materials that can be used and are
necessary, for the maintenance, production and health of animals. The chief classes
of nutrients are carbohydrates, fats proteins, minerals, vitamins and water.
24. Ration(s): The amount of feed supplied to an animal for a definite period, usually for
a 24 hour period. However by practical usage the word ration implies the feed fed to
an animal without limitation to the time in which it is consumed.

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 CHAPTER -2

CLASSIFICATION OF FEED- FEED

Roughage Concentrate
C.F.>18 % C.F.<18%
T.D.N<60 % T.D.N>60%

Dry roughage Succulent Roughage

Water<10-15% Water>60-90%
D.M. >80-90% D.M.< 20-30%
Hay Straw
Leguminous Leguminous
C.P= 10.5 or above D.C.P=2-3%
Ca= 0.9 or above T.D.N=30-40%
Non-leguminous Non-leguminous
C.P= 6- 10.5 D.C.P=0-1%
Ca= 0.9 or below T.D.N=40-50%
Mixed hay

Cultivated fodder Silage Top feed Pasture

According to cultivation (Tree leaves) (natural/cultivated)
 Rabi(Oct- mar)
 Kharif (Jun-Oct)
 Zaid(Apr-Jun)
According to protein content
Non leguminous
D.C.P=1-2%
T.D.N= 15-17%
Leguminous
D.C.P=2-3%
T.D.N=10-12%
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 Concentrate

Energy rich concentrate Protein rich concentrate

C.P<18% C.P>18%

Cereal grain Mill by product Mollasses Root and tuber

eg -Maize, sorghum, Wheat bran, rice bran
Barley etc D.C.P=10%
T.D.N=72%

Plant protein Animal protein NPN substances Single cell protein

C.P.>47% Subs. N2 Bacteria
Examples- Urea 45% Algae
Fish meal- D.C.P=60% Biuret 35% Yeast
Bone meal-C.P=40% Poultry lit.05%
Meat meal-C.P=50-55%
Blood meal-C.P=80%
Feather meal-C.P=80%
Hatchery by product-C.P=45-55%

Oil seeds Oil cakes Pulses Brewer yeast &Brewer grain

E.E>17% CSC, MSC, soyabean feed

Ghani Expellar Solvent extracted

Mineral supplements (Natural or pure elements)

Vitamin supplements (Natural or pure elements)

Non - nutritive additives (Antibiotics, Antioxidants, Buffers, Colour & flavours,

Emulsifying agents)
Enzymes, Hormones, Medicines
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 ENERGY SOURCES-
Cereal grains:
(Maize, barley, oats, wheat, rice, rye, millets, sorghum and Bajra)
 Cereal grains are rich in starch containing 8-12% of crude protein with low lysine
and methionine, 2-5% fats, less than 0.15% of calcium and relatively higher
phosphorus to the extent of 0.3-0.5%.
 Phosphorus in cereals is present in the form of phytates, which has the ability to
immobilize dietary calcium.
 Cereal grains are rich source of thiamine and vitamin E but deficient in vitamin A
and riboflavin except yellow maize, which is rich in Provitamin A.
 The commonly used cereals in feed are maize, barley, oats, wheat, rice etc,.
 CP: 8-12% ,TDN: 68-72%, Fat: 2-5% ,Low in lysine, Methionine in the form of
phytates , Ca; 0.15%; P 0.3 –5.0%
Maize or Corn (Zea maize):
 Maize has high Metabolisable energy value with low fibre content and 8-13% of
 The maize kernel contains two main proteins Zein and Glutelin.
 Recently, new variety of maize (Floury 2) was produced at UK with high
methionine and lysine.
 Farm animals are fed with crushed maize.
 Flaked maize decreases the acetic acid to propionic acid proportion in rumen and
hence depresses the butterfat content of milk.
 Improperly stored maize having higher moisture content is prone to aspergillus
flavus infestation and produce aflatoxin.
 High TDN: 85%
 Prone to Aflatoxin
 Flaked maize depress milk fat%
Barley (Hordeum vulgare):
 Barley has high fibre content with 6-14% of crude protein having low lysine and
less than 2% of oil content.
 Barley is a main concentrate food for fattening pigs in UK.
 The awns of barley should be removed, crimped or coarsely ground before
feeding poultry or swine.
 Variety “Notch 2” developed at UK is rich in lysine.
Oats (Avena sativa):
 Oats has highest crude fibre of 12 - 16% with 7-15% of crude protein.
 Methionine, histidine and tryptophan are deficient in oats but abundant in
Gluatamic acid.
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 Cattle and sheep are fed with crushed or bruised oats whereas pigs and poultry
are fed with ground oats.
Wheat (Triticum aestivum):
 Wheat contains 6-12% of crude protein.
 The endosperm contains prolamin (gliadin) and glutelin (glutenin) protein
mixture, which is referred as gluten.
 Wheat gluten decides whether the flour is suitable for bread or biscuit making.
 Strong gluten is preferred for bread making since it form dough, which traps the
gasses, produced during yeast fermentation.
 Finely milled wheat is unpalatable to animals because it forms the pasty mass in
the mouth and may lead to digestive upset.
Rice (Oryza sativa):
 The crude protein and energy values are comparable to maize.
 It is widely used for human consumption.
Rye (Secale cereale):
 Rye is similar to wheat in composition and regarded as least palatable among
cereals.
 Rye is prone to ergot infestation. Rye should be crushed and fed to livestock.
Millets:
 Millets are cereals having high percent of fibre and produce small grains and are
mostly grown in tropics.e.g. Sorghum, Bajra, etc.
Sorghum /Jowar / Milo (Sorghum vulgare):
 Sorghum is similar to maize in chemical composition but they have higher protein
and low fat than maize.
 Pig and poultry can be fed with cracked grain whereas cattle are fed with ground
sorghum.
Bajra / Cumbu (Pennensetum typhoides):
 Nutritive value of Bajra is similar to sorghum with 8-12% of crude protein and
rich tannin content.
 Seeds are hard so they have to be ground or crushed before feeding to cattle.

MILLING BY-PRODUCTS:
Bran:
 It is the outer coarse coat of the grain separated during processing. E.g. rice
bran, wheat bran, maize bran.
Rice bran:
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 Rice bran is a valuable product with 12-14% of protein and 11-18% oil mostly
with unsaturated fatty acids and hence it becomes rancid rapidly.
 The oil removed rice bran is available as deoiled rice bran in the market for
livestock feeding.
Wheat bran:
 Wheat bran is an excellent food for horses with more fibre content.
 It is laxative when mashed with warm water but tends to counteract scouring
when it was given dry.
 It is not commonly fed to pigs and poultry because of the fibrous nature and low
digestibility..
Flour:
 Flour is soft, finely ground meal of the grains with 16% protein and 1-1.5%
crude fibre consisting primarily of gluten and starch from endosperm. E.g. corn
flour.
Gluten:
 Gluten is a tough substance obtained after the removal of starch from flour.
 This is not usually given as a feed to non- ruminants due to poor quality
protein, bulkiness, unpalatability.
 E.g. corn gluten
Middling:
 A byproduct from flour milling industry comprising several grades of granular
particles of bran, endosperm and germ.
 Middlings contain 15-20% protein and deficient in calcium.
Grain screening:
 Small imperfect grains, weed seeds and other foreign materials of value as a feed,
separated through cleaning of grains with screen is called grain screening.
 Nutritive value varies according to proportion of weed and foreign materials.
Polishing:
 During rice polishing this byproduct accumulates to contain 10-15% protein,
12% fat and 3-4% crude fibre.
 It is rich in B- complex and good source of energy.
 Due to high fat content rancidity may occur.
Molasses:
 It is a byproduct produced during juice / extract prepared from selected plant
material.
 It is a concentrated water solution of sugars, hemicellulose and minerals.
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 Four varities of molasses are commonly available viz.
 Cane molasses,
 Beet molasses,
 Citrus molasses and
 Wood molasses.
 Cane molasses is a product of sugar industry and contains 3% protein with 10%
ash.
 While Beet molasses is a product during production of beet sugar and has higher
protein (6%).
 Citrus molasses is bitter in taste with highest protein (14%) and produced when
oranges or grapes are processed for juice.
 Wood molasses is a product of paper industry with 2% protein and palatable to
cattle.
 Molasses is a good source of energy and an appetiser.
 It reduces dustiness in ration and is very useful as binder in pellet making.
 Molasses can be included upto 15% in cattle ration and upto 5% in poultry
ration.
 The molasses quality in terms of sweetness is indicated in Brix unit.
 Cane molasses usually have 80.0 degree Brix unit.

Protein supplement-
S.N. Animal protein Plant protein
1 Mostly over 47% protein Mostly under 47% protein
2 Mostly over 1% ca Mostly under1% ca
3 Mostly over 1.5% phosphorus Mostly under 1.5% phosphorus
4 Mostly under 2.5% fiber Mostly over 2.5% fiber
e.g. Bone meal, blood meal, fish meal, Eg. Oil seed cake
meat meal

Oil seed cake-

 Oil seed proteins have low cysteine and methionine and lysine content.
 Oil bearing seeds are grown for many purposes like vegetable oil for human, for
paints and other industrial purposes.
 The byproducts left after extraction of oil from oil seeds are used for feeding all
kinds of livestock.
Groundnut cake-
 Groundnut cake is one of the best protein supplements for livestock feeding.
 Groundnut cake has about 45% protein, which is deficient in cysteine, methionine and
lysine, but good source of Vitamin B12 and calcium.
Soyabean meal-
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 Soybean meal contains 44% crude protein with all indispensable amino acids
except cysteine, methionine whose concentrations are sub- optimal.
 It can be fed to all livestock including poultry up to 30% of the ration.
 The common adulterant includes urea castor husk and Mahua oil cake.
Sunflower cake-
 Sunflower cake contains 40% of protein with low lysine and twice the amount
of methionine than soy protein.
 It has very short shelf-life.
 The expeller variety of sunflower seed meal or cake has high content of
polyunsaturated fatty acids that tends to produce soft pork in pigs and soft
butter in cows when fed in large amount.
 It can be fed to cattle ration up to 20% level and 10% to poultry ration.
 Sunflower cake is not recommended for calves, lambs, chicks and young pigs.
Cotton seed cake-
 It has a good quality of protein but with low content of cysteine, methionine
and lysine.
 The calcium to phosphorus ratio is about 1:6, so calcium deficiency may occur.
 It cannot be fed to pigs and poultry due its dusty nature.
 Lactating cows can be fed with cotton seed meal but when it was given large
amount, milk may become hard and firm, so butter made from such milk fat is
difficult to churn and may also tend to develop tallowy taints.
Coconut meal cake-
 It contains 20-26% crude protein with low lysine and histidine content and
2.5-6.5% oil content.
 The higher oil in meals tends to get rancid and may cause diarrhoea; hence
low oil content meal should be preferred.
 It should be restricted in swine and poultry as it contains low protein and high
fibre and low fibre coconut meal can be fed to monogastrics animals with
lysine and methionine supplements.
 Coconut meal produces firm milk fat that is most suitable for butter making.
Linseed meal-
• Linseed cake/meal is not suitable to poultry but good feed to horses and
ruminants.
• Linseed is rich protein source with low methionine and lysine content and also
rich in phosphorus part of which is present as phytates but has only moderate
content calcium.
Mustard oil cake-
 Its nutritive value is lesser than groundnut cake.
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 D.C.P and T.D.N values are 27% and 74 % respectively.
 Up to 10% of the ration, it can be fed to poultry and for pigs it may be up to 20%.
 It has rich calcium and phosphorus content of about 0.6% and 0.1% respectively.
Sesame seed meal/ gingelly oil cake/ til oilcake-
 It contains 40% protein rich in leucine, arginine and methionine but low
lysine.
 Sesame seed meal has laxative action and can be included in the cattle ration
upto 15%.
 Sesame seed meal is not suitable to young pigs and poultry.
Beans and peas
 Beans rich source of good quality protein.
 Similar to that of fishmeal protein it has high lysine content but low cysteine and
methionine than common animal and vegetable protein sources.
 Peas are similar to beans but low protein with 26% of dry matter and crude fibre
with less than 6% of dry matter.
 The oil content is higher than beans but with similar degree of saturation.
 Like beans, peas are primary source of protein.
Animal protein-
Fish meal-
 It has high levels of protein, amino acids like lysine, methionine and
tryptophan and minerals like calcium and phosphorus.
 Apart from these, fishmeal is rich in vitamin B complex and growth promoting
effect of Animal Protein Factor (APF).
Bone meal &meat meal-
 The carcasses of animals can be used as meat meals after drying or grinding.
 The product must be substantially free of hooves, horns, bristle, hair and
feathers, skin and contents of stomach and viscera.
 Its protein content ranges from 60-70% useful as lysine supplement but less
amount of amino acids like methionine and tryptophan affect their protein
quality.
 It has fat level upto 9%.
Liver residue meal-
• A good quality of this meal should contain 65% protein, 5%lysine, and nearly
1%methionine and cysteine.
• It is offered at about 5 to 10% diet level in poultry and animal feeding.
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Blood meal-
 This meal is obtained by drying the blood of slaughtered animals and poultry.
 Rich source of lysine, methionine, leucine with 80% protein but deficient in
isoleucine and hence low biological value.
 It is a good food for boosting dietary lysine levels but is unpalatable.
Hatchery waste-

 It is otherwise known as Incubator waste or Hatchery By Product Meal (HBPM).

 The mixture of infertile, unhatched eggs and eggshells have been cooked, dried, and
powdered to produce this kind of meal.
Feather meal-
 Poultry feathers are more prone to get Salmonella infection easily, so strict controls
have to be maintained while processing this meal.
 This meal is not recommended for weaner, creep fed pigs or chicks.
Poultry litter-
 Dried poultry excreta have been used as ruminant feed.
SNF- it’s used in simple stomach animal.
Whey-
 Most of the whey protein is B-lactoglobulin and is used as a constituent in milk
replacer for young calves.
NPN-
 NPN is an important source of nitrogen for ruminant animals.
 It is a nitrogen rich (46%), white, crystalline compound with the formula NH2-
C=O-NH2.
 Rumen microbes hydrolyze urea with the help of urease enzyme and produce
ammonia.
 The wastage of nitrogen may occur with excessive absorption of ammonia
from the rumen leading to ammonia toxicity which causes ataxia, muscular
twitching, tetany, excessive salivation, bloat and respiratory disorders.
 Growing and lactating ruminants are fed with urea, which is incorporated into
the concentrate portion of the ration at 3% or at 1% of total dry matter intake
through complete diet.
 The maximum safe limit is 136g of urea per animal over 260kg of body weight.
 Urea should never be fed to monogastrics animals, birds and young rumiants.
Biuret-
 Heating urea produces Biuret.
 It is a colourless, crystalline compound having 40.8% nitrogen equivalent to
225% of crude protein.

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 Feed additives-
What is an Additive?
 An additive is a substance that is added to a basic feed, usually in small quantities, for
the purpose of fortifying it with certain nutrients, stimulants or medicines other than as
a direct source of nutrient.
 In general, the term “feed additive” refers to a non-nutritive product that affects
utilisation of the feed or productive performance of the animal. Feed additives and
implants can be classed according to their mode of action.

Types of Feed additives

Additives that influence feed stability, feed manufacturing and properties
of feeds
 Antifungals
 Antioxidants
 Pellet binders
Additives that modify animal growth, feed efficiency, metabolism and
performance
 Feed flavours
 Digestion modifiers
 Enzymes
 Prebiotics
 Buffers
 Acidifiers
 Ionophores
 Antibloats compound
 Isoacids
 Salivation inducers
 Probiotics
 Defaunating agents
 Metabolism modifiers
 Hormones
Beta-adrenergic agents (repartitioning agents)
 Growth promotants
 Antibiotics
 Chemotherapeutic agents
 Additives that modify animal health
 Drugs
 Immunomodulators
 Additives that modify consumer acceptance
 Xanthophylls
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Antioxidants
 Antioxidants are compounds that prevent oxidative rancidity of polyunsaturated
fats. Rancidity once develops, may cause destruction of vitamins A, D and E and
several of the B complex vitamins.
 Breakdown products of rancidity may react with lysine and thus affects the protein
value of the ration. Ethoxyquin or BHT (butylated hydroxytoluene) can serve as
antioxidant in feed.
Flavouring Agent
 Flavouring agents are feed additives that are supposed to increase palatability
and feed intake.
 There is need for flavouring agents that will help to keep up feed intake
 When highly unpalatable medicants are being mixed
 During attacks of diseases
 When animals are under stress, and
 When less palatable feedstuffs is being fed either as such or being
incorporated in the ration.
 Ruminants prefer sweet compounds. Additionally cattle and goats respond
positively to salts of volatile fatty acids.
 Horses will often refuse musty feed when there is so little mould that the
owner fails to detect it.

Grit
 Poultry do not have teeth to grind any hard grain, most grinding takes place in the
thick musculated gizzard.
 The more thoroughly feed is ground; the more surface area is created for digestion
and subsequent absorption. Hence, when hard, coarse or fibrous feeds are fed to
poultry, grit is sometimes added to supply additional surface for grinding within
gizzard.
 When mash or finely ground feeds are fed, the values of grit become less. Oyster
shells, coquina shells and limestone are used as grit.

Buffers and Neutralizers

 During maximum production stage ruminants are given high doses of concentrate
feeds for meeting demands for extra energy and protein requirement of the animal.
 The condition on the other hand lowers the pH of the rumen. Since many of the
rumen microbes cannot tolerate low pH environment, the normally heterogeneous
balanced population of microbes become skewed, favouring the acidophilic (acid-
loving) bacteria.
 The condition often leads to acidosis and thereby upsets normal digestion.

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 The addition of feed buffers and neutralisers, such as carbonates, bicarbonates,
hydroxides, oxides, salts of VFA, phosphate salts, ammonium chloride and sodium
sulphate have been shown to have beneficial effects.
 Recently the use of baking soda (NaHCO3) has been shown to increase average daily
gain by about 10 per cent, feed efficiency by 5 to 10 per cent, and milk production by
about 0.5 liter per head per day.
Chelates
 Organic chelates of mineral elements, which are cyclic compounds, are the most
important factors controlling absorption of a number of mineral elements.
 A particular element in chelated form may be released in ionic form at the intestinal
wall or might be readily absorbed as the intact chelate.
 Chelates may be of naturally occurring substances such as chlorophyll, cytochromes,
haemoglobin, vitamin B12, some amino acids, etc., or may be of synthetic substances
like ethylenediaminetetracetic acid (EDTA.)
Antibiotics
 These are substances which are produced by living organisms (mould, bacteria or
green plants) and which in small concentration have bacteriostatic or bactericidal
properties.
 They were originally developed for medical and veterinary purposes to control
specific pathogenic organisms.
 Later it was discovered that certain antibiotics could increase the rate of growth of
young pigs and chicks when included in their diet in small amounts.
 Soon after this report a wide range of antibiotics have been tested and the following
have been shown to have growth promoting properties: penicillin, oxytetracycline
(Terramycin), chlortetracycline, bacitracin, streptomycin, tyrothricin, gramicidin,
neomycin, erythromycin and flavomycin.
 Increased weight gain is most evident during the period of rapid growth and then
decreases.
 Antibiotics should be used only for
 Growing and fattening pigs for slaughter as pork or bacon;
 Growing chicks and turkey poults for killing as table poultry.
 Antibiotics should not be used in the feed of ruminant animals (cattle, sheep and
goats), breeding pigs and breeding and laying poultry stock.
Probiotics
 it is defined as a live microbial feed supplement, which beneficially affects the host
animals by improving its intestional microbial balance
 Stimulation of immunity.
 Thus resulting in increased growth rate, improved feed efficiency

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Hormone
 These are chemicals released by a specific area of the body (ductless glands) and
are transported to another region within the animal where they elicit a
physiological response.
 Extensive use is being made of synthetic and purified estrogens, androgens,
progestogens, growth hormones and thyroxine or thyroprotein (iodinated casein)
to stimulate the growth and fattening of meat producing animals. There is concern,
however, about possible harmful effects of any residues of these materials in the
meat or milk for the consumers.
Antibloat compounds:
 Surfactants such as poloxalene is used as a preventive for pasture bloat, several
other products have been shown to be highly effective to prevent bloat are also
available in the market.
Antifungal additives:
 Mould inhibitors are added to feed liable to be contaminated with various types of
fungi such as Aspergillus flavus, Penicillium cyclopium etc.
 Antifungals such as Nystatin and copper sulphate preparations are also in use to
concentrate feeds to prevent moulds.
Anticoccidials-
 Various brands of Anticoccidials are now available in the country to prevent the
growth of coccidia which are protozoa and live inside the cells of the intestinal
lining of livestock.
Antihelmintics-
 Under some practical feeding conditions Antihelmintics have also been used. The
compounds act by reducing parasitic infections

17
 Forages -
Non legumes legumes
C.P. 5-10% 20-25%
Ca 0.3-0.5% 1.4-1.6%
P 0.2-0.35% 0.1-3%
Pasture

Natural Cultivated

Permanent Temporary

Nutrients in the pasture-

1. C.P.-3-30%
2. C.F.-20-40%
3. Moisture- 60-85%
4. Rich in carotene

Nitrate poisoning-
 Nitrate is a non protein nitrogenous fraction (NPN) present in forages.
 Nitrate itself is not toxic to animals.
 The toxic effect on ruminants is caused by the reduction of nitrate to nitrite in the
rumen.
 Recently fertilized plants have higher nitrate levels.
 Grazing herbage containing more than 700 ppm of nitrate nitrogen / kg dry matter is
considered to produce toxic effect by converting to nitrite.
Bloat-
 Occurs in grazing land with predominant legumes like lucerne and clover.
 Ruminants carry an active population of microorganisms that generate large volumes
of gas during the normal process of digestion.
 This gas either is belched up or passes through the gastrointestinal tract.
 Bloat occurs when eructation of gas is interfered.
 Natural foaming agents (Saponin) in legumes cause stable foam to form in the rumen.
 Gas is trapped in small bubbles in this foam in the rumen and the animal cannot
belch up the gas.
 Pressure builds up in the rumen causing an obvious swelling on the left side of the
body.
18
  Vegetable oils are effective for preventing and treating pasture bloat because they
break down the frothy condition in the rumen contents.
Phyto-estrogens-
Causes infertility, Dystocia other reproductive problem.
Goitrogenic substance-
The genus Brassica includes cabbages, turnips and cauliflower. They contain
goitrogenic substance – thiocyanate which interferes with the uptake of iodine by
thyroid gland leading to goiter.
System of grazing-
Three system of grazing are followed.
 Continuous grazing.
 Rotational grazing and
 Strip grazing.
 In continuous grazing animals are kept on the same area throughout the year.
 In rotational grazing, the livestock are periodically moved to fresh paddocks,
to allow pastures to regrow.
 Strip grazing is a grazing management system that involves giving the
livestock a fresh allocation of pasture each day.
Cereal fodder –
 Cereal crops cultivated for fodder includes sorghum, maize, oats and Bajra.
 On dry matter basis the crude protein content ranges from 8-12% with calcium
content of 0.4-0.6% and phosphorus content of 0.2-0.5%.
 Cereal fodders are annual crops and the fodder should be harvervested at 2/3rd or 50
% flowering stage (around 45 to 60 days for most of the crops).
Cultivated grasses-
 Cultivated grasses includes Bajra Napier hybrid, Guinea grass, para grass. On dry
matter basis the crude protein content ranges from 6-10% with calcium content of
0.4-0.6% and phosphorus content of 0.2-0.4%.
 Grass fodders are perennial in nature and have to be harvested at the recommended
intervals. First harvest of Hybrid Napier, Guinea grass and Para grass is done at 75
days after planting and the subsequent cuttings are done at 45 days interval.
Cultivated legume fodder-
 Berseem, cowpea, lucerne, desmanthus and stylo are the common leguminous
crops grown in India. On dry matter basis, they contain from 15-25 per cent crude
protein with 1-2% calcium and 0.2-0.4% phosphorus leading to wide calcium to
phosphorus ratio.
 Annual fodders such as Berseem and Cowpea should be harvervested at 50%
flowering stage and are ready by 50-60 days.
19
 Tree fodder-
 The crude protein content ranges from 7-9% in non-leguminous tree fodders
to 19-22% in leguminous tree fodders.
 The calcium content ranges from 1-3 % and phosphorus ranges from 0.3-0.5%.
 The major constraint in the use of tree fodders is the presence of anti-
nutritional factors.
Subabool – Mimosine:
Root and tubers
Roots are underground parts of plant e.g., Turnip, beet root, carrot etc.,
Crop residues

Straw Stover Aerial portion Other

wheat Maize Sugarcane tops Corn cobs
Paddy Sorghum Groundnut haulms Bagasse
Oat Soyabean haulms Reanut hull
Barley Rice hull
Millets

Non-conventional feed resources (NCFR)-

NFCR refers to all those feeds that have not been tradionally used in animal feed or are
not used in the rations of commercially produced animals.
Uses-
 Increase demand in feed, rapid growth in population and shrinkage of land area
reduces the further hopes of animals of livestock’
 It is therefore good the examine for cheaper feed resources that improve the
digestibility of low-quality feed and also improve intake.
 Feedstuff such as sugar beet pulp, citrus pulp, fish offals, poultry litter, cactus,
kitchen wastes, cassava, field and plantation crops are commonly used.
Nutrient composition of unconventional feeds
S. No. CP % DCP % TDN % ME
(Kcal/kg)
1 Corn cobs 3.5 0 43 1500
2 Sugarcane tops 6.4 2.7 45 1600
3 Banana stem 3.3 0 40 -
4 Coffee husk 10.0 3.4 42 1500
5 Brewery grains 19.2 - - -
6 Groundnut 6.7 0.9 24.0 850
husk
20
 7 Tamarind seed 15.4 5.3 60.0 2200
8 Tapioca waste 4.9 2.0 65.0 2300
9 Bagasse 2.5 0 45 -
10 Acacia pods 14.0 10.5 73 2600
11 Water hyacinth - 4 40 -
12 Chicken 33.6 23.1 - -
excreta
13 Silk worm 65.6 - - -
pupae meal
14 Gram chuni - - - -
15 Mango seed 8.5 6.1 70 2600
kernel

CP DCP TDN

Acacia 11.0 3 50

Albizia lebbeck 21.0 12 50

Arto carpus 12.8 5 50

FICUS sp 9.13 3-5 50

Banana leaves 9.5 0-2 40 - 50

Banana stem 2.8

Banana tuber 8.7

SESBANIA sp 37 20 50

LEUCAENA sp 30 17 50

ZIZYPHUS sp 11 3 50

21
 CHAPTER-3
NUTRIENTS AND THEIR CLASSIFICATION
Nutrient is a substance or any food constituent that nourishes the helps in
maintenance, growth, production and reproduction of an animal

The feed nutrients are divided into six classes as Water, Proteins, Carbohydrates,
Fats, Vitamins and Minerals.
WATER
It is the most important single nutrient essential for the regulation of life.

Sources of water:

i) Drinking water
i) Feeds and fodders: The average water content of various feeds and fodders is as
below -

a. Green fodders- 75-90%

b. Silage 65-70%

c. Dry fodders 8-10%"

d. Cereal grains and their by products - 8-10%

e. Oilseed cakes 10-12%

iii) Metabolic water: It is a water produced in the body during oxidation or

metabolism of proteins, carbohydrates and fats, -

Each gram of carbohydrate, protein and fat on oxidation, yields about 0.6, 0.4 and
1.1 ml of metabolic water respectively. It is approximately 5-10% of total water
intake of animal.

22
Functions of Water:
 It is an important constituent of every living tissue.
 It is a major component of various body fluids like blood, urine, lymph, saliva,
tears etc
 It helps in lubrication of joints,
 It is an ideal solvent for nutrients,
 It plays important role in thermoregulation of body,
 It maintains acid-base equilibrium in body.
 It plays important role in metabolism of nutrients
 It helps in the transportation of nutrients through blood to all tissues
 It helps in the excretion of metabolic waste products and toxicants through urine
 It helps to maintain strength and rigidity of cell.
 It keeps the gastro-intestinal, reproductive and urogenital tracts moist.
 It helps in the transmission of sight and sound due to its refractive action.

PROTEIN
 Proteins are defined as the complex organic nitrogenous compounds consisting of
various amino acids joined together peptide linkages.
 They are usually composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen.
 Sometimes they may also contain sulphur, phosphorus, iron or copper
 Protein, is the only nutrient that contains nitrogen in its structure

23
Amino acids
Amino acids are the building blocks of proteins,
The various amino acids that form the protein molecule are of two types.
a) Essential Amino Acids:
 These are not synthesized in the body in adequate amount to permit normal
growth.
 These should be essentially supplied through diet.
 These are also called as indispensable amino acids.
e.g.: Arginine, Valine, Histidine, Isoleticine, Leucine, Lysine, Methionine, -
Phenylalanine, Tryptophan and Threonine

b) Non-Essential Amino Acids: -

 These are synthesized in the body in adequate amount to ensure normal growth.
 These are not essentially required to be supplied in the diet.
 These are also called as dispensable amino acids. .
e.g.: Gluatamic acid, Aspartic acid, Serine, Cysteine, Alanine, Tyrosine, Proline,
Hydroxyproline, Citruline, Glycine
Classification of Proteins:

The proteins are commonly classified as below –

1. Simple proteins - They yield only amino acids or their derivatives upon
hydrolysis. eg, Albumins, Globulins.

2. Conjugated proteins: They consist of simple proteins combined with non protein
radical ie. Prosthetic group.
Eg Glycoproteins, Lipoproteins, Nucleoproteins, Phosphoproteins , Flavoprotein.
3. Derived proteins: These are the breakdown products of naturally occurring
proteins.

e.g., Proteoses, Peptones, Peptides.

Functions of Protein:
 It is structural and functional unit of cell:
 It has a role in growth of new tissue and repair of old tissue
 It is constituent of antibodies.
 4) It is constituent of enzymes.
24
 It is component of hormones like thyroxine adrenaline, insulin etc.
 It is Component of milk (casein), blood ( haemoglobin and fibrinogen), wool
(keratin)
 It helps in the synthesis of bile acids i.e taurocholic acid and glycholic acid
 It supplies energy when carbohydrates and fat reserve of body is exhausted
 It is component of skin pigment i.e melanin
The quality of feed protein depends on its amino acid make up, specially the presence
of essential amino acid. In ruminant animals the quality of protein is of less
importance as they synthesize microbial protein in the rumen. The various
microorganism i.e. bacteria and protozoa in the rumen utilize nitrogen from the feed
and prepare their own body proteins called as microbial proteins. Due to
this fact non-protein nitrogenous substances like urea, Biuret also satisfy protein
requirement of the ruminant to same extent. Carbohydrates are defined as the
polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones. They are composed of carbon, hydrogen and
oxygen. These are chemically represented as (CHO). Most important carbohydrates
are commonly known as sugars.
Classification of Carbohydrates:
A) Based on their chemical Structure or presence of sugar unit.
 Monosaccharide: They consist of single polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketone unit
also called as simple sugar.
e.g. Hexoses like Glucose, Fructose, Galactose, and Mannose. Pentoses like
Ribage, Xylose, and Arabinose.
 Oligosaccharides: They contain more than one and less than ten monosaccharide
units.
e.g. Disaccharides like Sucrose, Lactose, Maltose, Cellubioge. Trisaccharide like
Raffinoses
 Polysaccharide: They are made up of many or multiple monosaccharide units he
together by glycosidic linkage.
e.g. Homopolysaccharides, like Starch Dextrnis Glycogen, Cellulose.
Heterocpolysaccharides like Hemicelluloses, Pectin, Gum, and Mucilage.

25
B) Based on their relative solubility and digestibility:
i) Crude fibre (CE): This is insoluble or les digestible Portion of carbohydrates eg.
Hemicellulose, Cellulose pectins.
ii) Nitrogen Free Extract (N. F .E ): This is soluble or more digestible portion of
carbohydrates
e.g., Sugars, Starches, Soluble portion of cellulose hemicellulose and pentosans.
Functions/Importance of Carbohydrate
 These are major source of energy to animal body
 These are component of amino acids and glycoproteins.
 These are constituent of nucleic acids ie. RNA and DNA.
 These are also component of glycolipids and fatty acids.
 Carbohydrates are present in milk in the form of lactose.
 They increase sweetness of feed.
 Crude fibre forms bulk in the rumen and satisfy hunger.
 Crude fibre increases peristaltic movements of intestine and thereby helps
toexpel undigested excreta outside the body.
 Crude fibre has a role in milk fat synthesis.
LIPIDS
Lipid is a collective term used for a wide variety of substances that vary from simple
short chain fatty acids to large-very complex molecules; they are insoluble in water
but soluble in ether and other organic solvents like benzene, chloroform or acetone.
Fats and oils are the commonly found lipids in nature. Fats are defined as the esters
of fatty acid with alcohols Fats are solid where as oils are liquid at room temperature
(25°C)
Classification of lipids:
A) Based on chemical structure:
Simple lipids: These are the esters of fatty acids with various alcohols.
26
e.g. (a) Neutral fats- These are esters of fatty acids and glycerol
(b) Waxes-These are esters of fatty acids and alcohols other than glycerol.
Compound lipids: They consists of simple lipids combined with non lipids, e.g.,
Phospholipids, Lipoproteins
Derived lipids: They include substances derived from simple or compound lipids. , .
e.g. Fatty acids, Alcohols, Sterols.
B) Based on their saponification nature:
Saponifiable lipids: They form soaps when treated with alkali
e.g., Fats, Oils, Phospholipids, Glycolipids,

Non-Saponifiable lipids: They do not form soaps when treated with alkali. e.g,
Steroids, Prostaglandins, Fat soluble vitamins, Terpenes
Fatty acids:
The fatty acids are the building block of lipids.
The fatty acids are of two types.
i) Saturated fatty acids: These are the fatty acids in which adjacent carbon atoms
are connected by single bond. They have higher melting point. e.g. Lauric, Myristic,
Palmitic, Stearic, Arachidic and Lignoceric.
ii) Unsaturated fatty acids: These are the fatty acids in which adjacent carbon
atoms are connected by double bonds, e.g., Palmitic, Oleic, Linoleic, Linolenic and
Arachidonic
. The linoleic, linolenic and archidonic fatty acids are referred as essential fatty acids
for animals.
Functions/Importance of Lipid:
 It is a rich source of energy and supplies about 225 times more energy
carbohydrate and proteins.
 It supplies essential fatty acids.
 It carries fat soluble vitamins A, D, E, & K.
 It provides insulation for the vital organs.
 It lubricates the gastro-intestinal tract.
 It delays sensation of hunger.
 It improves palatability/taste of feed.
 It is poor conductor of heat, therefore helps in heat regulation.

27
 Phospholipids are essential components of cell membrane.
 Cholesterol is interme diary precursor of steroids and bile.

28
 CHAPTER-4

Requirement for maintenance

The physiological phases

 Maintenance
 Growth
 Pregnancy
 Milk Production
 Work
 Wool production
Maintenance
 Maintaining an animal in a state of well-being or good health from day to day,
makes no growth, develops no fetus or yields no product. While formulating
rations, the maintenance nutrient requirements are satisfied first and the
requirements for other purposes are in addition to maintenance. On an
average, about one-half of all feed fed to livestock goes for maintenance.
The requirements for maintenance are as follows:
 Energy for the vital functions: heart beat, respiration, body temperature
and for voluntary activity and other vital functions.
 Protein for the repair of body tissues.
 Minerals to replace mineral losses.
 All of the vitamins are essential for maintenance.
 Water is required for essentially all body functions.
Growth
 Increase in muscle, bone, organs, and connective tissue. Growth is essential for
an animal to produce meat or to attain mature body weight.The daily growth
rate of animals increases up to puberty and then gradually declines.The
nutritive requirements for growth are in addition to those listed above for
maintenance.
 The primary nutrients required for growth:
 Protein: The dry matter of muscle and connective tissue, and to a
considerable degree, also that of bone, primarily is protein. Hence, protein is
one of the major nutritive requirements of growth. Protein for growth must
be of good quality-that is, it must contain the proper proportions and
amounts of essential amino acids at the tissue level.
 Energy in the form of net energy must be provided to meet this need in
addition to that in the protein of tissue. Also, a certain amount of additional
energy is used by the body for growth.
29
 Minerals: Since bone formation is a primary activity of growth and since
bone is high in calcium and phosphorus content, these two minerals are very
essential for growth. Other minerals are involved in the digestion and
utilization of other nutrients needed for growth.
 Vitamins: Certain vitamins function in various metabolic processes related
to nutrient utilization for growth.
Water: Fat-free muscle tissue is about 75% to 80% water.
Milk Production
 Milk is produced and secreted by the mammary glands. Nutrients for milk
production are carried by the blood to the mammary glands. The nutrients are
removed from the blood by the mammary glands, converted into milk, and
secreted into the udder more or less throughout the day.
 Nutrients for milk production must come from the feed, either directly or
indirectly via body reserves of nutrients, which come originally from the
animal's feed.
 The peak milk production is reached during 4-8 weeks after lactation starts
and the animals also lose body weight during early lactation since their
appetite is low and they may not take sufficient feed to meet the nutrient
requirements. So during peak lactation, milk yield will be high, the feed intake
will not be sufficient and the animals lose body weight.
 Nutritive requirements for milk production are in proportion to the amount of
milk produced and are over and above those for other physiological phases of
production such as maintenance, growth, fattening, fetal development, etc.
The major nutritive requirements for lactation are,
 Protein: Must be of good quality at the glandular level. Animals will not
produce milk low in protein. If ration is deficient in protein, tissue reserves of
protein may be used for milk production
 Energy: Energy over and above that for milk protein is required for the
formation of milk fat and milk sugar. Must be in the form of net energy. May
come from carbohydrates, fat, or excess protein of the ration.
 Minerals and vitamins
Wool production
 Wool is practically pure protein and contains Sulphur containing amino acids.
 The primary nutritive requirements for wool production are:
 Protein: Must be sulfur-containing as fed or as synthesized in the rumen.
 Energy: This must be in the form of net energy and can come from any feed
energy source.
 Potassium: This mineral is an essential component of the suint in wool. It is
more than adequate in most ordinary rations.
30
 Other minerals and vitamins:
Pregnancy
 Nutritive requirements for development of foetus are energy, protein, calcium,
phosphorus, and vitamin D in particular and other minerals and vitamins.
 More than 2/3rd of the foetus growth occurs during the last trimester of
pregnancy. Proper feeding during pregnancy is essential to avoid birth of dead
foetus or weak foetus, to build up body reserves lost during early lactation and
at the same time the animal should not become obese.
Work
 Energy, protein, minerals and vitamins are required.

31
 CHAPTER -5
Conservation of forage crops-
 There are two methods of conserving forages; the simple method is to drive off
moisture in forages, while in the other method, natural fermentation is facilitated
to retain succulence in the preserved forage.
 The driving off moisture from forage forms the basis in hay making while retaing
forage’s succulence forms the basis for silage making.
Crop residues-
Hay making:

 Reducing the moisture content of the green crop to a level low enough (12-14%)
to inhibit the action of plant and microbial enzymes is the aim of hay making.
 The harvested crop can be dried either by natural drying or through artificial
drying, but natural drying is preferred as there it can be done without incurring
expenditure towards electricity.
 Hay can be stored satisfactorily in a stack or bale.
Requisites for good hay:

 Selection of crop – The crop to be made as hay should have soft pliable
stem.
 Harvesting of crop – The crop should be harvested at 2/3rd flowering stage
as it is at that time the plant will have the maximum nutrient in it. Delaying
the harvesting further would divert the nutrients from the plant to seed
production resulting in low nutritive value of the harvested crop.
 Hay should be leafy and green in colour as they reflect the nutritive value of
hay.
 Hay should be free from moulds and weeds.
 Hay should have the characteristic aroma of the crop.

SCHEDULE FOR HARVESTING AND CURING OF HAY

 Good quality hay can be produced by harvesting the crop early in the morning and
left in the field as such for curring.
 The harvested crop should be allowed to dry in the field until the moisture content
is reduced to about 40%.
 Frequent turning is necessary to facilitate uniform drying.
 On sunny days field drying of harvested crop for two days is sufficient to make hay.
 The air dried crop may be turned with the rake and made into small feathery
windrows at the end of first day.
 The windrows may be baled( at the end of second day and if further drying is
required inspite of two days of sun drying, they may be placed over tripods or
tetrapods or over the fence to facilitate airation during drying.
32
 Hay should always be stored in well ventilated place as they catch fire easily.
 Average quality hay will have 25-30 per cent crude fibre and 45-60 per cent TDN.

Kinds of hay-
1. Leguminous hay
2.Non- leguminous hay
3. Mixed hay

1.) Legume hay- good legume hay has many characterstics that make it of special
value in feeding animals. It has got a higher percentage of digestible nutrients.
It has got more of digestible protein because of high protein content.
Crops- Berseem, lucerne, Cowpea
2.) Non- legume hay- It is less palatable and less amount of protein, vitamin and
nutrients. It is rich in carbohydrates.
Crop- Oat, barley, Bajra, sorghum and many grasses.
3.) Mixed hay- The nutritive value of mixed hay depends upon the type of
Legume and non- legume crops used in mixed hay.

Chemical changes-
Plant & microbial enzymes
 Oxidation: During drying, oxidation occurs leading to reduction in the carotene
concentration and that is why sun drying should be stopped when greenery starts
fading.
 But sun drying enhances the vitamin D content in the hay due to irradiation of
ergosterol present in green plant.
Leaching:
 Loss of minerals, sugar & Nitrogen.
 Mould growth.
Microbial action:
 Microbes flourish during drying for prolonged period under bad weather leading to
moldy hay that is unpalatable & harmful to farm animals & man.
 Such hay may cause allergic diseases affecting man known as hay fever or farmer's
lung.
Plant Species:
 Legume hays are rich in protein & minerals than grass hay.
 Non-legume hay has more carbohydrate but less palatable.
33
Stage of growth/cutting:
 The nutritive value of hay depends on the stage of growth of the crop at the time of
cutting.
Harvest at 2/3rd flowering to make good quality hay.
Mechanical damage:
Handling hay during early morning minimizes loss of leaves.

Changes during storage-

Dark brown colour observed in over heated hay stored at higher moisture level during
stacking is due to oxidative degradation of sugars combining with amino acids or
proteins.
Losses in nutritive value of hay are due to:

 Losses due to late cutting.

 Losses of leaves by shattering.
 Losses due fermentation.
 Losses due to leaching.
Biochemical changes during and storage of hay-
Carbohydrate-
 Plant continues to respire even after harvest and during respiration, the sugars are
oxidized to CO2 and H2O leading to increase in concentration of cell wall constituents
like cellulose and lignin.
 Organic acids concentration decreases during wilting.
Nitrogenous constituents:
 Plant enzymes proteolyse the protein resulting in formation of free amino acids.
 Cynogenic glycosides in forages lose their toxicity during drying due to denaturation
of enzymes.
Vitamins
 During Sun drying oxidation occurs leading to reduction in the carotene
concentration and that is why sun drying should be stopped when greenery starts
fading.
 But sun drying enhances the vitamin D content in the hay due to irradiation of
Ergosterol present in green plant.
Artificial drying-
Expensive method-
 Hot gas (150oC) for 20 –50 minutes
 Hot gas (500-1000oC) for 0.5-2 minutes.

Silage -

Silage- Silage is a fermented feed resulting from the storage of high moisture
34
Crop, usually green forages under anaerobic conditions in a structure, called silo.

Ensiling- It is also referred to as ensilage. There is a physical and chemical

Changes that take place when forages or feed with sufficient moisture are

stored in a silo in the absence of air. The entire silage process required three

weeks for converting forages into silage.

Silo- Silo is an air tight or semi-air tight structure designed for storage and

preservation at high moisture feed as silage.

Ensilage
 Ensilage is the name given to the silage making process.
 The main purpose of silage making is to preserve succulent fodders for usage at the
time of scarcity.
Advantages of Silage Making:

 Silage can be made even on weather that does not permit hay making More number
of animals can be reared per unit of land.
 Year round supply of high quality succulent fodder is possible.
 Satisfactory silage can be produced in spite of weeds, as ensiling process kills many
kinds of weed seeds.
 Silage making converts stemmy forage crops to soft that are better utilized by the
livestock.
Factor of silage making-
Selection of crop-
 Crop with soft and pliable stem is most suitable for silage making.
Time of harvest-
 Crop should be harvested when 50% of the crop are in ear emergence stage as at
this stage crop will be nutritious as well as with high biomass yield.
Wilting of the crop-
 To reduce effluent loss, crops with high moisture content are wilted for few hours,
until moisture level is reduced to 60 %.
Chaffing of the crop-
 The success of silage depends on the ability to provide anaerobic condition in silo.
 Anaerobic condition prevents oxidation of nutrients in crop and promotes
conducive environment for desirable organisms to survive and produce lactic acid.
 Thus, in order to prevent the development of air pockets in silo, compression of
ensiling materials is important.
35
 Compression can be achieved better by chaffing the crop.
Preparation of the silo-
 Several types of containers are used as silo.
 The silo should be cleaned and re plastered to make the silo walls smooth and
strong.
Additives-
 Molasses at the rate of 2% (Weight of forage), Further Molasses increases
palatability and nutritive value of silage.
 Salt at the rate of 1% (Weight of forage) is also added to improve palatability of
silage.
Filling up of the silo:
 Rapid filling of silo is desired for anaerobic condition.
 Silage making should not be undertaken during rainy days.
Compaction-
 Compaction of chaffed material can be brought about by manual trampling or by
engaging tractor.
 Compaction is the key step in silage as it removes the air pockets to promote
anaerobic fermentation.
Sealing of the silo to prevent the entry of air or water:
 To sustain anaerobic condition and to prevent entry of atmospheric air / rain into
silo, the silo should be sealed as soon as the silo is filled.
Principles of fermentation in silo-
In well preserved silage ph should be 3.8-4.2.
At this ph silage can be stored for 3-4 years.

Factor affecting nutritive value of silage-

Chemical changes
Plant enzymes-
 Plant continues to respire as long as oxygen present or until the plant sugars are
used up.
 Sugars are oxidised to carbon dioxide and water, with the production of heat causing
rise in temperature of the mass.
 In addition, proteolysis also occurs immediately after the herbage is cut.
 Protein is rapidly broken down to simpler substances mainly amino acids.
 Packing the silo compactly eliminates air pockets and prevents this activity.
 However, if the herbage is not well consolidated, then air may penetrate into the
mass and the temperature will continue to rise.
 Thus over heated product will be dark brown or black in colour with low feeding
value due to excessive loss of soluble carbohydrate and a lowering of the protein
digestibility.
36
Microorganisms:
 Production of lactic acid lowers pH to 4.0.
 60% protein broken down to amino acids.
 No other organism can survive at this pH.
 In badly preserved silage amino acids are further broken down to toxic amines.
Nature of crop-
 Legumes have low soluble carbohydrate content with high buffering capacity make
them difficult to ensile.
 Spray molasses to legumes to provide readily soluble carbohydrate.
 Chopping exposes cell sap for microbial fermentation.
Types of Silos-
Pit silo:
Trench silo
Tower silo
Tube silo
Composition on the characteristics of silage-

Very good Good Fair Poor

Butyric acid Absence traces Little High

ph 3.8-4.2 4.2-4.5 4.5-4.8 >4.8

Ammonical <10% 10-15% 15-20% >20%
nitrogen
colour Greenish brown Brownish Tobacco brown blackish

Haylage-
 Haylage are low moisture silage with characteristics between those of hay
and silage.
 It is made from grass and/or legume to a moisture level of about 45-55%.
 This condition will prevent the forage from spoiling by moulding, oxidising, heating
etc.
Advantages:

 Haylage has a pleasant aroma, palatable & high quality feed.

 Partially dried forage can be made into haylage.
Disadvantages:

37
 Fine chopping, good packing and complete sealing against air entrance inside
the silo is more critical than with silage.
 The danger of excessive heating that lowers protein digestibility is more.
Non-Legume fodder crops
 Bajra ( Pennisetum americanum)
 Maize ( Zea mays)
 Guinea grass ( Panicum maximum)
 Napier grass or Elephant grass ( Pennisetum purpureum)
 Hybrid Napier
 Jonna or Jowar (Sorghum bicolor
Legume fodder crops-

 Berseem (Trifolium alexandrium)

 Lucerne (Medicago sativa)
 Cowpea ( Vigna anguculata)

38
 CHAPTER-6
VARIOUS PHYSICAL, CHEMICAL& BILOGICAL METHODS OF FEED PROCESSING

PHYSICAL CHEMICAL BIOLOGICAL COMBINATION

Soaking. Acid treatment SCP production. Physicochemical
Grinding. Alkali treatment. Use of cellulolytic Karnal process
organisms.
Steam pressure. Use of other Mushroom Growth.
chemicals- ozone,
H2O2
Explosion.
Irradiation.
Pelletting.
Supplementation.
Chaffing

Soaking:

 Chopped straw is soaked in water overnight. Softens the straw leading to increased
intake.
 Disadvantage is mould growth.
Chaffing:

 Decreasing particle size. Increases surface area for action of rumen microbes and
hence increase digestibility.
Grinding:

 Particle size is reduced still further. (0.1 to 0.3 cm ).

 Disadvantage is that it increases rumen flow rate, decreases retention time in the
rumen leading to decreased production of acetate causing a condition of low milk
fat syndrome.
 Steam pressure – Straw treated with Steam at pressure of 21.1 kg/cm2 for 10 to 30
seconds. Causes rupture of ligno celluosic bonds to a certain extent and makes
cellulose available for microbial action.
Explosion:

 Chopped or ground straw is treated with steam at pressure of 22.5 kg/cm2 for two
minutes and pressure is suddenly released.
 Causes rupture of ligno celluosic bonds to a certain extent and makes cellulose
available for microbial action.
Irradiation:
39
 Straw is treated with γ irradiation.
 Causes rupture of ligno celluosic bonds and makes cellulose available for microbial
action.
Pelleting:

 Particle size is reduced to 0.1 to 0.3 cm and Pelleted through 1-2 cm die.
 Retention time in the rumen increases and the disadvantage of only grinding is
overcome.

CHEMICAL TREATMENT
Acid treatment:
 Straw is soaked in dilute acids for a specified period of time, washed with water
drained and fed to the animals.
Alkali treatment:
 Straw is treated with NaOH, NH4OH, CaOH, KOH and urea.
 When straw is exposed to the alkali the ester linkages between lignin and cellulose
/ hemicellulose are hydrolysed causing the cellulose / hemicellulose to be
available for digestion by microbes.

BIOLOGICAL TREATMENT
Growing mushrooms:
 Straw is steam treated, packed in polythene bags, inoculated with seed material of
mushroom, bag when filled with mycelia slit open to allow fruiting, after
harvesting of mushrooms the spent straw is used as feed.
Single cell protein production:
 Straw is hydrolysed, steam treated, treated with ammonia, inoculated
with Candida utilis and incubated, after harvesting of SCP the spent straw is used
as feed.
Enzyme treatment:
 Pre-treatment of straw with lignase
Preparation of silage
 Straw sprayed with water, additives such as molasses added and ensiled in a silo.
 Nitrogen content is increased by adding urea or poultry manure.
 The above treatments cause biodegradation of lignin and increase the digestibility
of cellulose. They also increase the protein content of the straw.
Karnal process-
 Technology developed at NDRI, Karnal. Straw treated with 4% urea at moisture
level of 60%.
 Stacked in a silo pit under cover for 30 days. A temporary loose brick structure
constructed.
40
 Thin layer of urea treated straw spread evenly in this structure.
 A solution of the following composition is prepared. 60g superphosphate, 60g
calcium oxide dissolved in 8 litre water. Sprinkled over the urea treated straw.
 Inoculated with 3% Coprinus fimeratius culture.
 Allowed to remain for 5 days then used for feeding.
 Main advantage of this process is that free ammonia is converted into microbial
protein and ligno cellulose bond is degraded.

Effect of various treatments-

Advantage:
 Increases palatability.
 Increases digestibility.
 Certain treatments increase nitrogen or protein content.
 Improves animal performance.
Disadvantage:
 Increase feed cost.
 Technology or methodology involved.

41
 CHAPTER-7
1. Feeding of Calves
Feeding Colostrum
Calf feeding starts with colostrums, which is first milk drawn cow after parturition
and rich in nutrient and immunoglobulin and provides passive immunity to the calf,
gives immediately within 30 minutes of birth.
The calf should fed 2 – 3 liters of colostrum for first three days following its birth,
however according to one recommendation the colostrums must be fed as per the
percent of their body weight:
COLOSTRUM AS PERCENT OF BODY WEIGHT
15 – 30 minutes 5 – 8%
10 – 12 hours 5 – 8%
2nd day 10%
3rd day 10%
Importance of colostrum feeding
1. Colostrum provides the Immunoglobulins which are presumed to be the source of
antibodies which protect the calf from many infections.
2. The protein content of colostrum is 3 – 5 times as that of normal milk. Some
minerals (Cu, Fe, Mg & Mn) and vitamins (Vit. A, B1, B2, B5 & Choline).
3. Colostrum acts as a laxative; and helps in expulsion of meconium (1st faeces).
4. Colostrum contains 5 – 15 times more vitamin A than normal milk but it depends
upon the type of ration given to the dam during dry period.

Artificial colostrum- In case of non availability of colostrums due to accidental death

of mother or agalactia colostrum substitute can be used.
In can be prepared by mixing 2 whole eggs in one litre of milk and 30ml of castor oil.
It should be fed three times in a day.
COMPARATIVE CHARACTERSTICS OF COLOSTRUM AND MILK
S. No. Physical Colostrums Milk
characteristics
1 Taste Slightly bitter Sweet
2 Odour Abnormal Normal
3 Acidity 0.2 – 0.4 0.12 – 0.14
4 Freezing point - 0.606 -0.52 - 0.56
5 Chloride % 0.148 – 0.156 0.14

42
 6 Specific gravity 1.05 - 1.08 1.029 – 1.032
Composition
1 Total solids 22.5 12.5
2 Fat% 3.5 4.0
2 Protein% 14.3 3.3
4 Lactose 3.0 4.6
5 Ash 1.8 0.8

The farms, where weaning is not practiced calf automatically learns and leads to the
udder to its mother within half an hour but in case where weaning is followed the
calves need to train for taking milk either from pail or milking bottles with rubber
nipples.
Pail feeding- A method of rearing calves by weaning them of the dam and feeding
them on her or another cow’s milk or milk replacer in bucket without use of a nipple.
Feeding whole milk
A calf must get 2 – 3 liters milk daily i.e. 1/10th of its body weight.
Milk replacer- It is the substance that replace the milk which is fed to the calf. In the
following condition;
1. If the dam/ mother die.
2. If there is cessation of milk production by the dam.
3. If milk is insufficiently produced by the dam.
Good quality milk replacer-
Spray dried skim milk powder- 50 parts, dried whey 10 parts and non-milk source
(antibiotics, vitamin, vegetable protein, fats) of 40 parts
(Note: this milk replacer will be mixed with lukewarm water in preparation of 1:8)
Partial milk replacer-
Component Parts
Wheat 10
Linseed meal 40
Milk 23
Coconut oil 10
Butyric acid 0.3
Citric acid 1.5
Mineral mixture 3.0
Antibiotic 0.2
Total 100
43
Feeding calf starters
Calf starter is a mixture consisting of ground farm grains, protein feeds and minerals,
vitamins and antibiotics. At 2 weeks of age calf starter may be started to given and
whole milk may be cut down. Calf starter should have 75% TDN, 14-16% DCP and 20-
22% CP.

Sr. No. Ingredients Parts

1 Maize 42
2 Ground nut (मूंगफली)cake 35
3 Wheat/ rice bran (चोकर) 10
4 Fish meal 10
5 Mineral mixture 2
6 Salt 1

Feeding grain mixture

A grain mixture consists of ground maize - 2 parts, wheat bran - 2parts is good for
feeding calves. Grains should be given from 4 months of age.
Silage feeding-If good quality silage is available then 1 – 2 kg silage daily can be fed
to the calves up to 3 – 4 months of age. Increase the amount about 500g per day for
each months of calf’s age.
Antibiotic supplementation- Though it is a controversial issue to use antibiotic as
growth promoter or not owing to the problem of antibiotic resistance but the
experiment has indicated that feeding aureomycin and terramycin at the rate 80 mg
per day per calf 4 – 116 days of age increase growth rate from 10 – 30 %, improve
appetite, reduce calf scour and thus, calf mortality rate also.
Providing minerals:-Minerals such as calcium, phosphorus etc should be fed to the
calf @ of at least 2% of the concentrate.
Deworming- Deworming of calves is necessary because 90 % of calves die
Within 6 months due to Ascariasis.
Acaricidal Treatment- In cross breed cattle, calf Theleriasis and other protozoan
Parasites are found commonly. Hence medicines against ticks should be sprayed
regularly.
Disbudding- It should be done at the age of 10-20 days.
44
Weaning of calf- Separation of calf from the mother after parturition is called as
weaning.
A calf can be weaned immediately after birth or after colostral period of 3 – 5 days. In
normal condition where suckling is practiced calves are weaned naturally after 6 to
12 months of age.
Advantages of weaning system:-
1. If the calf is dead then there is no difficulty in regular milking of its mother.
2. In this system the scientifically right amount of milk is fed to the calf. So it is
economical and good for the health of calves.
3. Control of some diseases such as diarrhoea, white scour etc. can be done by this
system.
4. Actual milk yield can be measured in this system.
5. Total increase in milk can be calculated in this system.
6. The calf can be culled out at any early stage.
7. Without calf milking is more hygienic and sanitary.
Disadvantages of weaning system-
1. Weaning is a problematic in Bos indicus and buffaloes due to strong maternal
instinct.
2. 0 day weaning can cause reduced milk yield in such animals, and also cause early
temperamental problem.

FEEDING SCHEDULE FOR CALVES UP TO 6 MONTHS

Age of calf Approx. Body Quantity of milk Quantity of Green
weight (kg) (kg) calf starter (g) grass/ Hay
(kg)
Upto 3 days 25 2 – 2.5 litres colostrum should be fed daily
4 days - 4 wks. 25 2.5 Small qty. Small qty.
4-6 weeks 30 3.0 50-100 Small qty.
6-8 weeks 35 2.5 100-250 Small qty.
8-10 weeks 40 2.0 250-350 Small qty.
10-12 weeks 45 1.5 350-500 1-0
12-16 weeks 55 - 500-750 1-2
16-20 weeks 65 - 750-1000 2-3
20-24 weeks 75 - 1000-1500 3-5
FEEDING SCHEDULE OF GROWING ANIMALS
45
 (FROM 6 MONTHS ONWARDS)
Age (months) Approximate Concentrate Grass (kg)
body weight (kg) mixture (kg)
6-9 70-100 1.5-1.75 5-10
9-15 100-150 1.75-2.25 10-15
15-20 150-200 2.25-2.50 15-20
Above 20 200-300 2.50-2.75 15-20

Feeding of cattle-
Early lactation-
 The recently calved high producing cow is unable to eat enough feed to support
her milk production.
 This means that the cow should have enough reserve to store nutrient to be drawn
to tide over the period of heavy demand in early lactation, during which period the
cow loses weight.

Challenge feeding- Last two week before the calving challenge feeding is done for
the (high elder animals) and we are challenging against negative N2 and energy which
is suspected few days after calving.
 Challenge feed will be followed 2 weeks prior to calving.
 First day start 300-400 gm concentrate extra, next we have to add 500gm
concentrate daily till the animal will consume 1-1.5 kg/ 100 kg body weight.
 2 days before parturition stop concentration 4-5 days after calving give
concentrate 500gm add 400gm concentrate daily till the animal consume adlibitum
up to the peak milk yield. After peak milk yield provide concentrate according to milk
yield /day. For cattle 1kg concentrate for every 2.5 – 3 kg of milk and in buffalo 1 kg
concentrate for every 2 - 2.5 kg milk.

CHALLENGE FEEDING SCHEDULE

Period Concentrate allowance
Last 2 weeks before calving Starting from 500g, increase 300 - 400g daily until
the cow is eating 500 – 1000g per 100kg body
weight.
First 2 weeks of lactation Increase 500g per day to free choice level.
Second week to peak yield (testFree choice
day)
From test day onwards According to production as per thumb rules. E.g.
46
 1Kg for every 2.5 kg milk produced
Remaining lactation Concentrate adjusted to monthly test of milk
Production
All periods Green fodder and dry fodder given adequately

Feeding during mid and late lactation:

 During this period the cow maybe fed a well balanced ration of god quality fodder
and concentrate according to the milk yield and fat percentage of milk.
 During the late lactation, intake ability of the cow exceeds nutrient needs. This is the
time when the cow starts needing extra allowance for the growing foetus.
 This is also the period when the cow can readily replenish the already depleted body
reserve and gain weight very fast.
 From 7 ½ month to 10 months of lactation, cow may be fed 1-2 kg concentrate feed
in addition to their nutrient requirement for maintenance and milk production to
replenish the condition lost in early lactation.

Pregnancy allowance- From 6 months onwards, 1- 1.5 kg concentrate/ day extra feed
the pregnant animals.

Feeding high producing dairy cows-

 High producing dairy cow should eat a large volume of nutrient daily to sustain the
milk production at that level.
 Ruminant ration should contain a minimum of 20-25 per cent crude fibre.
 Cows need acetic acid for maintaining normal milk fat percentage as well as total
milk production.

FEEDING SCHEDULE FOR DIFFERENT CLASSES OF ADULT COWS

Dry matter requirement: 2 - 2.5 kg DM/ 100 kg b.wt. of zebu cattle
2.5 - 3 kg DM/ 100 kg b.wt. of CB cattle/ buffalo

DRY MATTER

Roughages (2/3rd) Concentrate (1/3rd)

DCP = 15 – 17 %
Dry (2/3rd) Succulent (1/3rd) TDN = 68 - 72 % (If
leguminous fodder is available; 1/4th succulent feed is sufficient)
47
Dry (3/4th) Succulent (1/4th)

Straw requirement: Zebu = 4 kg, Buffalo and Cross breed cow = 4 – 6 kg

Concentrate for maintenance: Cow = 1 – 1.25 kg, Buffalo = 2 kg
Conc. for production: Cow = 1 kg/3 kg milk, Buffalo = 1 kg/2 kg milk
Conc. for pregnancy: Production + 1 – 1.5 kg from 6th month of pregnancy
Mineral mixture and salt add @ of 1% of concentrate.

FEEDING OF BULL
Feeding of bull calves
 Animals which are earmarked to be raised as future breeding sires, should generally
be kept on a liberal amount of milk for the first six months or more of their life. Milk is
also supplemented with calf starter from two weeks of age onwards along with good
quality hay.

S.N. Age of bull calves Quality to be given (kg)

Concentrate Green fodder Dry fodder
1 6 to 12 months 2.5 5-7 Adlibitum

2 1 to 2 years 3.0 7-10 Adlibitum

 Young males to be used for draft purpose should only be castrated at 12 to 15

months of age and their feeding schedules should be identical to that of heifers. To
economize the cost of feeding more green fodder and hay can be fed (upto 15 -20 kg
/day).

Feeding bulls in service

 Breeding bulls are to be fed good quality fodders and concentrates to keep them
active. In addition the bulls should be regularly exercised to keep it in prime
condition.
Nutrient requirement of breeding bulls

Live weight DCP TDN ME Ca P Carotene Vitamin A

( kg ) g kg Mcal g g mg 1000 IU
400 380 3.6 13.0 18 13 40 16
500 450 4.5 16.2 20 15 53 21
600 530 5.4 19.4 22 17 64 26

48
 When berseem/lucerne/cowpea are available they can be fed along with the straw
or other good quality roughages like oats without any concentrate. However, when
straws form the basal ration, concentrate are to be fed.
 When non-leguminous green fodders, like oat, maize, sorghum, good grazing etc,
form the basal roughage there is no need to feed concentrate mixture.

Feeding for working bullock

 When wheat/paddy straw form the basal ration, then a concentrate mixture
containing 12% DCP and 75% TDN should be fed at the rate of 1, 1.5, 2 and 2.5 kg
respectively to 200, 300, 400 and 500 kg animal along with ad libitum bhusa. For
heavy work 2, 3, 4 and 5 kg of concentrate mixture should be fed along with wheat
straw. 2.5 kg green fodder may be fed to satisfy the vitamin A requirement.
 When the animals are not working, they should be fed as per the maintenance
requirement. For light work, the animal should be fed with 30 kg green maize and
10 kg cowpea. For heavy work, 10 kg extra cowpea may be fed to take care of
extra protein requirement. When cultivated fodders are available 20 kg
berseem/lucerne with 20 kg oats may be fed.
Alternative Feeding Schedule for working bullocks
Light work
 Roughage: Ad libitum straw (6-10 kg)
 Concentrate(12% DCP, 60% TDN): 1-2.5 kg/day
Medium work
 Roughage: Ad libitum straw (6-10 kg)
 Concentrate(12% DCP, 60% TDN): 1.5-4 kg/day
Heavy work
 Roughage: Ad libitum straw (6-10 kg)
 Concentrate(12% DCP, 60% TDN): 2-5 kg/day

49
 Nutrient requirement of sheep
DM DCP TDN
Maintenance 60.6 g per kg metabolic 3.0 g per kg 27.3 g per kg
of adult body size or 2.5% of metabolic body size metabolic body
animals body weight size
Pregnant 1.5 times maintenance during 2.5 times 2.0 times
animals the last six weeks of maintenance during maintenance
pregnancy the last six weeks of during the last
pregnancy six weeks of
pregnancy

Lactating 2 times the 2.5 times Twice the

animals maintenance DM maintenance during maintenance
during 1 two months
st 1st two months of during 1st two
of lactation lactation months of
& & lactation
1.5 times maintenance during
1.5 times maintenance &
the remaining during the remaining 1.5 times maintenance
period of lactation period of lactation during the
remaining period of
lactation

Wool production-

 The weight of wool produced by sheep varies considerably from one breed to another,
and an average value is useful only for guidance.
 For eg: a Merino weighing 50 kg produces annually 4 kg fleece. Such a fleece would
contain about 3 kg of actual wool fibre, the remaining 1 kg being wool wax, suint, dirt
and water.
 Wool wax is produced by the sebaceous glands, and consists mainly of esters of
cholesterol and other alcohols.
 The wool fibre consists almost entirely protein and wool keratin. To grow in one year,
a fleece containing 3 kg protein the sheep would need to deposit a daily average of
about 8 g protein or 1.3 g nitrogen.
Feeding of growing fattening and breeding ram
 When good quality fodders are available, the following concentrate mixture can
be used.
COMPOSITION OF IDEAL CREEP FEED
 Maize - 40%
 Ground nut cake -30 %

50
  Wheat bran – 10 %
 Deoiled rice bran- 13 %
 Molasses – 5%
 Mineral mixture- 2%
 Salt – 1% fortified with vitamins A, B2 and D3 and antibiotic feed supplements
Sheep are allowed for grazing for 6 to 8 hours per day and fed with dried
groundnut haulms as a supplementary feed
Body weight Concentrate mixture /day
10-15 kg 50 gm
16-25 kg 100 gm
26-35 kg 150 gm

Feeding of fattening lambs

This concentrate ration should be fed at the rate of 110-450 gm/day/ depending on the
weight of ram to be fattened.
 Cereal grains - 2 parts
 Bran - 1 part
 Oil cakes - 1 part

Feeding of breeding rams

 Rams used for breeding purpose should not be too fatty, which may influence
rate of fertility and mating behavior.
 This procedure should be followed for 8 weeks before ram is allowed to mate
with ewes.
 Before 2 weeks of mating again normal feeding schedule is followed.
 During summer months concentrate mixture consisting of
 crushed grams – 2 parts
 Wheat bran – 2 parts
 Sodium chloride – 1 part, can be given.
 During winter months crushed grams should be replaced by available
crushed oil seeds cakes.
Feeding of goat
 Goats are considered to be the best converter of fibrous feed into good quality
meat called as 'Chevon'.
 Goats have upper mobile lip and very prehensile tongue, which helps them to
graze on very short i.e. near to earth grasses and browsing on plant leaves
which are not usually eaten by other species of animals.

51
Dry matter requirement of goats
 The dry matter requirement depends on the type of breed.
 In meat type goat breeds the dry matter intake is on an average 3-4% of their
live body weight.
 While in milch type goats it is 5-7% of their live body weight.

Water requirement of goats

 Goats should be provided with ad-libitum clean water.
 On an average a adult goat drinks about 400-700 ml, water/day.
Energy requirement
 An average energy requirement for maintenance is 101 kcal ME/kg
W0.75/day.
 While for pregnancy it is 180 kcal ME/kg W0.75/day.
 The daily energy requirement for milk production is found to be 1220
kcal/ME/kg for 4% fat corrected milk (FCM).
Protein requirement
 The daily average requirement of dietary proteins for maintenance is 20-30 g
DCP/50 kg body weight and for milk production it is 60-70 g DCP/kg of milk
produced.
 A minimum of 6% total proteins have to be provided otherwise fed intake gets
reduced which may result in reduced semen activity and lowered feed
efficiency.

Formulation of ration and feeding of poultry for egg production

Broilers-
the BIS recognizes only two phases in the broilers from day old to marketable age of
8weeks, that is broiler starter phase( o to 5 weeks )and broiler finisher phase (5 to
8weeks) while NRC divide the period into 0-3 weeks, 3 to 6 weeks and 6 to 8 weeks
since the requirements for nutrients of growing chicken depend upon their rate of
growth.
Layers-
the BIS recognizes only two phases during the growing period of the chickens, 1.
Chick phase (0-8weeks), 2. Grower phase (8-20 weeks). On the basis of their growth
rate and the accompanying nutrient requirements, the growing period of chickens
has been divided into 0 to 6 weeks (starter phase), 6 to12 weeks (grower phase), 12
to 18 weeks (pullet developer phase) and 18 weeks to first egg (NRC,1994)
types of chicken feeds according to BIS (2007) are as follows.
1. Broiler pre-starter feed 1-7 days
2. Broiler starter feed: 8-21 days (earlier 0 to 5 weeks; 0 to 6 weeks)
52
 3. Broiler finisher feed: 22 finish (42 days) (earlier after 5 weeks;6 to 8 weeks)
4. Broiler breeder chick feed
5. Broiler breeder grower feed
6. Broiler breeder layer feed
7. Broiler breeder male feed
8. Layer chick feed
9. Layer grower feed
10. Layer phase -I feed
11. Layer phase -II feed
12. Layer breeder chick feed
13. Layer breeder grower feed
14. Layer breeder layer feed
15. Layer breeder male feed

Composition of grower ration

Ingredients Percentage
Yellow Maize 43
Groundnut cake (expeller) 8
Gingelly oil cake 5
Fish meal/dried unsalted fish 6
Rice polish 16
Wheat bran 20
Salt 0.25

Average feed consumption of egg type birds during growing period

Age in weeks Feed consumed (g/bird/day)

10 53.0
11 58.0
12 60.0
13 60.0
14 60.0
15 62.0
16 62.0

53
 CHAPTER-8
FORMULATION OF LEAST COST RATION-
Definition

 A least cost ration incorporates all the available feedstuffs having good nutritive
value and being available at a reasonable low cost.
 It can also be defined as an economic ration for animal production (dairy, beef,
sheep, goats, poultry etc.) that provides nutrients in balanced proportion with
lowest possible cost per kg or 100 kg.
 It is the ration containing all essential nutrients that are needed to meet the
requirements of the animal (growth, maintenance, production, reproduction,
work etc.) without affecting quality and with least cost.
Aim

 To minimize the cost of ration while meeting the nutrient requirements of

animals without affecting their productivity.
Advantages

 Incorporation of non-conventional feedstuffs is easy.

 The speed and accuracy of the linear programming by computer saves time and
labour.
 As the programme is flexible, inclusion of feed ingredients as per availability and
quality can be made quickly.
 Gives more productive efficiency with least cost.
 Increases profitability of the livestock farm.
 Farmer can also afford to make use of it more effectively because it is cheaper in
nature.
Procedure

 List all the available feeds, fodders and other available ingredients.
 Enlist the components of each ingredient
 Feed the computer with the cost of all available feed ingredients.
 Give instructions to the computer for the type of ration desired depending upon
the requirements of animal (growth, maintenance, production, reproduction,
work or starter, grower, layer etc; high energy, high protein, low energy, low
protein etc.)
 Give instructions to the computer regarding the amount of feed ingredients (for
example say DM of 20 kg or DCP of 1.5 kg). Similarly, amount of certain feed
ingredients in the ration can be fixed like fish meal (say 10 %) and mineral
mixture (say 2 %).

54
 Now, the computer will take the least cost feed ingredients for formulating least
cost ration.
 It is a linear programme based model that includes the following stepwise
approach: i e. Proximate values (DM and nutritive value i.e. CP / DCP and TDN /
ME).
Limitations of computer based model

 Certain constraints need to be imposed on ingredients (maximum and minimum

levels) or otherwise, it may take all low cost ingredients with poor nutritive
value. Such a ration would not result in high milk production at least cost and
hence, milk production may get adversely affected.
 Computer cannot encounter the toxic material in the ingredients.
 Computer will not count the additive effect of feeds.
 Computer cannot judge the digestibility and palatability of ingredients. It may be
a least cost ration, but with poor palatability.
 Needs skill and good programming.

Other systems of feeding

1. Liquid urea -molasses feeding

 Liquid molasses containing 2 to 3 % uniformly mixed urea and fortified with

minerals and vitamins is referred to as liquid feed. The principle of urea -
molasses liquid feed preparation lies in the homogenous mixing of urea in liquid
molasses.
The most practical and least toxic urea -molasses liquid feed contains

 Sugarcane molasses - 92.0

 Urea - 2.5
 Fresh water - 2.5
 Mineral mixture - 2.0
 Common salt - 1.0
The mixture is fortified with vitablend (vitamins A & D)

 Urea is completely dissolved in water and poured gradually into the tank
containing molasses with simultaneous mixing using a wooden stirrer.
 Powdered salt and mineral mixture are sprinkled over the molasses while
stirring to ensure uniform distribution of all the additives in the liquid molasses.
 Special attention is required for the uniform mixing of urea solution.
 During winter season, the viscosity of molasses increases and hence, heating of
the urea -molasses mixture is essential for thorough mixing.

55
 This undiluted urea -molasses liquid feed containing 65 % and more dry matter
can be safely stored for long periods.
3) @ 25g/100kg.66 Procedure for preparing urea -Molasses Liquid Feed:

b. Another combination of urea -molasses liquid feed

 Molasses - 83 %
 urea - 2 %
 Phosphoric acid - 2 %
 Salt - 2 %
 Mineral mixture - 1 %
 Bypass protein - 10 %
 (Cotton seed cake or Fish meal)
Precautions to be followed while feeding liquid urea -molasses diets

 It is desired to supplement the liquid molasses diet to certain minimum quantity

of roughages to maintain bulk.
 It is advisable to introduce liquid feed gradually in the ration in about 10 to 15
days.
 Fresh drinking water should be made available at all times for the animals on
liquid diet.
 It is good to provide mineral mixture or mineral licks free of choice in a separate
container.

2. Uro-mol Brick feeding

 The National Dairy Development Board (NDDB) has started manufacturing urea
-molasses blocks.
 The production and utilization of urea molasses blocks assumes an increasingly
important role in drought prone areas.
 When licked by the ruminant animals, the urea -molasses blocks provide nitrogen
to micro-organisms in the rumen and in turn improve digestion of the straw,
which is fed during disastrous conditions.
 These blocks are available commercially in packed condition so that they can be
transported to the areas of necessity easily.

Composition of urea -molasses mineral block

 Molasses - 45 %
 Urea - 15 %
 Mineral mixture - 15 %
 Salt - 8 %
 Calcite powder - 4 %
56
 Bentonite / guar gum - 3 %
 Any vegetable oil cake - 10 %

Procedure for preparing urea -Molasses mineral block

 Binder is added to the cake and the mixture is poured into the block molds and
allowed to cool.
 Apart from cake, bran or some roughage source can also be incorporated to
prepare complete feed blocks for feeding of ruminant livestock in drought prone
areas.
 At present, de-wormer included medicated blocks are commercially available for
feeding to small ruminants.

3. Uromin lick
This "Uromin" lick also called "Pashu Chaat" contains besides urea, molasses and
minerals, certain fillers like de-oiled rice bran, maida (sieved flour), mustard cake,
common salt and a feed binder (Bentonite or guar gum).
 Molasses - 30
 Urea- 10
 Deoiled mustard cake - 10
 Deoiled rice bran - 10
 Common salt - 10
 Mineral mixture - 15
 Maida(sieved flour) - 15
 Bentonite / guar gum – 03

Procedure for preparing Uromin lick

First, molasses and urea are heated together in a round iron utensil for about half an
hour.
 By doing so, Urea and molasses are converted into uromol, where urea – N bound
with sugars of molasses is used efficiently by the rumen system.
 Now, all the other ingredients (premix) are mixed with uromol while it is hot to
prevent lump formation.
 The whole mixture is then pressed in the dye of a Uromin lick making machine,
preferably with the help of a hydraulic jack at a pressure of 10 tons psi.
 A hard Uromin lick is ready in 20 – 30 minutes depending upon the atmospheric
temperature.
 This brick shaped Uromin lick will weigh around 3 kg and can be sealed in a
polythene envelope for future use.
Exercise

57
  Identify the feedstuffs that are available in your area that can be best utilized
for feeding livestock during scarcity and disastrous conditions and give their
nutritive value?
 Give details of some commercially available urea -molasses blocks for feeding
of livestock?
Composition of Uromin Lick

 Molasses, urea, mineral mixture, salt and calcite powder are mixed with thorough
stirring and boiling.

Pearson square method

 Draw a Pearson’s square for determining the proportions (or) ratio of feeds to be
mixed.
 Partition the feeds as high protein and low protein feeds.
 Place the percentage of crude / digestible crude protein desired in the center of
the pearson’s square.
 Place the average percentage of crude / digestible crude protein present in high
protein feeds on the left side upper corner of this square.
 Place the average percentage of crude / digestible crude protein present in low
protein feeds on the left side lower corner of this square.
 Take about the diagonal lines in the square.
 Draw the difference between the figures on the left hand sides and the center
figure and place these on the right hand corners of the square, in the direction of
diagonal lines.
 The figures obtained on the right hand side corners are the parts or proportions
in which ratio the given feeds should be mixed to obtain the mixture of desired
CP/DCP percentage.
 Pass the feeds to be mixed through grinder and then mix the ground feeds in
horizontal / vertical mixer.
 Fill the gunny bags using the shovel (or) directly fill it from the mixer.
 Label the feed mixture along with the weight neatly, clearly and legibly.
Note

 Prepare 100 kg concentrate mixture containing 18 % DCP using maize grain,

wheat bran and linseed cake consisting of 10, 12 and 30 % DCP, respectively.
Solution

Average DCP of low protein feeds = Maize + Wheat bran / 2

= 10 +12 / 2 = 11%.

DCP content of high protein feed (linseed cake) = 30%

58
100 kg should contain ? parts of linseed cake

= 100 x 7 / 19 = 36.84 kg (or) 37 kg49

Therefore,

 Amount of low protein feeds = 100 – 37 = 63 kg.

 This should be distributed among the low protein feeds equally.
 Hence, amount of maize = 63 / 2 = 31.5 parts.
 Therefore, amount of wheat bran required = 31.5 parts.
Verification

Feedstuff Parts % DCP supplied

Linseed cake 37.0 37 x 30 /100 = 11.1
Maize 31.5 31.5 x 10 /100 = 3.15
Wheat bran 31.5 31.5 x 12 / 100 = 3.78
Total 100 18.03 %
19 kg of mixture will contain 7 parts of linseed cake

Example
 Minerals consisting of bone meal and common salt may also be added in required
quantity before grinding and mixing.

ALZEBRIC METHOD
 Divide the ingredients into two groups ie. Low protein group and high protein
group depending on their protein content.
 Calculate the average protein content of each group, if there is more than one
feed ingredient.
 Assume that ‘X’ represents the amount of low protein feeds and ‘Y’ represents the
amount of high protein feeds present in 100 kg of concentrate mixture. That
means,
X + Y = 100 ---------- (1)

59
 CHAPTER-9

Nutrients are classified into 2 parts:-

1.) Organic

2.) Inorganic

Organic-

1. Carbohydrates- one monosaccharide’s, disaccharides, starch, dextrin, glycogen,

cellulose, hemicelluloses
2. Proteins- essential amino acids, non- protein nitrogenous compounds
3. Lipids- triglycerides, glycolipids, phospholipids, essential fatty acid
4. Vitamins- fat soluble ( a, d, e and k) water soluble ( b complex and c)

Inorganic-

1. Water
2. minerals

Now minerals are classified into - macro and micro minerals.

Macro- minerals- (present in high concentration>70mg/kg live weight)

1. Calcium (ca),
2. Magnesium (mg),
3. Sodium (Na),
4. Phosphorus (p),
5. Chlorine (cl),
6. Sulphur(s),
7. Potassium(k)

Micro-minerals- (present in high concentration<70mg/kg live weight)

1. Iron (Fe),
2. Nickel (Ni),
3. Copper (cu),
4. Zinc (Zn)
5. Manganese (Mn)
60
 6. Iodine (I)
7. Selenium (Se)
8. Molybdenum (Mo)
9. Chromium (Cr)
10. Fluorine (F)
11. Tin (Su)
12. Vanadium (v)
13. Silicon (Si)
14. Nickel (Ni)
15. Arsenic (Ar)

CALCIUM-

Functions of calcium

 Structural component of body (Skeleton and teeth): 99% of the calcium in the
body is present in the bones and teeth.
 Calcium controls the excitability of nerves and muscles
 Calcium is required for normal clotting of blood
Regulation of ca metabolism-
 Whenever blood calcium level decreases below the normal, parathyroid gland is
stimulated to secrete parathormone. This hormone mobilizes calcium from the
bone and also facilitates reabsorption of calcium in the kidney.
 It also increases calcium absorption in the small intestine by increasing the
synthesis of 1,25 dihydroxy Cholecalciferol (active form of vitamin D) from 25
hydroxy Cholecalciferol in the kidneys, which in turn increases the synthesis of
calcium binding protein resulting in increased calcium absorption.
 High level of blood calcium stimulates the secretion of calcitonin, which has
antagonistic action to that of parathormone.
Deficiency symptoms –
The deficiency of Ca leads to rickets/Osteomalacia and milk fever.
 The symptoms of rickets are misshapen bones, enlargement of the joints,
lameness and stiffness.
 In Osteomalacia the bones become weak, fragile and are easily broken.
 Milk fever (parturient paresis) is a condition, which most commonly occurs in
dairy cows shortly after calving.
 It is characterized by a lowering of the serum calcium level, muscular spasms and
in extreme case paralysis and unconsciousness.
61
 In hens, deficiency symptoms are
 soft beak and bones,
 retarded growth and bowed legs,
 The eggs have thin shells or there is production of leathery eggs.
Source-
 Animal byproducts containing bone are excellent sources such as fishmeal, Meat
and bone meal
 Milk and green leafy crops, especially legumes are good sources of calcium.
 Other sources include ground limestone, dicalcium phosphate
PHOSPHORUS-
Functions
 Phosphorus occurs in close association with calcium in bone.
 Phosphorus plays a vital role in energy metabolism in the formation of sugar-
phosphates and adenosine di- and triphosphates.
 Phosphorus plays a key role in metabolic reaction of carbohydrate, protein and
lipids which occurs through phosphorylated intermediate compounds.
 Phosphorus is the component of phospholipids, which are important in lipid
transport and metabolism as constituent of cell membranes.
 Phosphorus is constituent of RNA and DNA.
 Phosphorus is a component of many enzyme systems.
Deficiency symptoms-
 Rickets / Osteomalacia: Like calcium, phosphorus is also required for bone
formation and a deficiency can also cause rickets or osteomalacia
 'Pica' or depraved appetite has been noted in cattle when there is
a deficiency of phosphorus in their diet; the affected animals have abnormal
appetites and chew wood, bones, rags and other foreign materials.
 In chronic phosphorus deficiency animals may have stiff joints and muscular
weakness.
 Low dietary intakes of phosphorus have also been associated with poor fertility,
apparent dysfunction of the ovaries causing inhibition or depression and
irregularity of oestrus.
 There are many examples where phosphorus supplementation increases fertility
in grazing cattle.
 In cows a deficiency of this element may also reduce milk yield.
 Subnormal body growth in young animals.

NUTRITIONAL SECONDARY HYPERPARATHYROIDISM

 The optimum calcium phosphorus ratio is between 1:1 and 2:1.
62
 An excess of dietary phosphorus in relation to calcium may result in a bone
disorder called nutritional secondary hyperparathyroidism (NSH).
 Nutritional secondary hyperparathyroidism occurs in horses that are fed large
amount of grains or their byproducts without calcium supplementation. The
condition is also referred to as miller’s disease or bran disease or big head
disease.
Supplementation-
 Cereal grains, fish meal and meat products are good sources of phosphorus.
 Much of the phosphorus present in cereal grains is in the form of phytates, which
are not digested and utilised in monogastrics.
 In ruminants, hydrolysis of phytates by bacterial phytates occurs in the rumen
and therefore well utilised.

MAGNESIUM-
Functions-
 Magnesium is closely associated with calcium and phosphorus.
 Essential constituent of bone and teeth
 Magnesium is the commonest enzyme activator
 Magnesium plays a role in oxidative phosphorylation leading to ATP formation
 Magnesium is necessary in metabolism of carbohydrate, lipids and in the
biosynthesis of proteins
Deficiency symptoms-
 In adult ruminants a condition known as hypomagnesaemic tetany associated
with low blood levels of magnesium (hypomagnesaemia) has been known under
a variety of names including magnesium tetany, lactation tetany and grass
staggers,
 Typical symptoms of tetany are Nervousness, Tremors, Twitching of the facial
muscles, Staggering gait, Convulsions.
 In poultry decreased egg production.
 Reduced growth rate, egg production and eggshell thickness.
Supplementation-
 Wheat bran, dried yeast and most vegetable protein concentrate, especially
cottonseed cake and linseed cake, are good sources of magnesium.
 Magnesium oxide

SODIUM, POTASSIUM AND CHLORIDE - FUNCTIONS

63
 Nutritionally sodium, potassium and chloride are considered together because of
the similarity of their functions and distribution in the body.
 Sodium, potassium and chloride are stored largely in body fluids and soft tissues.
 They maintain osmotic presence
 They regulate acid base equilibrium
 They control water metabolism in the tissue
 They are essential for the operation of enzyme systems
 They are essential for neural and muscular conduction and transmission
 Nutritionally sodium, potassium and chloride are considered to be of minor
importance because they are present in sufficient quantity in the diet.
 Sodium is the main cation of extracellular fluids, while potassium is the main
cation of intracellular fluid.
 Chlorine (anion) plays an important part in the gastric secretion, where it occurs
as hydrochloric acid as well as chloride salts.
Deficiency symptoms - potassium
 Experimental diets low in potassium induces retarded growth, weakness and
tetany, followed by death.
Deficiency - sodium
 A deficiency of sodium in the diet leads to a lowering of the osmotic pressure
which results in dehydration of the body.
 Symptoms of sodium deficiency include poor growth and reduced utilization of
digested proteins and energy. In hens, egg production and growth are adversely
affected.
Deficiency – chloride
 A dietary deficiency of chlorine is rare.
 Alkalosis of blood caused by excess of bicarbonate ion.
Excess of sodium chloride
Excess of sodium chloride in the diet leads to salt toxicity
 Symptoms are excessive thirst, muscular weakness and oedema.
 Salt poisoning is quite common in pigs and poultry, especially where fresh
drinking water is limited

SULPHAR-
 Sulphur is a component of(Thiamine, Biotin, Glutathione, Insulin, Coenzyme A,
Chondroitin sulphate)

64
 Sulphur needed for the synthesis of these compounds is derived from sulphur
containing amino acids.
 Rumen microbes require sulphur for synthesis of sulphur containing amino acids

Supplementation- Sulphur requirement may be met by inorganic sulphates in

ruminants which is not possible in Monogastrics.

IMPORTANCE OF MICRO-MINERALS
IRON
Functions-
 More than 90 per cent of the iron in the body is combined with proteins, the most
important being haemoglobin and myoglobin.
 Iron also occurs in blood serum in a protein called transferrin, which is
concerned with the transport of iron from one part of the body to another.
 Ferritin is a protein containing iron. It is present in the spleen, liver, kidney and
bone marrow and provides a form of storage for iron.
 Haemosiderin is an another storage form of iron.
 Iron has a major role in many of biochemical reactions, particularly in connection
with enzymes of the electron transport chain (cytochromes).
 Enzymes containing or activated by iron are catalase, peroxidases,
phenylalanine hydroxylase etc.,
DEFICIENCY – ANAEMIA
 Anaemia due to iron deficiency occurs most commonly in rapidly growing
suckling animals, since the iron content of milk is usually very low.
 This can occur in piglets housed in pens without access to soil. The piglet is born
with very limited iron reserves and sow's milk provides only about 1mg per day.
 Providing the sow with supplementary iron in gestation does not increase the
foetal piglets liver iron or the amount in the milk.
 Anemia in piglets is characterized by poor appetite and growth. Breathing
becomes labored and spasmodic-hence the descriptive term 'thumps' for the
condition.
 Iron deficiency anemia is not common in lambs and calves.

REQUIREMENT AND SUPPLEMENTATION

Requirement
 Because of efficient recycling, requirement of iron for most of the farm animals is
very low @ 25 –100 mg kg –1 dietary dry matter.
 In laying hens the iron requirement is more, since egg production represents a
considerable drain on the body reserves.
65
 Increased during pregnancy, haemorrhages, young one when they are maintained
on milk diet. Higher growth rate demands 125 ppm in piglet diet and 40 ppm to
calves
Supplementation
 Feeds of animal origin, such as meat, blood and fishmeals, are excellent sources of
iron
 Legume and oil seed meal are rich in iron.
 Cereals straw and bran are rich in iron
 Ferrous sulphate salts and iron dextran
MUCOSAL BLOCK THEORY
 The efficiency of absorption is increased during periods of iron need and
decreased during periods of iron overload.
 According to Mucosal block theory the mucosal cells of the gastrointestinal tract
absorb iron and convert it into ferritin, and when the cells become
physiologically saturated with ferritin, further absorption is impeded until the
iron is released and transferred to plasma.
 The adult's need for iron is normally low, as the iron produced from the
destruction of haemoglobin is made available for haemoglobin regeneration, only
about 10 per cent of the element escaping from this cycle.
Functions
 Copper is the integral component of following enzyme
 Ceruloplasmin (ferrooxidase) - conversion of iron into transferrin.
 Erythrocuprein - occurs in erythrocytes where it plays a role in oxygen
metabolism.
 Cytochrome oxidase, which is important in oxidative phosphorylation and
myelin synthesis.
 Lysyl oxidase is needed for the conversion of lysine to desmosine which forms
crosslinks in elastin and collagen fibres.
 Tyrosinase is necessary for the conversion of the amino acid tyrosine to melanin
which is necessary for the normal pigmentation of hair, fur and wool.
 Copper is the integral component of Turacin, a pigment of feathers.
 Copper is required for maintenance of crimp of wool.
DEFICIENCY
 A deficiency of copper impairs the animal's ability to absorb iron leading to
anemia,
 Deficiency of copper causes
 Poor growth
 Bone disorders.
66
 Scouring, gastro-intestinal disturbances
 Infertility,
 Depigmentation of hair and wool,
 Lesions in the brain stem and spinal cord. The lesions are associated with
muscular incoordination, and occur especially in young lambs -
swayback condition also known as 'enzootic ataxia' or neonatal ataxia. The
signs range from complete paralysis of the newborn lamb to a swaying staggering
gait, which affects, in particular, the hind limbs.
 Loss of 'crimp' in wool - 'stringy' or 'steely' wool
 'falling disease' – sudden death due to rupture of major blood vessels
 Copper deficiency also leads to reproductive problems in cattle.
REQUIREMENT AND SUPPLEMENTATION
Requirement
 Dietary requirement and supply of copper
 Dairy cattle - 10 ppm DMB
 Beef cattle, sheep - 5 ppm
 Pigs and poultry - 5-6 ppm
Supplementation
 Seeds and seed byproducts are usually rich in copper
 Application of copper containing fertilizer
 Provision of copper containing salt licks
 Ingestion of organic complexes of Copper

COPPER POISONING –
 Continuous ingestion of copper in excess of nutritional requirements leads to an
accumulation of the element in the body tissues, especially in the liver. Hence
copper can be regarded as a cumulative poison.
 The tolerance to copper varies considerably between species. Pigs are highly
tolerant and cattle relatively so. On the other hand, sheep are particularly
susceptible and chronic copper poisoning has been encountered in housed sheep
on concentrate diets containing 40 mg/kg of copper.
 Chronic copper poisoning results in necrosis of the liver cells, jaundice, loss of
appetite and death from hepatic coma.
COPPER-MOLYBDENUM - SULPHUR INTERRELATIONSHIP / 'TEART'
 Sulphide is formed by ruminal microorganisms from dietary sulphate or organic
sulphur compounds.

67
 The sulphide then reacts with molybdate to form thiomolybdate which in turn
combines with copper to form an insoluble copper thiomolybdate (CuMoS4)
thereby limiting the absorption of dietary copper.
 In addition it is considered likely that if thiomolybdate is formed in excess; it may
be absorbed from the digestive tract and exert a systemic effect on copper
metabolism in the ani

ZINC
FUNCTIONS
 High concentrations of zinc are present in the skin, hair and wool of animals.
 Several enzymes in the animal body are known to contain zinc; these include
carbonic anhydrase, pancreatic carboxypeptidase, lactate dehydrogenase, alcohol
dehydrogenase, alkaline phosphatase and thymidine kinase.
 In addition, zinc is an activator of several enzyme systems
DEFICIENCY GENERAL SYMPTOMS
 Subnormal growth, depressed appetite, poor feed conversion and leads to
reproductive disorders in farm animals.
 Gross signs of zinc deficiency in chicks are
 retarded growth,
 foot abnormalities,
 'frizzled' feathers,
 Bone abnormality referred to as the 'swollen hock syndrome' in poultry.
 Symptoms of zinc deficiency in calves include inflammation of the nose and
mouth, stiffness of the joints, swollen feet and Parakeratosis.

DEFICIENCY - PARAKERATOSIS
 Zinc deficiency in pigs causes Parakeratosis, a skin disorder.
 Reddening of the skin followed by eruptions, which develop, into scabs.
 Parakeratosis is aggravated by high calcium levels in the diet and reduced by
decreased calcium and increased phosphorus levels.
 Pigs given diets supplemented with high levels of copper, for growth promotion,
have an increased requirement for zinc.

REQUIREMENT AND SUPPLEMENTATION

Requirement
 Poultry 40 mg.kg feed
 Pig 40 mg/kg feed
 Cattle 30 mg/ kg feed
Supplementation
68
 Yeast is a rich source, and zinc is concentrated in the bran and germ of cereal
grains.
 Animal protein byproducts such as meat meal and fishmeal are usually richer
sources of the element than plant protein supplements.

MANGANESE
FUNCTIONS
 Manganese is important in the animal body as
 An activator of many enzymes such as hydrolases and kinases
 As a constituent of enzymes such as arginase, pyruvate carboxylase and
manganese superoxide dismutase.
 Manganese through its activation of glycosyl transferases, is required for the
formation of the mucopolysaccharide which forms the organic matrix of bone.
 Manganese containing superoxide dismutase catalyses the reactions that
promote immunity in animals.
DEFICIENCY GENERAL SYMPTOMS
 Manganese deficiency in all species leads to retarded growth, skeletal
abnormalities, ataxia of the newborn and reproductive failure. Low manganese
diets for cows and goats have been reported to depress or delay oestrus and
conception, and to increase abortion.
 In pig’s lameness is a symptom due thickening and shortening of bones of the
legs. Other abnormalities associated with deficiency include impaired glucose
utilization and a reduced vitamin K induced blood clotting response.
Deficiency - perosis or 'slipped tendon'
 Manganese is an important element in the diet of young chicks,
a deficiency leading to perosis or 'slipped tendon', a malformation of the leg
bones.
 There is enlargement of the hock joint, thickening and shortening of the tibia
which causes Achilles tendon to slip from its condyle causing the leg of the bird to
be pulled sideward and backward.
Deficiency - nutritional chondrodystrophy
 Manganese deficiency in breeding birds reduces hatchability and shell thickness,
and causes head retraction in chicks, causes a condition called
as nutritional chondrodystrophy which is characterized by the shortening of
the bones of the wings and legs, shortening of the lower mandible leads to parrot
beak condition
REQUIREMENT AND SUPPLEMENTATION
Requirement
 Poultry: 50 mg/Kg of feed
69
 Pig: 40 mg/Kg of feed
 Cattle: 25 mg/Kg of feed
 Sheep: 40 mg/Kg of feed
Supplementation
 Rich sources are rice bran and wheat bran, offals. Most green foods contain
adequate amounts. Manganese salts: oxide, chloride, carbonate

COBALT
Functions
 Cobalt is required by microorganisms in the rumen for the synthesis of vitamin
B12
 Cobalt acts as an activating ion in certain enzyme reactions
Deficiency
Deficiency - Wasting disease or coast disease or Pining or Enzootic marasmus
 Cobalt deficiency causes vitamin B 12 deficiency in ruminants
 Wasting disease or coast disease or Pining or Enzootic marasmus
 Decreased feed intake
 Emaciation - Loss of body weight due to wasting of skeletal muscles
 Decreased growth rate
 Fatty degeneration of liver
Selenium toxicity - alkali disease and blind staggers
 Some species of plants (Astragalus racemosa) that grow in seleniferous areas
contain very high levels of selenium.
 Alkali disease and blind staggers are localized names for chronic diseases of
animals grazing certain seleniferous areas in the USA.
 Symptoms include dullness, stiffness of the joints, loss of hair from mane or tail
and hoof deforrmities.
 Acute poisoning, which results in death from respiratory failure, can arise from
sudden exposure to high selenium intakes.
Requirement and supplementation
Requirement
 Calves and lambs : 0.1 mg / kg feed
 Growing pigs : 0.05 mg / kg feed
 Poultry : 0.1 mg / kg feed
Supplementation
 Fish meal is a good source of selenium.
 Seleno-methionine, seleno-cysteine and sodium selenite are supplemental
sources for selenium.
70
IODINE
Functions
 Iodine plays an important role in the synthesis of the two hormones,
triiodothyronine and tetraiodothyronine (thyroxine) produced in the thyroid
gland.
 The thyroid hormones accelerate reactions in most organs and tissues in the
body, thus increasing the basal metabolic rate, accelerating growth, and
increasing the oxygen consumption of the whole organism.
DEFICIENCY - GOITRE
 When the diet contains insufficient iodine the production of thyroxine is
decreased.
 The main indication of such a deficiency is an enlargement of the thyroid gland,
termed endemic goitre, and is caused by compensatory hypertrophy of the
gland.
 The thyroid being situated in the neck, the deficiency condition in farm animals
manifests itself as a swelling of the neck.
 Reproductive abnormalities are one of the most outstanding consequences of
reduced thyroid function; breeding animals deficient in iodine give birth to
hairless, weak or dead young.
Requirement and supplementation
Requirement
 Pig: 80-160 micro gram /day
 Poultry 5-9 micro gram /day
 Sheep 50 -100 micro gram /day
 Cattle 400- 800 micro gram /day
Supplementation
 The richest sources of this element are foods of marine origin like seaweed's, fish
meal etc,.
 In areas where goiter is endemic, precautions are generally taken by
supplementing the diet with the element, usually in the form of iodized salt.

MOLYBDENUM
Functions
 The biological function of Molybdenum, apart from its reactions with copper, are
concerned with the formation and activities of the following enzymes.
 xanthine oxidase,
 cytochrome C oxidase
 Aldehyde oxidase.
71
Deficiency
 Molybdenum deficiency has not been observed under natural conditions in any
species.
Toxicity
 The prominent manifestations of molybdenum toxicity in cattle are diarrhoea,
scouring, harsh, staring coats and weight loss. This condition is termed as 'teart'
or 'peat scours'. This condition may be counteracted by oral or intravenous
administration of copper.
Requirement and supplementation-
Requirement
 Since the requirement is very low, it is met from the usual diet
Supplementation
Not warrented
FLUORINE
 Fluorine is a very toxic element, with ruminants being more susceptible than
non-ruminants. It causes a condition called as fluorosis.
 There is dental pitting and wear, leading to exposed pulp cavities. Further
increases in fluorine cause depression of appetite, lameness and reduced
production.
 Bone and joint abnormalities also occur, probably owing to ingested fluorine
being deposited in the bone crystal lattice as calcium fluoride.
 The commonest sources of danger from this element are fluoride-containing
water, herbage contaminated by dust from industrial pollution and the use of soft
or raw rock phosphate supplements. Processed phosphates are generally safe.
ARSENIC
 Animals given an arsenic-deficient diet had rough coats and slower growth rates
than control animals given a supplement of arsenic.
 A long term study with goats showed interference with reproduction (abortion,
low birth weights) and milk production and sudden death.
 The toxicity of the element is well known; symptoms include nausea, vomiting,
diarrhoea and severe abdominal pain.
CHROMIUM
 Chromium was first shown to be essential for normal glucose utilization in rats.
 Chromium appears to have a role in glucose tolerance, possibly forming a
complex between insulin and its receptors. Chromium is a component of glucose
tolerance factor (GTF)
 Chromium may also play a role in lipid synthesis.

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 CHAPTER-10

VITAMINS

Vitamins are organic substances necessary in small quantities for maintenance

growth and production. Absence or deficiency causes deficiency disorders.

 Vitamins may be classified based on their solubility as fat soluble vitamins and
water soluble vitamins.
 Fat-soluble vitamins include vitamin A, D, E and K.
 Water-soluble vitamins include vitamin B complex group and vitamin C.
 The B complex group of vitamins includes the following:
1. Vitamin B1 (thiamin)
2. Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin)
3. Vitamin B3 (Niacin/Nicotinamide/Nicotinic acid)
4. Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine)
5. Pantothenic acid
6. Folic acid
7. Vitamin B12 (Cyano cobalamine)
8. Biotin
9. Choline

B. Vitamin C (ascorbic acid)

Differences Fat soluble Water soluble vitamins

Names A,D,E,K Vitamin C

B Vitamins

Solubility Soluble in fats and organic solvents Water soluble

Digestion Requires fat and bile Easily absorbed in intestine

and absorption

Excretion Via faeces Via Urine

Storage Stored in the body in fat depots andNot stored in body except Vitamin
in liver B12

Toxicity An over dosage can lead to toxicity Usually not toxic as it is readily
excreted when given in excess

C. VitaminA (Anti Infective Vitamin)

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Chemical name: Retinol (C2oH29 OH)

Vitamin A2 - Dehydro Retinol

Properties-Insoluble in H2O, Soluble in fat and fat solvents, Destroyed by oxidation

on exposure to light. It is a pale yellow crystalline solid.

Source:

 Animal source: Oils from livers of certain fish (Cod and Halibut), egg yolk, milk
fat.
 Plant source: All green leaves are rich in Provitamin A, beta-carotene.
 Conversion of carotene to vitamin A takes place in the intestinal mucosa.
 One molecule of beta-carotene is converted into two molecules of retinol.

Function of vitamin A and vision-

Rhodopsin synthesis – Visual cycle

 The retina is located at the back of the eye. When light passes through the lens, it
is sensed by the retina and converted to a nerve impulse for interpretation by the
brain.
 Retinol is transported to the retina via the circulation, where it moves into retinal
pigment epithelial cells.
 There, retinol is esterified to form a retinyl ester, which can be stored. When
needed, retinyl esters are broken apart to form 11-cis retinol, which can be
oxidized to form 11-cis retinal.
 11-cis Retinal can be shuttled to the rod cell, where it binds to a protein called
opsin to form the visual pigment, rhodopsin (visual purple).
 Rod cells with rhodopsin can detect very small amounts of light, making them
important for night vision.
 Absorption of a photon of light catalyzes the isomerization of 11-cis retinal to all-
trans retinal and results in its release.
 This isomerization triggers the generation of an electrical signal to the optic
nerve.
 The nerve impulse generated by the optic nerve is conveyed to the brain where it
can be interpreted as vision.
 Once released all-trans retinal is converted to all-trans retinol, which can be
transported to the retinal epithelial cell to complete the visual cycle.
 Inadequate retinol available to the retina results in impaired dark adaptation,
known as "night blindness."

74
Vitamin A deficiency:

 Night blindness: Inability to see in dim light (refer above)

 Xerophthalmia- Severe or prolonged vitamin A deficiency causes a condition
called Xerophthalmia (dry eye)
 Xerophthalmia is characterized by changes in the cells of the cornea that
ultimately result in corneal opacity, keratinisation of the cornea, corneal
ulcers, scarring, and blindness.
 Sometimes vitamin A deficiency can lead to obstruction of lacrimal ducts due to
degenerated epithelial cells leading to decreased output of tears.
 Mild vitamin A deficiency may result in changes in the conjunctiva (corner of the
eye) called Bitot's spots.
 Deficiency of vitamin A can lead to developmental bone deformities.
 Nutritional ruop
 In poultry Vitamin A deficiency leads to high mortality rate.
 Early symptoms include retarded growth, weakness, ruffled plumage and a
staggering gait.
 Egg production and hatchability are reduced. Nasal and ocular discharge,
drowsiness, pale comb and wattles, eyelids stuck shut with thick exudates.
Congenital blindness
 Vitamin A is needed for bone formation.
 If vitamin A is deficient optic foramen is not formed properly.
 Small size optic foramen leads to the constriction of optic nerve.
 Permanent damage to the nerve can lead to permanent blindness.
Effect on reproduction
 Deficiency of vitamin A can lead to infertility or sterility in male
 Deficiency of vitamin A can lead to vaginitis, abnormal oestrous cycle, early
embryonic mortality, abortion and defective formation of foetus in females.

Vitamin A Toxicity:
 The condition caused by vitamin A toxicity is called hypervitaminosis A. It is
caused by over consumption of vitamin A.
 Symptoms include nausea, headache, and fatigue, loss of appetite, dizziness, and
dry skin. Swelling over long bones, Liver enlarged (Eskimos consuming polar
bear livers).

Vitamin D (Anti Rachitic Vitamin)

Chemical structure:

Vitamin D2 - Ergo calciferol - plant origin

75
Vitamin D3 - Cholecalciferol - Animal origins

Properties:

Soluble in fat and fat solvents more stable than Vitamin A with regard to oxidation

Sources:

 Cod liver oils (rich source),

 Egg yolk and sun dried roughage's/grains.
 Colostrum contains 6 to 10 times the amount present in ordinary milk.
 Provitamin D: Ergosterol - plant and 7-dehydrocholestrol – skin of animals.
Cod liver oils - Rich source Egg- yolk, Sundried vegetables/grains

Provitamin/precursor of vitamin D:

Ergosterol in plants and 7- dehydrocholesterol present in the skin

Ergosterol is converted to Ergocalciferol and 7 dehydrocholesterol on exposure to

UV rays is converted to Cholecalciferol

Deficiency:

In young children deficiency of vitamin D causes rickets and in adults it causes

Osteomalacia.

Osteomalacia:
 Resorption of calcium and phosphorus from the bone.
 Bones become weak, more prone to fractures and deformities.
 It can occur in pregnant and lactating animals, which require increased amount
of calcium and phosphorus.
Rickets:
 Calcium and Phosphorus deposition in bones is affected and the bones are weak,
more prone to fractures and deformities.
 The conditions commonly seen are bowing of legs, swollen knees and hock and
arching of back.
 Occasionally there is paralysis.
 Rickety Rosary – enlargement of Osteochondral junction in ribs are also noticed
Rubbery legs in poultry
 In poultry bones and beak become soft and rubbery; legs become weak.
 Egg production is reduced and eggshell quality deteriorates.

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Toxicity –
Vitamin D toxicity (hypervitaminosis D) induces abnormally high serum calcium
levels (hypercalcemia), which could result in
 bone loss,
 kidney stones, and
 Calcification of organs like the heart and kidneys if untreated over a long period
of time.

Vitamin E (Anti Sterility Vitamin)

Chemical name - Alpha Tocopherol

Sources: -Green fodders, cereal grain, vegetable oils, fats, and nuts, oil seeds and
legumes.

Functions:
 Vitamin E function in the animal mainly as biological antioxidant
 The animal has two main methods of protecting itself against oxidative damage.
Firstly, radicals are scavenged by vitamin E as a first line of defence and secondly,
glutathione peroxidase destroys any peroxide formed before they can damage
the cell.
 These two defence mechanisms complement one another.
 Vitamin E also plays an important role in the development and function of the
immune system.
1) Vitamin E prevents per oxidation of PUFA in tissues and membranes. Vitamin E
deficiency: PUFA undergo per oxidation and yellow and brown pigments are
formed in fatty tissues.
2) Protects RBC from haemolysis by oxidizing agents.
3) Protects liver from Carbon tetrachloride poisoning.

Deficiency-
Nutritional myopathy / white muscle disease / stiff lamb disease / mulberry
heart disease / exudative diathesis / crazy chick disease
 The most frequent and the most important manifestation of
Selenium deficiency in farm animals is muscle degeneration (myopathy).
 Nutritional myopathy, also known as muscular dystrophy, frequently occurs in
cattle, particularly calves.
 The myopathy primarily affects the skeletal muscles and the affected animals
have weak leg muscles, a condition manifested by difficulty in standing and, after
standing, a trembling and staggering gait.

77
 Eventually, the animals are unable to rise and weakness of the neck muscles
prevents them from raising their heads.
 A popular descriptive name for this condition is white muscle disease.
 The heart muscle may also be affected and death may result.
 Nutritional myopathy also occurs in lambs, with similar symptoms to those of
calves. The condition is frequently referred to as stiff lamb disease.
 In pigs, the two main diseases associated with vitamin E and
selenium deficiency are myopathy and cardiac disease.
 The pigs demonstrate an uncoordinated staggering gait, or are unable to rise.
 The pigs heart muscle is more commonly affected.
 Sudden cardiac failure occurs and on post-mortem examination the lesions of the
cardiac muscles are seen as pale patches or white streaks. This condition is
commonly known as mulberry heart disease.
 Vitamin E deficiency in chicks may lead to a number of distinct
diseases: nutritional myopathy, encephalomalacia and exudative
diathesis. In nutritional myopathy the main muscles affected are the pectorals
although the leg muscles also may be involved.
 Nutritional encephalomalacia or crazy chick disease is a condition in which
the chick is unable to walk or stand, and is accompanied by hemorrhages and
necrosis of brain cells.
 Exudative diathesis is a vascular disease of chicks characterized by a
generalized oedema of the subcutaneous fatty tissues, associated with an
abnormal permeability of the capillary walls.
 Both selenium and vitamin E appear to be involved in nutrition myopathy and in
exudative diathesis but selenium does not seem to be important in nutritional
encephalomacia.
Requirement
 Lactating cow : 2.5 IU/ kg body weight
 Piglet : 5- 10 IU / kg feed
 Pig : 20 - 30 IU / kg feed
 Poultry
 Broiler : 5 - 10 IU / kg feed
 Layer : 5 IU / kg feed

Supplementation
 Green fodders, cereal grain, vegetable oils, fats, and nuts, oil seeds and legumes.

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VIKTAMIN K

Chemical name

Phylloquinone K1 - Present in plants

Menaquinone K2 - Bacterial synthesis

Both are derived from Menadione

Source: Green leafy vegetables, Egg yolk, Liver, Fish and synthesized by bacteria in
large intestines.

 Functions: Vitamin K is required for synthesis of prothrombin in the liver and

also for the synthesis of factors plasma thromboplastin and tissue
thromboplastin involved in the conversion of prothrombin to thrombin.
 The inactive vitamin K dependent zymogens are converted into calcium binding
proteins which activate them.
Deficiency:
 Low prothrombin level in blood leads to haemorrhagic conditions.
 In cattle sweet clover disease is associated with Vitamin K.
 Sweet clover when it gets mould infested contains a compound dicoumarol,
which lowers prothrombin content of blood leading to haemorrhagic disease and
hence vitamin K is also called as anti haemorrhagic vitamin.
 In chicks Vitamin K deficiency causes anaemia and delayed clotting time of blood.
Requirement
 Piglet : 0.25 – 0.50 mg / kg feed
 Pig : 1.0 – 1.5 mg / kg feed
 Poultry
 Broiler : 0.50 mg / kg feed
 Layer: 0.50 mg / kg feed

Supplementation
 Green leafy vegetables, egg yolk, liver, fish and synthesized by bacteria in gastro
intestinal tract.
Detect Deficiency Coagulation time of blood.

Toxicity: When Vitamin K administered to premature infants leads to toxicity it

causes hyper-bilirubinaemia or kern icterus.

H2O SOLUBLE VITAMINS:

79
Vitamin C (Ascorbic acid)

Colour crystalline H2O soluble.

Functions:

 Formation of collagen and intercellular cement substance (Capillaries, teeth,

bone)
 Metabolism of tyrosine
 Absorption of Fe
 Hydroxylation of deoxycorticosterone, tryptophan, phenyl alanine
 Bone formation
 Adrenal cortex function
 Electron transport
Deficiency-

a. Scurvy in Adults: Weakness, bleeding, loose teeth, Swollen joints,

haemorrhages.
b. Infantile scurvy: Anaemia, Leg drawn up to abdomen swelling at ends of long
bone. Gums have swollen Dyspnoea, cyanosis, convulsions, and death if not
treated.
c. Delayed wound healing.
Requirement
 Vitamin C is dietary essential only in man, guinea pig and other primates, red
vented bulbul and fruit eating bat as these species lack the enzyme L-
gulonolactone oxidase.
 Stress increases the requirement of this vitamin.
 Other species synthesise vitamin C from glucose.
Supplementation
 Citrus fruits and green leafy vegetables are rich sources.

VITAMIN B COMPLEX

All vitamins of the group are H2O soluble. Most of them are co-enzymes.

Thiamine (Vitamin B1)

Functions:

Thiamine diphosphate is a coenzyme involved in oxidative decarboxylation of

pyruvate to acetyl coenzyme A. & of alpha ketoglutarate to succinyl COA in TCA
cycle.
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Deficiency:
 Anorexia,
 Emaciation,
 Muscular weakness and progressive dysfunction of the nervous system
Star grazing
In Chicks deficiency of thiamine leads to anorexia, emaciation, polyneuritis
characterized by head retraction, nerve degeneration and paralysis which otherwise
called as star gazing posture
 Thiamine deficiency in foxes causes Chastek paralysis.

Requirement
 Lactating Cow : 41 mg / day
 Piglet : 0.5 1.0 mg / kg feed
 Pig : 2 - 3 mg / kg feed
 Poultry – Broiler : 1.5 mg / kg feed
 Poultry – Layer : 0.8 mg / kg feed
Supplementation
 Yeast, germ and bran of cereal grain
 Pork is rich in thiamine.
Riboflavin (vitamin B2)
It consists of a dimethyl isoalloxazine nucleus combined with ribitol. It is a yellow,
crystalline compound that has yellowish green fluorescence in aqueous solution. It
is only sparingly soluble in water, stable in acid or neutral solution but destroyed in
alkaline solution. It is unstable in light.
Sources:
It is synthesized by yeast, bacteria and fungi. Rich sources are liver, yeast, milk and
green leafy vegetables.

Functions:
 It is a constituent of flavoproteins, Flavin mononucleotide and Flavin
adenine dinucleotide.
 They are involved in amino acid and carbohydrate metabolism.
 In sows riboflavin is necessary to maintain normal oestrous activity and prevent
premature parturition.

Deficiency:
 Poor appetite, retarded growth, vomiting, skin eruptions and eye abnormalities.
81
 In chick’s riboflavin deficiency causes curled toe paralysis caused due to
peripheral nerve degeneration, in which the chicks walk on their hocks with the
toes curled inwards.
 In breeding hen’s deficiency causes decreased hatchability. Embryonic
abnormalities occur including the clubbed down condition in which the down
feather continues to grow within the follicle leading to curled feather.
Requirement
 Lactating Cow : 156 mg / day
 Piglet : 1 – 3 mg / kg feed
 Pig : 4 – 5 mg / kg feed
 Poultry
 Broiler : 2 - 3 mg / kg feed
 Layer : 2 mg / kg feed

Niacin (Nicotinamide)
It is the amide of nicotinic acid. It is a stable vitamin not readily destroyed by heat,
acids or alkali.
 Function: Nicotinamide function in the animal body as the active group of two
important coenzymes, nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) and
nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADP).
 These coenzymes are involved in the mechanism of hydrogen transfer in living
cells.
Deficiency symptoms:
 In pigs, deficiency symptoms include poor growth, anorexia, enteritis, vomiting
and dermatitis.
 In fowls a deficiency of the vitamin causes bone disorders, feathering
abnormalities and inflammation of the mouth and upper part of the oesophagus.
 Deficiency b symptoms are particularly likely in pigs and poultry if diets with a
high maize content are used, since maize contains very little of the vitamin or of
tryptophan
 Pellagra is commonly observed in human population where is predominant part
of diet.
Requirement
 Lactating Cow : 289 mg / day
 Piglet : 5 – 7 mg / kg feed
 Pig : 15 – 20 mg / kg feed
 Poultry – Broiler : 27 mg / kg feed
 Poultry – Layer : 10 mg / kg feed
Supplementation
82
 It can be synthesised from amino acid tryptophan in the body tissues.
 If the diet is rich in protein containing tryptophan than dietary requirement of
the vitamin is low.
 Rich sources of the vitamin are liver, yeast, groundnuts and sunflower meals.
 In cereals the vitamin is present in the bound form.

Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine)

Functions:
 Of the three related compounds (pyridoxine, the corresponding aldehyde
derivative as pyridoxal and the amine as pyridoxamine.) the most actively
functioning one is pyridoxal in the form of the phosphate.
 Pyridoxal phosphate plays a central role as a coenzyme in the reactions by which
a cell transforms nutrient amino acids into mixtures of amino acids and other
nitrogenous activities of transaminases and decarboxylases, and
over 50 pyridoxal phosphate-dependent enzymes have been identified.
 The vitamin is believed to play a role in the absorption of amino acids from the
intestine.
Deficiency symptoms:
 Affects the animal's growth rate.
 In addition, pigs exhibit a reduced appetite and may develop anemia.
 Chicks on a deficient diet show jerky movements, while in adult birds
hatchability and egg production are adversely affected.
Requirement
 Lactating Cow : 48 mg / day
 Piglet : 0.5 – 1.0 mg / kg feed
 Pig : 2 – 3 mg / kg feed
 Poultry – Broiler : 3mg / kg feed
 Poultry – Layer : 3 mg / kg feed
Supplementation
 The vitamin is present in plants as pyridoxine whereas animal products may also
contain pyridoxal and pyridoxamine.
 Pyridoxine and its derivatives are widely distributed in yeast, pulses, cereal
grains, liver and milk.
Pantothenic acid
Functions:

83
 Pantothenic acid is a constituent of coenzyme A, which is the important
coenzyme of acyl transfer.
 It is also a structural component of acyl carrier protein, which is involved, in the
cytoplasmic synthesis of fatty acids.
Deficiency symptoms:
 Deficiency of pantothenic acid in pigs causes slow growth, diarrhoea, loss of hair,
scaliness of the skin and a characteristic 'goose-stepping' gait
 In severe cases animals are unable to stand.
 In the chick, growth is retarded and dermatitis occurs.
 In mature birds, hatchability is reduced.
Requirement
 Lactating cow : 425 mg/day
 Piglet : 5 mg / kg feed
 Pig : 10 – 15 mg / kg feed
 Poultry- Broiler and Layer : 10 mg / kg feed
Supplementation
 Rich sources are liver, egg yolk, groundnuts, peas, yeast and molasses.
 Cereal grain and potatoes are also good sources of the vitamin.

FOLIC ACID
Functions:
Folic acid is converted into tetrahydro folic acid which function as a coenzyme in
the mobilization and utilisation of single-carbon groups (e.g.) formyl,
methyl that are added to, or removed from, such metabolites as histidine, serine,
glycine, methionine and purines.

Deficiency symptoms:
 A variety of deficiency symptoms in chicks and young turkeys have been
reported, including
 poor growth,
 anaemia,
 poor bone development and
 poor egg hatchability.
Requirement
 Lactating Cow : 35 mg / day
 Piglet : 0.15 – 0.30 mg / kg feed
84
 Pig : 0.50 – 0.90 mg / kg feed
 Poultry- Broiler : 0.55 mg / kg feed
 Poultry – Layer : 0.25 mg / kg feed
Supplementation
 Folic acid is widely distributed in nature; green leafy materials, cereals and
extracted oilseed meals are good sources of the vitamin.
 Folic acid is reasonably stable in food stored under dry conditions but it is readily
degraded by moisture, particularly at high temperatures.
 It is also destroyed by ultraviolet light.

BIOTIN
 Biotin serves as the prosthetic group of several enzymes which catalyse the
transfer of carbon dioxide from one substrate to another.
 In animals there are three biotin-dependent enzymes of particular important:
 pyruvate carboxylase,
 Accetyl coenzyme A carboxylase,
 propionyl coenzyme A carboxylase.
Deficiency-
 In pigs, biotin deficiency causes foot lesions, alopecia (hair loss) and a dry scaly
skin.
 In poultry, biotin deficiency causes reduced growth, dermatitis, leg bone
abnormalities, cracked feet, poor feathering and fatty liver and kidney
syndrome (FLKS).
 Fatty liver and kidney syndrome, which mainly affects two-to five-week-old
chicks, is characterized by a lethargic state with death frequently following
within a few hours.
 On autopsy, the liver and kidneys, which are pale and swollen, contain abnormal
depositions of lipid.
Requirement
 Lactating Cow : 6 mg / day
 Piglet : 0.05 mg / kg feed
 Pig : 0.1 mg / kg feed
 Poultry
 Broiler : 0.15 mg / kg feed
 Layer : 0.10 mg / kg feed
 Avidin, a protein present in the raw white of eggs can induce biotin deficiency
which combines with the vitamin and prevents its absorption from the intestine.
Supplementation

85
 Biotin is widely distributed in foods; liver, milk, yeast, oilseeds and vegetable are
rich sources

CHOLINE-
 Choline is an essential structural component of body tissues.
 It is a component of lecithin’s which play a vital role in cellular structure and
activity.
 It also plays an important part in lipid metabolism in the liver by preventing the
accumulation of fat in this organ.
 It serves as a donor of methyl groups in trans methylation reactions and is a
component of acetylcholine which is responsible for the transmission of nerve
impulses.
 Choline can be synthesized in the liver from methionine and the level of
methionine in the diet therefore influences the exogenous requirement for this
vitamin.
Deficiency symptoms
 Deficiency symptoms, including slow growth and fatty infiltration of the liver,
have been produced in chicks and pigs.
 Chorine is also concerned with the prevention of perosis or slipped tendon in
chicks.
Requirement
 Lactating Cow : 1733 mg / kg feed
 Calf : 1000 mg / kg feed
 Pig : 900 mg / kg feed
 Piglet : 250 mg / kg feed
 Poultry
 Broiler : 1300 mg / kg feed
 Layer : 500 mg / kg feed
 The choline requirement of animals is unusually large for the vitamin, but in spite
of this, deficiency symptoms are not common in farm animals because of its wide
distribution, its high concentrations in foods and because it can be readily
derived from methionine.
Supplementation
 Green leafy materials, yeast, egg yolk and cereals are rich sources of choline.

VITAMIN B12
 The coenzymic forms of vitamin B12 function in several important enzyme
systems.

86
 These include isomerases, dehydrases and enzymes involved in the biosynthesis
of methionine from homocysteine.
 Of special interest in ruminant nutrition is the role of vitamin B12 in the
metabolism of propionic acid into succinic acid.
 In this pathway, the vitamin is necessary for the conversion of methylmalonyl
coenzyme A into succinyl coenzyme A
 Poor growth,
 Poor feathering,
 Decreased hatchability,
 Dermatitis and rough coat.
Requirement
 Lactating Cow : 600 µg / day
 Piglet : 5 – 8 µg / kg feed
 Pig : 15 µg / kg feed
 Poultry – Broiler: 9 µg / kg feed
 Poultry – Layer : 3 µg / kg feed
 In poultry housed with access to litter, majority of the vitamin requirements can
be obtained from the litter.
 Microorganisms in the rumen synthesize B12. However, if levels of cobalt in the
diet are low, a deficiency of the vitamin can arise.
Supplementation
 Vitamin B12 is considered to be synthesized exclusively by microorganisms and
its presence in foods is thought to be ultimately of microbial origin.
 The main natural sources of the vitamin are foods of animal origin, liver being a
particularly rich source.

87
 CHAPTER -11
FEEDING OF HORSE

System of feeding of horses-

 Stall feeding- the daily allowance of concentrate mixture is divided into 2 or 3
parts and fed to horse at 6-8 hours interval. Working horses are generally fed
twice, while growing foals and lactating mares are fed three times a day.
Afterwards, mixture of cereal and leguminous fodders are offered.
 Grazing- the animals are allowed grazing on pastures for 6-10 hours daily.
Depend ending on the availability of herbage and the physiological stages of the
animals, the supplements are offered.
 Use of feeding bags- Working horses and ponies used for traction are required
to be fed away from the home. The feed bags are used to feed concentrate
mixture. The concentrate is moistened and filled to half of the bag and tied
behind the pole after putting the mouth of the horse to enable it eats comfortably.
The bags are used for feeding the working and race horses in the intervals during
the working hours. Bucket are also used for feeding the Tonga ponies.

Feedstuff-
Concentrates-bengal gram is the most popular feed of horses in the Indian
subcontinent. It is usually fed as a single concentrate feed after soaking in water
overnight.
Cereal grains-oats, barley and maize are the principal cereal grains for horses. Of
the three oats are preferred because they have the lowest energy and highest fibre
levels. The cp, ether extract and crude fibre of oats, hulled oats and naked oats,
respectively, are 12.4, 14.7 and 12 to19%; 6.0, 7.2and 8 to 11 and 8.9, 3.7 and 2.8 to
4.5%.
Barely and maize are hard grains and should not be fed whole.
Brans-
Fibre in equine diets is important to maintain a stable hindgut environment that is
less susceptible to acidosis. Wheat bran by tradition is a much favoured feed for
horses. It has less energy and more fibre, protein and minerals than the wheat. But
feeding high levels of wheat bran is associated with big head disease or millers
disease or bran disease in mature horses due to its poor calcium phosphorus ratio
i.e. high in phosphorus and low in calcium.
Protein supplements-
Soyabean meal is almost certainly the protein supplement of choice due to its high
lysine content. Groundnut cake is the alternative.
Linseed seeds are toxic and must be boiled in water before feeding.
Roughages –

88
 A horse can eat fresh grasses at 10% ot its body weight every day. Requirements for
maintenance as well as part of production can be supplied through ad libitum
feeding of good quality fodders as a single feed or the mixture of fresh leguminous
and cereal fodders in the ratio of 3:. Lucerne leaf meal is a rich source of protein,
calcium, phosphorus, carotenes and other micronutrients. Lucerne, berseem
cowpea, oats and maize green fodder excellent for horses. Their hay are also popular
in feeding of horses. Pasture grasses such as dub, Pongola, timothy and orachard
grasses are popular.

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 CHAPTER-12
NUTRITIONAL DISORDERS-
It includes all the disturbances caused by improper feeding management.
Deficiencies’ of nutrients and abnormal metabolism or rapid turnover of fluids,
salts and organic (soluble) materials during early part of lactation. In Dipotent
diseases, due to improper nutritional /feeding management are simple in-
digestion, acute indigestion, tympany or bloat. The common nutritional deficiency
disorder of dairy animals are Ricketes, Osteomalacia, Rheumatic syndrome, Pica,
Night blindness and wasting disease associated with anorexia. The common
metabolic diseases of cow occurring after calving are milk fever, ketosis and Grass
tetany. - Simple Indigestion is characterised by loss of appetite, lack of ruminal
movement and constipation, sudden changes in quality of feed, over feeding,
sudden change in concentrate roughage ration, moulding, overheated feeds,
changes of cereals and inadequate water supply. This disease can be prevented by
improving the feeding management of
animals. Feeding Management- The quality and type of diet should not be change
suddenly. Overfeeding of material specially during dry season should be.
avoided. The animal should have been assessed to drinking water.

Acute Indigestion-
Sudden ingestion or feeding of high grain leads to acute indigestion characterised by
dehydration, lack of ruminal movement, redness of eye. Sometimes blindness and
death. Sudden ingestion of grain or soluble sugar results in production of lactic acid
in rumen. It increases osmotic tension of rumen leading to withdrawal of fluid from
blood into the rumen. An animal should be fed fixed roughage concentrate ration. i.e
70:30 or 60:40
TYMPANY-
It is characterised by distension of rumen with gases either free or mixed with fluid.
This is very common in diary animals grazing on young succulent Pasteur during
monsoon season. The cause of floating is the presence of some proteins that
produces foam in the rumen. Prevention is difficult under practical conditions
however feeding of straw or Stover in the morning before grazing reduces bloat
chances Leguminous fodders should be mixed with straw feeding of mineral oil is
helpful in preventing bloat.

PICA:-
This disease is due to Phosphorus deficiency and Na characterized by depresses
appetite i.e. licking/chewing of wood, cloths, bones, urine etc. Animal should be

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provided with mineral mixture 25-50 gm daily and common salt 25-50 gm. In this
disease, reduced body weight and reduced fertility. In scarcity of green roughages,
this condition arrives. Animals on pasture get sufficient Vit.A through its precursor
carotene. Carotene content of green leaves and roughages depends upon no. of leaves,
greenness and exposure to sunlight. A daily supply of 3-4 Kg green will provide
Vitamin A requirements.

NURTITIONAL WARTING:- This disease is caused by deficiency of Cobalt in the diet

of dairy animals is characterized by loss of appetite and progressive loss in the body
weight. A regular supply of 0.1 mg/Kg diet will prevent the animal from this disease.
KETOSIS-
It is a disease of milch animals caused by metabolism of carbohydrates and volatile
fatty acid. The demand of glucose is increase after calving and continuous upto peak
lactation for synthesis of lactose. The volatile fatty acids produced in rumen required
glucose for metabolism. A reduction in blood glucose level in high yielding cows due
to nutritional deficiency or inadequate concentrate intake leads to accumulation of
volatile fatty acids and then there fatty acids ultimately converted to Ketone bodies.
This is characterized by acetone smell from breath, milk and urine. The diet should
be adequate in all mineral especially in I, P and Co.

MILK FEVER (Parturient paresis)-

It is a disease of high yielding animal which just occur after calving, due to sudden
decrease in blood Ca level because a large amount of Ca is drained out through milk.
The blood Ca level falls to 4-5 mg/ 100 ml of blood. Normal value is 9-12 mg/100 ml
blood. Symptoms:- loss of appetite, Reluctance to move, Dry muzzle, Constipation,
Grinding of teeth, Inability to stand.

GRASS TETANY (Lactation tetany):-

Hypomagnesaemic tetany occurs due to fall in blood Mg level. This occur commonly
in milch animal grazing on young Pasteur i.e rich in K.Uncomfortable behaviour ,
high sensitivity, staggering gait, muscular contraction. Should be fed grains, hay and
roughage before grazing on young Pasteur.
Roughages:- They are plant materials in a fresh dry or ensiled state which are bulky
and fibrous in nature and normally contain higher percentage of crude fibre 18%
and low percentage of TDN less&gt;60%

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 CHAPER 13
ROLE OF MINERAL AND VITAMIN IN EQUINE FEEDING, NUTRITIONAL PROBLEM
IN EQUINES
Colic- Colic refers to abdominal pain.
 The horse has a small stomach and if fed too much it cannot relive the distended
stomach by vomiting and thus colic may develop. If the distension is too great, the
stomach may rupture and cause death.
 The small intestines are long and twisting and herniation through a body opening
may occur and cause colic.
 The caecum and large and small colon are large in relation to the stomach.
Impaction may occur in all the three and cause colic. Twisting may occur in the
large and small colon, and some cases of colic may require surgery.
 Internal parasites play an important role in intestinal disturbances which may lead
to colic.
 It appears that colic may be caused by obstruction in the digestive tract, digestive
tract disturbance which usually produce gas, and parasites infestation which can
be great enough to block the intestinal tract.
 Sand colic can result when horses ingest large amounts of sand while grazing
impoverished pastures.
Lactation tetany-
 Tetany is a condition in which there are localized spasmodic contractions,
twitching, or cramps. It is due to a fall in the plasma calcium concentration that
may occur in the lactating mare as a result of the loss of calcium into the milk.
 Lactation tetany in a mare is prevented in subsequent lactations by feeding a low -
calcium ration during the last 2to 5 weeks before foaling; switch of high calcium
ration, immediately following foaling.
 A low- calcium ration stimulates the parathyroid gland, so that it is able to respond
more rapidly and effectively to a fail in the plasma calcium concentration and
mobilize more calcium more rapidly from the bone to prevent tetany. The low
calcium ration also increases the efficiency of intestinal calcium absorption, which
is very important to meet the extra calcium needs of lactation. (Tetanus or lockjaw
is a disease caused by the bacterium clostridium tetani).
Azoturia-
 Azoturia is also known as ‘Monday morning’ disease or exertional rhabdomyolysis.
It is normally observed in horsed that are fed on a ration with good amount of
concentrates even on rest days.

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 The day after rest day such horses exhibit this condition where the muscle of the
loins and hindquarters seize up leading to stiffness and pain. The sign vary from
slight hind leg stiffness to severe pain and total reluctance to move. Treatment
involves reduction of pain and inflammation.
 Vitamin e and selenium may aid muscle strength and reduce the incidence of
Azoturia.
 Prevention is better by following these tips: reduce the concentration if the horse
has no work; warm up and cool the horse properly; leave the horse out in the field
for grazing as much as possible; make any changes in the diet gradually, etc.

HYPO MAGNESAEMIC TETANY-

Feeding fertilized spring grass may cause hypomagnesaemic tetany (grass staggers)
in animals due the very poor availability of magnesium.

LAMINITIS-
Laminitis is defined as an inflammation of the lamina on the inner hoof wall.
It affects the feet, causes extreme pain, a high fever, and the horse has a difficult time
moving or walking. Founder is another name for laminitis. It may be due to many
causes.
 Avoid overfeeding or irregular feeding of concentrate grain mixture to horses.
Whenever the quality of concentrate is increased, it should be increased gradually.
 Eating too much grains result in a high production of lactic acid in the horse’s
intestinal tract. The lactic acid damages the gut wall and allows bacteria to enter
the blood. This results in endotoxemia (the presence of toxins in the blood), which
affects the lamina by decreasing the blood flow to the lamina.
 Colic can also cause laminitis by direct damage to the intestinal wall, such as with
torsion (twist of the intestine). The wall die in that area and allow bacteria to get
into the blood cause laminitis
 Avoid hard work and exercise on hard surfaces since this may bruise the laminae
and cause laminitis.
 Irregular feeding, quick changes in kinds of feed used, the use of mouldy, rancid,
and wet feeds when the horse is used to dry feeds may result in indigestion.
Indigestion may result in laminitis.
A brittle, cracked hoof may result in case of deficiency of minerals and amino
acids.
 Sulphur is a mineral involved in the chemical bonds that maintain the integrity of
the internal hoof.
 Biotin improves the resilience of the hoof wall.
 Zinc is a mineral needed for hoof growth and skin condition.

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 Methionine and cysteine are the building blocks of keratin, the protein which
makes up hoof and hair.
 Calcium is needed for healthy bones and teeth and also has a role to play in hoof
growth.

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