[Link].

in

UNIT
The Marathas
15
Learning Objectives

To acquire knowledge in
„„Conditions that facilitated the rise of Marathas
„„Shivaji’s contribution to the establishment of Maratha kingdom
„„Shivaji’s administrative system
„„Peshwa rule and administration
„„Role of Maratha in Tamilnadu with special reference to Serfoji II

Introduction themselves on their loyalty, courage, discipline,

cunningness, and endurance. They had earlier
The Marathas played a major role in the served under the Bahmani Sultans and later,
decline of Mughal power. Under the dynamic after its disintegration, under the Sultans of
leadership of Shivaji, they posed a strong Ahmednagar, Bijapur, Golconda, Bidar and
challenge to Mughal power during the 1670s. Berar.
By the middle of the 18th century, they had
Marathas avoided direct battles with the
succeeded in displacing Mughal power in
Mughal armies that were equipped with strong
central India. Nayak rule ended in 1674 in
cavalry and deadly cannons. "Guerrilla warfare"
Thanjavur, when the Maratha General Venkoji
was their strength. They possessed the ability to
(half brother of Shivaji) leading the Bijapur
plan and execute the surprise lightning attacks
forces invaded Thanjavur and succeeded in at night. Further, they exhibited skills to change
establishing Maratha rule in the Tamil region. their tactics according to the battle situation
Maratha rule in Thanjavur which started from without waiting for orders from a superior
1674 continued until the death of Serfoji II in officer.
1832.
(b) Bhakti Movement and its
15.1  Causes of the Rise of Impact
the Marathas
The spread of the Bhakti
(a) Physical features and Nature movement inculcated the
spirit of oneness among the
of the People
Marathas. Tukaram, Ramdas,
The region of the Marathas consisted and Eknath were the leading
of a narrow strip of land called Konkan. Its lights of the movement. The
precipitous mountains, inaccessible valleys and hymns of the Bhakti saints
impregnable hill-forts were most favourable were sung in Marathi and they
for military defence. The Marathas claimed a created a bond among people Ramdas
long tradition of military prowess and prided across the society.
225

XI History - Lesson [Link] 225 29-02-2020 [Link]

 [Link]

Military Conquests
“The religious revival [in Maratha country]
Shivaji began his military career at the age
was not Brahmanical” in its orthodoxy, it
of nineteen. In 1646, he captured the fortress
was heterodox in its spirit of protest against
of Torna from the Sultan of Bijapur. The fort
forms, ceremonies and class distinctions.
of Raigad, located five miles east of Torna, was
The saints sprang chiefly from the lower
captured and wholly rebuilt. After the death of
order of the society other than Brahmins.
Dadaji Kondadev in 1647, Shivaji took over all
– Justice Ranade.
the jagirs of his father. Subsequently, the forts of
Baramati, Indapura, Purandhar and Kondana
(c) External causes came under his direct control. The Marathas
had already captured Kalyan, an important
The degeneration of Bijapur and Golkonda
prompted the Marathas to unite and fight town in that region.
together. The Deccan wars against the Sultans Shivaji’s father had been humiliated
of Bijapur, Golkonda and Ahmednagar had and imprisoned by the Sultan of Bijapur. He
exhausted the Mughal treasury. Shivaji rallied negotiated with Prince Murad, the Mughal
the Marathas who lay scattered in many parts of Viceroy of the Deccan and expressed his wish
Deccan under his leadership and built a mighty to join Mughal service. The Sultan of Bijapur
kingdom, with Raigarh (Raigad) as the capital. released Shahji in 1649 on some conditions.
So, Shivaji refrained from his military activities
15.2 Shivaji (1627–1680) from 1649 to 1655. During this period, he
Shivaji was born in consolidated his power and toned up his
Shivner near Junnar. He was administration.
the son of Shahji Bhonsle by In 1656, Shivaji re-started his military
his first wife Jijabai. Shahji was activities. He captured Javli in the Satara district
a descendant of the Yadava and the immense booty that he won made him
rulers of Devagiri from his popular among the Marathas. Many young men
mother’s side and the Sisodias joined his army. A new fort, Pratapgarh, was
of Mewar on his father’s side. built two miles west of Javli.
Shivaji
Shahji Bhonsle served under
Malik Ambar (1548–1626), former slave, and Confrontation against Bijapur
the Abyssinian minister of Ahmed Shah of After Mohammad Adilshah of Bijapur died
Ahmednagar. After the death of Malik Ambar, in November 1656, Adilshah II, a young man of
Shahji played a vital role in its politics. After the eighteen, succeeded him. Aurangzeb captured
annexation of Ahmednagar by the Mughals, he Bidar, Kalyani and Purandar in 1657. So, both
entered the service of the Sultan of Bijapur. Shivaji and the Bijapur Sultan were forced
Shivaji and his mother were left under the to make peace with Aurangzeb. At this time
care of Dadaji Kondadev who administered Shahji Shah Jahan fell ill, and a war of succession was
Bhonsle’s jagirs (land grants given in recognition imminent in Delhi. Aurangzeb left for Delhi to
of military or administrative services rendered) take part in it. Using this opportunity, Shivaji
at Poona. Shivaji earned the goodwill of the invaded north Konkan and captured the cities
Mavali peasants and chiefs, who were a martial of Kalyan, Bhivandi and fort of Mahuli.
people with knowledge about the hilly areas
Shivaji and Afzal Khan, 1659
around Poona. Shivaji made himself familiar with
the hilly areas around Poona. Religious heads, As there was no danger from the Mughals,
Ramdas and Tukaram, also influenced Shivaji. Bijapur Sultan decided to attack Shivaji.
Ramdas was regarded by Shivaji as his guru. Afzal Khan was sent with a huge army. He
226 The Marathas

XI History - Lesson [Link] 226 29-02-2020 [Link]

 [Link]

boasted that he would bring the “mountain- June 1665. The heroic resistance of Shivaji
rat” in chains. But, he found fighting in the became futile. Therfore he decided to come
mountainous country extremely difficult. to negotiate with Jai Singh. According to the
So, he planned to trick Shivaji but he was treaty of Purandar signed on 11 June 1665
outwitted. The Maratha forces ravaged South Shivaji yielded the fortresses that he had
Konkan and Kolhapur district and captured captured and agreed to serve as a mansabdar
the fort of Panhala. The Sultan of Bijapur and assist the Mughals in conquering Bijapur.
himself led the army and the war dragged on
Visit to Agra
for more than a year. Nothing substantial was
gained. Finally, after negotiations, Shivaji was Jai Singh persuaded Shivaji to visit the
recognised as the ruler of the territories in his Mughal court. He fed Shivaji with high hopes
possession. and took personal responsibility for his safety
at the capital. Shivaji and his son Sambhaji
Shivaji and the Mughals reached Agra in May 1666. But, they were not
In July 1658, Aurangzeb ascended the shown due respect. Humiliated, he burst out
throne as the Emperor. Shaista Khan was and abused the Emperor. When Shivaji was
appointed the Governor of the Deccan in imprisoned, he managed to escape by hiding
1660 with the main purpose of crushing himself in a fruit basket.
Shivaji. Shivaji hit upon a bold plan. He In 1666, Shivaji resumed his belligerent
entered Poona at night with 400 soldiers in policy and led Maratha soldiers in new
the form of a marriage party and attacked the conquests. As the Mughals were busy with
home of Shaista Khan. Aurangzeb was forced the Afghan risings in the North-West, they
to recall Shaista Khan from the Deccan in could not deal with Shivaji. Shivaji also
December 1663. occupied himself with the re-organisation
Shivaji and Jaisingh of his internal administration. Prince
Muazzam, Viceroy of the Deccan, was weak
In 1664, Shivaji attacked Surat, the major
and indolent. Raja Jaswant Singh was friendly
Mughal port in Arabian Sea and his soldiers
towards Shivaji. Sambhaji was also made a
plundered the city. Aurangzeb despatched
mansabdar of 5000.
an army under the command of the Rajput
general Raja Jai Singh to defeat Shivaji and Conflict with the Mughals
annex Bijapur. At that time, Prince Muazzam, (1670)
(known as Bahadur Shah I), was the Governor
Aurangzeb took
of the Deccan. Jai Singh made elaborate plans
back a part of the jagir
to encircle Shivaji on all sides. Even Raigarh
in Berar which was
was under threat. Purandar was besieged in
once given to Shivaji.
Shivaji got annoyed and
recalled his troops from
Mughal service. He
recovered almost all the
forts he had ceded to the
Mughals by the treaty of Aurangzeb
Purandar. In 1670, he
again sacked Surat, the most important port
on the western coast. In 1672, the Marathas
imposed chauth or one fourth of the revenue
Shivaji and Jai Singh as annual tribute on Surat.

The Marathas 227

XI History - Lesson [Link] 227 29-02-2020 [Link]

 [Link]

Coronation He allowed his half-brother Venkoji or Ekoji to

On 6 June 1674, Shivaji was crowned at carry on administering Thanjavur. The Nayaks
Raigarh. He assumed the title of “Chhatrapathi”( of Madurai promised a huge amount as tribute.
metaphor for “supreme king ”). The Carnatic campaigns added glory and
prestige to Shivaji. Senji, the newly conquered
place, acted as the second line of defence for his
successors.
Last days of Shivaji
Shivaji’s last days were not happy. His
eldest son Sambhaji deserted him and joined
the Mughal camp. Although he returned,
he was imprisoned and sent to Panhala fort
by Aurangzeb. The relentless campaigns
affected Shivaji’s health. He died in 1680 at
Raigarh (Raigad) Fort
the age of 53.
Deccan Campaigns At the time of his death, Shivaji’s kingdom
In 1676, Shivaji began his career of conquests comprised the Western Ghats and the Konkan
in the south. A secret treaty was signed with the between Kalyan and Goa. The provinces in the
Sultan of Golkonda. Shivaji promised him some south included western Karnataka extending
territories in return for his support. He captured from Belgaum to the bank of Tungabhadra.
Senji and Vellore and annexed the adjoining Vellore, Senji and a few other districts were not
territories which belonged to his father, Shahji. settled at the time of his death.
N

W E
Marathas Kingdom of Shivaji
S

Nagpur
Surat MAHARASHTRAM
Diu Daman
Aurangabad
Ahmednagar
Mumbai Godavari
Poona
Raigarh
Prathapgarh
Satara Solapur Hyderabad
Ratnagiri Belgam
BAY
Goa
Bellari
OF
Karwar
BENGAL
Kolar Chennai
ARABIAN Bangalore
Vellore
SEA Arni
Calicut Senji
Varaingipettai
Tiruchi Thanjavur
Kochi

Map not to scale

Kollam
Sr i la n ka
IND I A N O C E AN

228 The Marathas

XI History - Lesson [Link] 228 29-02-2020 [Link]

 [Link]

15.3 Marathas after Shivaji became a titular head. Tara

Bai was disappointed. Tara
A year after the death of Shivaji, his eldest Bai and Rama Raja died in
son and successor Sambhaji led a Maratha army 1761 and 1777 respectively.
into Mughal territory, captured Bahadurpur Shahu II, the adopted
in Berar, and plundered its wealth. Provoked son of Rama Raja, ruled
by this humiliation, Aurangzeb struck a till his death in 1808 as a
compromise with the Mewar Rajputs and led an nonentity. His son Pratap
army into the Deccan. Bijapur and Golkonda Singh who came to the
were annexed in 1686 and 1687 respectively. throne next was deposed
The next task of Aurangzeb was to punish by the British government
Tara Bai
Sambhaji for giving protection to his rebellious in 1839 on the charge that
son Prince Akbar II. In 1689 the Mughal forces he plotted against the British Government.
captured Sambhaji and killed him. Pratap Singh died as a prisoner in 1847. His
Sambhaji’s death did not deter the Marathas. younger brother Shaji Appa Saheb, Shaji II, was
His younger brother Rajaram renewed the fight made king by the British in 1839. Shahji II died
from the fortress of Senji in the Tamil country. The in 1848 without a successor.
fight continued for many years. After the death
15.4  Maratha
of Rajaram in 1700, resistance continued under
the leadership of his widow, Tara Bai. Acting on Administration
behalf of his infant son, she despatched an army
Central Government
of 50,000 horsemen and infantry to Hyderabad.
The capital was plundered and, as a result, trade Shivaji was a not only a great warrior
in Masulipatnam, the major port of the region, but a good administrator too. He had an
trade remained disrupted for many years. At the advisory council to assist him in his day-to-day
time of Aurangzeb’s death in 1707 Marathas still administration. This council of eight ministers
had many fortified places under their control. was known as Ashta Pradhan. Its functions
were advisory. The eight ministers were:
After Aurangzeb’s death, Sambhaji’s son
Shahu was released from prison and claimed the „„The Mukhya Pradhan or Peshwa or prime
Maratha throne. Tara Bai objected and it led to a minister whose duty was to look after the
civil war, in which Shahu emerged victorious and general welfare and interests of the State.
ascended the throne in 1708. Balaji Viswanath He officiated for the king in his absence.
was very supportive of Shahu and helped him „„The Amatya or finance minister checked
ascend to the throne in 1708. As a gesture of his and countersigned all public accounts of
gratitude Shahu appointed Balaji Viswanath as the kingdom.
the Peshwa in 1713. In course of time, the Peshwa „„The Walkia-Nawis or Mantri maintained
became the real ruler. Shahu retired to Satara the records of the king’s activities and the
and the Peshwa started to rule from Poona. proceedings in the court.
Tara Bai carried on a parallel rival „„Summant or Dabir or foreign secretary
government with Kolhapur as capital. But was to advise king on all matters of war
Raja Bai, the second wife of Rajaram and her and peace and to receive ambassadors and
son Sambhaji II imprisoned Tara Bai and her envoys from other countries.
son in 1714. Sambhaji II ascended the throne
„„Sachiv or Shuru Nawis or home secretary
of Kolhapur. However he had to accept the
was to look after the correspondence of the
overlordship of Shahu. After Shahu died in 1749,
king with the power to revise the drafts. He
Rama Raja who ascended the throne, made a
also checked the accounts of the Parganas.
pact with the Peshwa, according to which he
The Marathas 229

XI History - Lesson [Link] 229 29-02-2020 [Link]

 [Link]

„„Pandit Rao or Danadhyaksha or Sadar Liberal loans were also advanced to the peasants
and Muhtasib or ecclesiastical head was in for purchasing cattle, seed, etc.
charge of religion, ceremonies and charities.
Chauth and Sardeshmukhi
He was the judge of canon law and censor
of public morals. As the revenue collected from the state was
„„Nyayadhish or chief justice was responsible insufficient to meet its requirements, Shivaji
for civil and military justice. collected two taxes, Chauth and Sardeshmukhi,
from the adjoining territories of his empire,
„„Sari Naubat or commander-in-chief was the Mughal provinces and the territories of
in charge of recruitment, organization and the Sultan of Bijapur. Chauth was one-fourth
discipline of the Army. of the revenue of the district conquered by the
With the exception of the Nyayadhish Marthas. Sardeshmukhi was an additional 10%
and Pandit Rao, all the other ministers were of the revenue which Shivaji collected by virtue
to command armies and lead expeditions. All of his position as Sardeshmukh. Sardeshmukh
royal letters, charters and treaties had to get was the superior head of many Desais or
the seal of the King and the Peshwa and the Deshmukhs. Shivaji claimed that he was the
endorsement of the wfour ministers other than hereditary Sardeshmukh of his country.
the Danadyaksha, Nyayadhisha and Senapati.
Military Organization
There were eighteen departments under the
charge of the various ministers. Shivaji organized a standing army. As
we have seen, he discouraged the practice
Provincial Government of granting jagirs and making hereditary
For the sake of administrative convenience, appointments. Quarters were provided to the
Shivaji divided the kingdom into four provinces, soldiers. The soldiers were given regular salaries.
each under a viceroy. The provinces were The army consisted of four divisions: infantry,
divided into a number of Pranths. The practice cavalry, an elephant corps and artillery. Though
of granting jagirs was abandoned and all officers the soldiers were good at guerrilla methods of
were paid in cash. Even when the revenues of warfare, at a later stage they were also trained in
a particular place were assigned to any official, conventional warfare.
his only link was with the income generated The infantry was divided into regiments,
from the property. He had no control over the brigades. The smallest unit with nine soldiers
people associated with it. No office was to be was headed by a Naik (corporal). Each unit with
hereditary. The fort was the nerve-centre of 25 horsemen was placed under one havildar
the activities of the Pranth. The lowest unit of (equivalent to the rank of a sergeant). Over
the government was the village in which the five havildars were placed under one jamaladar
traditional system of administration prevailed. and over ten jamaladars under one hazari. Sari
Naubat was the supreme commander of cavalry.
Revenue Administration
The cavalry was divided into two classes: the
The revenue administration of Shivaji was bargirs (soldiers whose horses were given by the
humane and beneficent to the cultivators. The state) and the shiledars (mercenary horsemen
lands were carefully surveyed and assessed. The who had to find their own horses). There were
state demand was fixed at 30% of the gross produce water-carriers and farriers too.
to be payable in cash or kind. Later, the tax was
raised to 40%. The amount of money to be paid Justice
was fixed. In times of famine, the government The administration of justice was of a
advanced money and grain to the cultivators rudimentary nature. There were no regular
which were to be paid back in instalments later. courts and regular procedures. The panchayats
230 The Marathas

XI History - Lesson [Link] 230 29-02-2020 [Link]

 [Link]

functioned in the villages. The system of ordeals in 1731. And the Peshwa assumed the office of
was common. Criminal cases were tried by the the commander-in-chief also. By the treaty of
Patels. Appeals in both civil and criminal cases Warna signed in 1731, Sambhaji of Kolhapur
were heard by the Nyayadhish (chief justice) was forced to accept the sovereignty of Shahu.
with the guidance of the smritis. Hazir Majlim
Thana, Salsette and Bassein were captured
was the final court of appeal
from the Portuguese in 1738 and they were
15.5  Rule of the Peshwas driven out of the Konkan coast. At the same
(1713-1818) time, the English made friendly overtures to the
Marathas and got the right to free trade in the
The Peshwa or the prime minister was the Deccan region.
foremost minister in the Ashta Pradhan, the
council of ministers of Shivaji. The Peshwas
gained more powers and became dominant in
the eighteenth Century. Balaji Viswanath was
the first powerful Peshwa.

Peshwa is a Persian word which

means “Foremost” or the “First Minister”.

Balaji Viswanath (1713–1720)

Balaji Viswanath
assisted the Maratha Baji Rao I
emperor Shahu to
consolidate his control Balaji Baji Rao (1740–1761)
over the kingdom that had Balaji Baji Rao succeeded as the
been plagued by a civil Peshwa after the death of his father Baji Rao I.
war. Kanhoji Angre was Known as Nana Sahib, he proved to be a
the most powerful naval Balaji Viswanath
good administrator and an expert in handling
chief on the western coast. During the civil war financial matters.
Kanhoji had supported Tarabai. The Peshwa
convinced him of the common danger from
the Europeans and secured his loyalty to Shahu.
The practice of granting jagirs was revived. And
the office of Peshwa was made hereditary.
Baji Rao I (1720–1740)
After Balaji Viswanath, his son Baji Rao I
was appointed Peshwa in 1720 by Shahu. Baji
Rao enhanced the power and prestige of the
Maratha Empire by defeating the Nizam of
Hyderabad, the Rajput Governor of Malwa and
the Governor of Gujarat. He freed Bundelkhand Balaji Baji Rao
from the control of Mughals and for this the
Carnatic Expedition
Marathas got one third of the territories from
its ruler. The commander-in-chief, Trimbak Chanda Sahib, son-in-law of the Nawab
Rao, who troubled the Peshwa, was defeated of Arcot, after capturing Tiruchirappalli
and killed in the battle of Dabhai near Baroda threatened to lay siege to Thanjavur. Its
The Marathas 231

XI History - Lesson [Link] 231 29-02-2020 [Link]

 [Link]

Maratha ruler appealed to Shahu for help in the part of the Peshwa against the British, both
1739. Responding to this appeal, the Peshwa in Karnataka and Bengal, would have probably
sent Raghoji Bhonsle (Sahu’s brother-in- checked their advance. But the Peshwa’s undue
law) to Thanjavur. Raghoji Bhonsle defeated interests in Delhi earned the enmity of various
and killed the Nawab of Arcot, Dost Ali, regional powers. Ahmad Shah Abdali brought
in 1740. Tiruchirappalli was captured and about the disaster at Panipat in 1761.
Chanda Sahib imprisoned. As the Peshwa was
The Third Battle of Panipat, 1761
subsequently engaged in military expeditions
in Bundelkhand and Bengal, Mohammed Ali, The third battle of Panipat, 1761 is one of the
who succeeded Dost Ali, could easily retake decisive battles in the history of India. The defeat
Arcot and recapture Tiruchirappalli in 1743. in the battle dealt a severe blow to the Marathas
The Peshwa then sent his cousin Sadasiva Rao and the Mughal Empire and thereby paved the
to the Carnatic. Although the authority of the way for the rise of the British power in India.
Marathas was re-established, Tiruchirappalli
Circumstances
could not be regained.
The tottering Mughal Empire neglected
Battle of Udgir, 1760 the defence of the north-west frontier areas.
A war of succession broke out after the This prompted Nadir Shah, the then ruler
death of Nizam Asaf Jah in 1748. Peshwa of Afghanistan, to invade India. In spite of
supported the eldest son of the Nizam. The army his repeated demands, the Mughal ruler,
sent by Peshwa under Sadasiva Rao won the Muhammad Shah, provided asylum to the
battle of Udgir in 1760. This success marked the Afghan rebels. So, his invasions started in 1739.
climax of Maratha military might. The Peshwa Delhi was plundered. The Kohinoor diamond
took over Bijapur, Aurangabad, Dulatabad, and the valuable peacock throne were taken
Ahmednagar and Burhanpur. away by Nadir Shah.
The Marathas had brought Rajaputana When Nadir Shah was assassinated in 1747,
under their domination after six expeditions one of his military generals, Ahmad Shah Abdali
between 1741 and 1748. In 1751 the Nawab of became an independent ruler of Afghanistan.
Bengal had to cede Orissa and pay an annual After consolidating his position, he started
tribute to the Marathas. As the Marathas were his military expeditions. The Mughal emperor
always after the Mughal throne they entered made peace with him by ceding Multan and the
Delhi in 1752 to drive out the Afghans and Punjab. Mir Mannu, appointed by the Mughal
Rohillas from Delhi. Imad-ul-Mulk who was Emperor as the governor of Punjab, was to act
made the Wazir with the help of Marathas only as an agent of Ahmad Shah Abdali. On
became a puppet in their hands. After bringing Mir Mannu’s death, the widow of Mir Mannu,
the Punjab under their control, they expelled with the help of the Wazir of Delhi, Imad-ul-
the representative of Ahmad Shah Abdali, the Mulk, appointed Mir Munim as the Governor
founder of the Durani Empire in Afghanistan. of the Punjab, without the consent of Abdali.
A major conflict with Ahmad Shah Abdali Infuriated by this move Abdali invaded India
became therefore inevitable. and captured the Punjab. Mir Munim fled to
Delhi. Pursuing him Abdali captured Delhi
The Marathas tried to find allies among
and pillaged it in January 1757. Mathura and
the powers in the north-west. But their earlier
Brindavan were desecrated.
deeds had antagonized all of them. The Sikhs,
Jat chiefs and Muslims did not trust them. Before leaving Delhi, Abdali appointed
The Marathas did not help Siraj-ud-Daulah in Mir Bakshi as his agent in Delhi. Timur Shah,
the battle of Plassey in 1757. So no help was his son, was made the Viceroy of Lahore. An
forthcoming from Bengal either. A move on expedition under Malhar Rao Holkar and
232 The Marathas

XI History - Lesson [Link] 232 29-02-2020 [Link]

 [Link]

Raghunatha Rao reached Delhi after Abdali completely routed. The Peshwa’s son Viswas
had left. They removed the agent of Abdali at Rao, Sadasiva Rao and numerous Maratha
Delhi and appointed a man of their choice as commanders were killed. Holkar fled and
the Wazir. Thereafter they captured Sirhind the contingents of Scindia followed him. The
and Lahore in 1758. The Afghan forces were Peshwa was stunned by the tragic news. The
defeated, and Timur Shah deposed. Peshwa died broken hearted in June 1761.
So, Abdali returned to India in October After the battle of Panipat, Abdali
1759 and recovered the Punjab. The Marathas recognized Shah Alam II as the Emperor of
were forced to withdraw from Lahore, Multan Delhi. He got an annual tribute. The Marathas,
and Sirhind. The wildest anarchy prevailed in though they received a severe blow initially,
the region. So, the Peshwa sent Dattaji Scindia, managed to restore their power within ten years
the brother of Mahadhaji Scindia, to the in the north by becoming the guardian of the
Punjab to set matters right. But Abdali defeated Mughal Emperor Shah Alam.
and killed him in the battle (1760). Malhar
Peshwa Madhav Rao I
Rao Holkar was also defeated at Sikandara.
Thereupon the Peshwa recruited a huge army (1761–1772) and His Successors
under the command of Sadasiva Rao. In 1761, Madhav Rao, the son of Balaji Baji
Abdali responded by forming an alliance Rao, became the Peshwa under the regency of
with Najib-ud-Daulah of Rohilkhand and Raghoba, the younger brother of Peshwa.
Shuja-ud-Daulah of Oudh. The Marathas could Madhav Rao tried to regain the Maratha power
not find allies among the northern powers, as which was lost in the battle of Panipat. In
they had already alienated from the Nawab of 1763 a fierce battle was fought with the Nizam
Oudh, the Sikh and Jat chiefs and gained the of Hyderabad. His expeditions (1765–1767)
distrust of the Rajputs. against Haider Ali of Mysore were successful.
However Haider Ali soon recovered almost all
The Maratha army was under the nominal
his lost territories. But Madhav Rao regained
command of Vishwas Rao, the young son of
them in 1772 and Haider Ali was forced to sign
the Peshwa. The real command, however,
a humiliating treaty.
was in the hands of Sadasiva Rao. On their
way, they were joined by the Holkar, Scindia The Peshwa reasserted control over
and Gaikwar. Around this time, Alamgir II, northern India by defeating the Rohillas
the Mughal Emperor had been assassinated (Pathans) and subjugating the Rajput states and
and his eldest son crowned himself as Shah Jat Chiefs. Shah Alam II, the fugitive Emperor,
Alam II. But the Wazir who manoeuvred was in Allahabad under the protection of the
the assassination enthroned Shah Jahan III. British. In 1771, the Marathas brought him
Sadasiva Rao intruded and deposed Shah Jahan back to Delhi. The Emperor ceded Kora and
III and proclaimed Shah Alam II as Emperor. Allahabad to them. But the sudden death of
After the preliminaries were settled, Sadasiva Peshwa in 1772 brought an end to his glorious
Rao, instead of attacking the forces of Abdali, career.
remained quiet for a long time, until the scarcity As Madhav Rao I had no sons, his younger
of food became acute. Abdali stationed his brother Narayan Rao became Peshwa in 1772.
troops in the fertile doab from where he could But he was murdered the next year. His
get food without interruption. posthumous son Sawai Madhav Rao (Madhav
Rao II) was proclaimed Peshwa on the 40th day
Effects of the Battle of Panipat
of his birth. After the death of Madhav Rao II,
The third battle of Panipat was fought Baji Rao II, the son of Raghunath Rao became
on 14 January 1761. The Maratha army was the Peshwa and was the last Peshwa.

The Marathas 233

XI History - Lesson [Link] 233 29-02-2020 [Link]

 [Link]

15.6 The Anglo-Maratha in 1802. According to the treaty the territory

Wars to be ceaded should fetch an income of
Rs. 26 Lakhs. The leading Maratha States
(a) The First Anglo Maratha War regarded the treaty as humiliating and hence
(1775-1782) decided to defy it. So the second Anglo-
Maratha war broke out. In spite of the brave
Madhav Rao Narayan resistance put up by the Marathas, the Maratha
was an infant Peshwa leaders were completely routed. The Subsidiary
under the regency of Nana Alliance was accepted. The British got Doab,
Fadnavis. The usurping of Ahmednagar, Broach and all of the hilly regions.
power by Ragunath Rao,
uncle of the former Peshwa (c) The Third Anglo-Maratha War
Madhava Rao I, provided the scope for the (1817-1818)
Company administration to fish in the troubled Peshwa Baji Rao II became anti-British,
waters. The Company administration in Bombay as the prime minister of the Gaikwar (ruler)
supported Ragunath Rao in return for getting of Baroda Gangadhar Sastri was killed by
Salsette and Bassein. As Mahadaji Scindia and Trimbakji, a favourite of Peshwa. At the
the Bhonsle of Nagpur turned pro-British, the instance of the Resident at Poona, Mountstuart
Marathas had to concede Thane and Salsette Elphinstone, Trimabakji was imprisoned. The
to the latter. By the treaty of Salbai, in 1782, murderer however managed to escape from
Ragunath Rao was pensioned off. Following the prison with the assistance of the Peshwa.
this, peace prevailed between the Company and Peshwa was also charged with creating the
the Marathas for about two decades. Maratha confederacy and plotting with Scindia,
Bhonsle and Holkar against the British. So, the
British forced the Peshwa to sign a new treaty at
Poona in 1817. Accordingly,
„„The Peshwa resigned the headship of the
Maratha confederacy.
„„Ceded Konkan to the British and recognised
the independence of the Gaikwar.
Baji Rao was not reconciled to this
humiliation. So when the British were busily
engaged in the suppression of the Pindaris,
Baji Rao II burnt down the Poona Residency.
General Smith rushed to Poona and captured
it, with the Peshwa fleeing to Satara, which was
Anglo-Maratha War also captured by General Smith. Baji Rao fled
(b) The Second Anglo-Maratha from place to place. General Smith defeated his
War (1803-1806) forces at Ashta, Kirkee and Korgaon. Finally,
Baji Rao surrendered to Elphinstone in 1818.
The death of Nana Fadnavis resulted in
Outcome of the Third Anglo-
a scramble for his huge possessions. Peshwa
Baji Rao II was dethroned. In the then trying Maratha War
circumstances, he had to accept the help of „„The British abolished the Peshwai (office of
the British. Wellesley, the then Governor the Peshwa) and annexed all the Peshwa’s
General, forced the Subsidiary Alliance on dominions. But the jagirs of the fief holders
the Peshwa. The treaty of Bassein was signed were restored.
234 The Marathas

XI History - Lesson [Link] 234 29-02-2020 [Link]

 [Link]

„„Until his death in 1851 Baji Rao II remained the districts. They were responsible for every
a prisoner with an annual pension. branch of district administration. Deshmukhs
„„Pratap Singh, a descendent of Shivaji, was and Deshpandes were district officers who were
made the king of a small kingdom carved in charge of accounts and were to observe the
around Satara. activities of Mamlatdars and Kamavistars. It
was a system of checks and balances.
„„The Maratha Confederacy organised by
Baji Rao I comprising Bhonsle, Holkar and In order to prevent misappropriation
Scindia was dissolved. of public money, the Maratha government
collected a heavy sum (Rasad) from the
„„Mountstuart Elphinstone, who had been
Mamlatdars and other officials. It was collected
Resident at Poona, became Governor of
on their first appointment to a district. In Baji
Bombay.
Rao II’s time, these offices were auctioned off.
The clerks and menials were paid for 10 or 11
15.7  Maratha months in a year.
Administration under
Village Administration
Peshwas (1714-1818)
The village was the basic unit of
The Peshwa was one of the Ashta Pradhan administration and was self-supportive. The
of Shivaji. This office was not a hereditary one. Patel was the chief village officer and was
As the power and prestige of the king declined, responsible for remitting revenue collections to
the Peshwas rose to prominence. The genius the centre. He was not paid by the government.
of Balaji Vishwanath (1713-1720) made the His post was hereditary. The Patel was helped
office of the Peshwa supreme and hereditary. by the Kulkarni or accountant and record-
The Peshwas virtually controlled the whole keeper. There were hereditary village servants
administration, usurping the powers of the who had to perform the communal functions.
king. They were also recognized as the religious The carpenters, blacksmiths and other village
head of the state. artisans gave begar or compulsory labour.
Central Secretariat Urban Administration
The centre of the Maratha administration In towns and cities the chief officer was
was the Peshwa Secretariat at Poona. It dealt the Kotwal. The maintenance of peace and
with the revenues and expenditure of all the order, regulation of prices, settling civil disputes
districts, the accounts submitted by the village and sending of monthly accounts to the
and district officials. The pay and rights of governments were his main duties. He was the
all grades of public servants and the budgets head of the city police and also functioned as
under civil, military and religious heads were the magistrate.
also handled. The daily register recorded all
revenues, all grants and the payments received Sources of Revenue
from foreign territories. Land revenue was the main source of
income. The Peshwas gave up the system of
Provinces
sharing the produce of the agricultural land
Provinces under the Peshwas were of followed under Shivaji’s rule. The Peshwas
various sizes. Larger provinces were under followed the system of tax farming. Land was
the provincial governors called Sar-subahdars. settled against a stipulated amount to be paid
The divisions in the provinces were termed annually to the government. The fertility the
Subahs and Pranths. The Mamlatdar and land was assessed for fixation of taxes. Income
Kamavistar were Peshwa’s representatives in was derived from the forests. Permits were given
The Marathas 235

XI History - Lesson [Link] 235 29-02-2020 [Link]

 [Link]

on the payment of a fee for cutting trees and The administration of justice also earned
using pastures. Revenue was derived even from some income. A fee of 25% was charged on
the sale of grass, bamboo, fuel wood, honey and money bonds. Fines were collected from persons
the like. suspected or found guilty of adultery. Brahmins
were exempted from duty on things imported for
The land revenue assessment was based on
their own use.
a careful survey. Land was divided into three
classes: according to the kinds of the crops, Police System
facilities for irrigation, and productivity of the Watchmen, generally the Mahars, were
land. The villagers were the original settlers employed in every village. But whenever crime
who acquired the forest. They could not be was on the rise, government sent forces from
deprived of their lands. But only the Patel could the irregular infantry to control crimes. The
represent their rights to the higher authorities. residents of the disturbed area had to pay an
Other sources of revenue were Chauth and additional house tax to meet the expenditure
arising out of maintaining these armed forces.
Sardeshmukhi.
The Chauth was divided into Baji Rao II appointed additional police
officers to detect and seize offenders. In the
„„25 percent for the ruler
urban areas, magisterial and police powers were
„„66 percent for Maratha officials and military given to the Kotwal. Their additional duties
heads for the maintenance of troops. were to monitor the prices, take a census of the
„„6 percent for the Pant Sachiv (Chief, inhabitants, conduct trials on civil cases, supply
a Brahman by birth) labour to the government and levy fees from
the professional duties given to the Nagarka or
„„3 percent for the tax collectors.
police superintendent.
Customs, excise duties and sale of forest
produce also yielded much income. Goldsmiths Judicial System
were allowed to mint coins on payment of The Judicial System was very imperfect.
royalty to the government and getting license There was no codified law. There were no
for the purpose. They had to maintain a certain rules of procedure. Arbitration was given high
standard. When it was found that the standard priority. If it failed, then the case was transferred
was not being met all private mints were closed for decision to a panchayat appointed by the
in 1760 and a central mint was established. Patel in the village and by the leading merchants
in towns. The panchayat was a powerful
Miscellaneous taxes were also collected. It institution. Re-trial also took place. Appeals
included 1. Tax on land, held by Deshmukhs were made to the Mamlatdar.
and Deshpandes. 2. Tax on land kept for the
In criminal cases there was a hierarchy of the
village Mahars. 3. Tax on the lands irrigated by
judicial officers. At the top was the Raja Chhatrapati
wells. 4. House tax from all except Brahmins and
and below him were the Peshwa, Deputy Subahdar,
village officials. 5. Annual fee for the testing of
the Mamlatdar and the Patel. Flogging and torture
weights and measures. 6. Tax on the re-marriage were inflicted to extort confession.
of widows. 7. Tax on sheep and buffaloes. 8.
Pasture fee. 9. Tax on melon cultivation in river Army
beds. 10. Succession duty. 11. Duty on the sale The Maratha military system under the
of horses, etc. When the Maratha government Peshwas was modelled on the Mughal military
was in financial difficulty, it levied on all land- system. The mode of recruitment, payment
holders, Kurja-Patti or Tasti-Patti, a tax equal to of salaries, provisions for the families of the
one year’s income of the tax-payer. soldiers, and the importance given to the cavalry
236 The Marathas

XI History - Lesson [Link] 236 29-02-2020 [Link]

 [Link]

showed a strong resemblance to the Mughal Navy

military system.
The Maratha navy was built for the
The Peshwas gave up the notable features purpose of guarding the Maratha ports, thereby
of the military system followed under Shivaji. checking piracy, and collecting customs duties
Shivaji had recruited soldiers locally from from the incoming and outgoing ships. Balaji
Maratha region. But the Peshwas drafted soldiers Vishwanath built naval bases at Konkan,
from all parts of India and from all social groups. Khanderi and Vijayadurg. Dockyard facilities
The army had Arabs, Abyssinians, Rajputs, were also developed.
Rohillas and Sikhs. The Peshwa’s army comprised
mercenaries of the feudal chieftains. As the fiefs 15.8  Maratha Rule in
of the rival chiefs were in the same area, there Tamilnadu
were lots of internal disputes. It affected the
solidarity of the people of the Maratha state. Circumstances leading to its
establishment
Cavalry
Krishna Devaraya, during his reign (1509-
The cavalry was naturally the main strength
1529), developed the Nayankara system.
of the Maratha army. Every jagirdar had to
bring a stipulated number of horsemen for a Accordingly, the Tamil country was divided into
general muster, every year. The horsemen were three large Nayankaras: Senji, Thanjavur and
divided into three classes based on the quality Madurai. Under the new system the subordinate
of the horses they kept. chieftains were designated as Palayakkarars and
their fiefdom as Palayams. Thanjavur which
Infantry and Artillery remained as a part of the Chola territories
The Marathas preferred to serve in the first and then of the Pandya kingdom became
cavalry. So men for infantry were recruited from a vassal state of the Madurai Sultanate, from
other parts of the country. The Arabs, Rohillas, which it passed into the hands of Nayaks. The
Sikhs and Sindhis in the Maratha infantry were rivalry between the Nayaks of Madurai and
paid a higher salary compared to the Maratha Thanjavur finally led to the eclipse of Nayak
soldiers. The Maratha artillery was manned rule of Thanjavur in 1673. Troops from Bijapur,
mostly by the Portuguese and Indian Christians. led by the Maratha general Venkoji, defeated
Later on, the English were also recruited. the Nayak of Madurai and captured Thanjavur.

Raja Desinghu: The Maratha king Rajaram,

threatened by Mughal forces, had to flee from Raigarh
and take asylum in Senji. Pursuing him, the Mughal
forces led by General Zulfikar Khan, and then by
Daud Khan, succeeded in taking over Senji. During
the Mughal expedition against Senji, a Bundela Rajput
chieftain, Swarup Singh was employed as Kiladar (fort
commandant) of Senji in 1700. In due course Swarup Senji Fort
Singh gained control over the entire Senji. After his
death in 1714, his son Tej Singh (Desinghu) assumed the
governorship of Senji. Desinghu refused to pay tribute to the Mughal emperor and invited the
wrath of Nawab Sadat-ul-lah Khan. In the ensuing battle Raja Desinghu, who was only twenty
two years old then, was killed. His young wife committed sati. The gallantry displayed by the
daring Rajput youth against the Nawab is immortalized in many popular ballads in Tamil.

The Marathas 237

XI History - Lesson [Link] 237 29-02-2020 [Link]

 [Link]

Venkoji crowned himself king, and Maratha ranging from residential

rule began in Thanjavur in 1676. arrangements for students
and innovations in
When Shivaji invaded the Carnatic in 1677,
curriculum and pedagogy.
he removed Venkoji and placed his half-brother
But his most important
Santaji on the throne. But Venkoji recaptured
proposal was a project
Thanjavur and, after his death, his son Shahji
submitted to the English
became the ruler of Thanjavur kingdom. Shaji Serfoji II
colonial government in
had no heir to succeed. So his brother Serfoji I
1812, urging it to sponsor
became the next ruler and remained in power
free schools for Indian children, for instruction
for sixteen years (1712-1728). After him one of
in Tamil and English. This was at a time when
his brothers Tukkoji succeeded him, followed by
English education was not available to non-
Pratap Singh (1739-1763), whose son Thuljaji
Christian Indians.
ruled up to 1787. Serfoji II aged 10, was then
crowned, with Thuljoji‘s brother Amarsingh Thomas Munro, governor of Madras,
acting as Regent. Disputing this succession, proposed a scheme for elementary public schools
the English thrust an agreement on Serfoji II, in the 1820s, but the Company government did
according to which the latter was forced to not establish a modern school for natives in
cede the administration of the kingdom to Madras till 1841. In contrast, from the start,
the British. Serfoji II was the last ruler of the the German missionaries had run several free
Bhonsle dynasty of the Maratha principality of vernacular and English schools in the southern
Thanjavur. provinces since 1707.
Serfoji II was in advance of both the
Serfoji II
missionary and the colonial state, for as early
Serfoji II was a as 1803 in Thanjavur he had established the
remarkable ruler. He was
educated by the German
The Saraswati Mahal library, built by
Christian missionary
the Nayak rulers and enriched by Serfoji
Friedrich Schwartz, Serfoji.
II contains a record of the day-to-day
Similarly Serfoji II turned
proceedings of the Maratha court - as
out to be a well-known
Modi documents, French-Maratha
practitioner of Western science and medicine.
correspondence of the 18th century. Modi
Yet he was a devoted, keeper of Indian traditions.
was the script used to write the Marathi
He mastered several European languages and
language. It is a treasure house of rare
had an impressive library of books in every
manuscripts and books in many languages
branch of learning. Serfoji’s modernising
projects included the establishment of a printing
press (the first press for Marathi and Sanskrit)
and enrichment of the Saraswati Mahal Library.
His most innovative project, however, was the
establishment of free modern public schools
run by his court, for instruction in English and
the vernacular languages.
Serfoji II found in his contemporary
missionary scholar C.S. John in Tranquebar,
an innovator in education. John carried
out reforms and experiments in schooling Saraswati Mahal library

238 The Marathas

XI History - Lesson [Link] 238 29-02-2020 [Link]

 [Link]

first modern public school for non-Christian Serfoji’s strategic initiatives in modern
natives. While Indian rulers often endowed education enabled the Thanjavur court elite and
educational institutions of higher learning, they subjects to enter and benefit from the emerging
did not establish elementary schools, nor did colonial social and economic order. The court
they administer any schools or colleges. officials, mostly Brahmins, trained in European
knowledge, technologies and arts became leading
Serfoji’s most striking initiative was the
agents of colonial modernity, equal to the English-
founding and management of free elementary educated dubashes, writers and interpreters, both
and secondary schools for orphans and the Hindu and Christian, who mediated between the
poor in Thanjavur city and other adjacent Europeans and Indian courts. Two of Serfoji’s
places. Included were schools for all levels, pandits (one of them was Kottaiyur Sivakolundu
charity schools, colleges and padashalas for Desigar) joined the Company’s College of Fort
Sanskrit higher learning. The schools catered to [Link] and became leaders in translation and
the court elites, Vedic scholars, orphans and the print culture. The careers and projects of Serfoji
poor. A second innovation was the introduction and John illuminate the important roles that
of navavidya (‘modern’ or ‘new’ learning) in the enterprising individuals, and small places, such
state-run schools. as a Danish-Tamil fishing village and a Maratha-
Tamil principality, played in the history of change
According to an 1823 report produced for in colonial Tamilnadu.
Governor Munro’s census of education, Serfoji II was a patron of traditional
21 of the 44 free schools in the wider Indian arts like dance and music. He authored
Thanjavur district were run by Serfoji’s Kumarasambhava Champu, Devendra Kuravanji,
government, 19 by the missionaries, one and Mudra rakshaschaya. He introduced
by a temple. There were three schools that western musical instruments like clarinet, and
were run by teachers themselves free of violin in Carnatic music. He is also credited
cost. In the state-run free schools Serfoji with popularising the unique Thanjavur style
made modern education available to all. of painting. Serfoji was interested in painting,
gardening, coin-collecting, martial arts and
In 1822, at the free school in Muktambal patronized chariot-racing, hunting and bull-
Chattiram the king’s favourite almshouse fighting. He created the first zoological garden
established in 1803, 15 teachers taught a in Tamilnadu in the Thanjavur palace premises.
total of 464 students of diverse castes, in two Serfoji II died on 7th March 1832 after
classes, in the morning and in the evening. almost forty years of his rule. His death was
Serfoji also supported a free school for needy mourned throughout the kingdom and his
Christians, run by missionaries in the village of funeral procession was attended by more than
Kannandangudi. 90, 000 people. At his funeral, Rev. Bishop Heber
observed: ‘I have seen many crowned heads, but
Serfoji II established Dhanvantari Mahal,
no one whose deportment was more princely’.
a research institution that produced herbal
medicine for humans and animals. Maintaining    SUMMARY
case-sheets of patients was introduced.
Physicians of modern medicine, Ayurveda, „„Shivaji’s rise, his military conquests and his
Unani and Siddha schools undertook research encounter with Aurangzeb are dealt with
on drugs and herbs for medical cure. They „„Shivaji’s administrative reforms are explained
produced eighteen volumes of research material. „„Shivaji’s successors and their achievements
Serfoji also catalogued the important herbs in under the Peshwas Balaji Viswanath, Baji
the form of exquisite hand paintings. Rao and Balaji Baji Rao are discussed
The Marathas 239

XI History - Lesson [Link] 239 29-02-2020 [Link]