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21RA602: Kinematics and Dynamics of Robots

Dr. Sreeja Kochuvila

Asst. Professor, Dept. of ECE
Amrita School of Engineering, Bengaluru

Denavit and Hartenberg (DH) Parameters

Dr. Sreeja Kochuvila, Dept. of ECE

▪ In order to control the end-effector with respect to the base, it is necessary to find the relation
between the coordinate frames attached to the end –effector and the base.
▪ This can be obtained from the description of the coordinate transformations between the
coordinate frames attached to all the links and forming the overall description in a recursive
manner. 2

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Denavit and Hartenberg (DH) Parameters

Dr. Sreeja Kochuvila, Dept. of ECE

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Denavit and Hartenberg (DH) Parameters

▪ Choose axis Zi along the axis of joint i,
whose positive direction can be taken
towards either direction of the axis.
▪ Locate the origin Oi at the intersection
of the axis Zi with the common normal
to Zi−1 and Zi. Also, locate 𝑂෠𝑖 on Zi at the
intersection of the common normal to Zi
and Zi+1.
Dr. Sreeja Kochuvila, Dept. of ECE

▪ Choose the axis Xi along the common

normal to axes Zi−1 and Zi with the
direction from the former to the later.
▪ Choose the axis Yi so as to complete a
right-handed frame.

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Denavit and Hartenberg (DH) Parameters

▪ Choose axis Zi along the axis of joint i,
whose positive direction can be taken
towards either direction of the axis.
▪ Locate the origin Oi at the intersection of
the axis Zi with the common normal to
Zi−1 and Zi. Also, locate 𝑂෠𝑖 on Zi at the
intersection of the common normal to Zi
and Zi+1.

Dr. Sreeja Kochuvila, Dept. of ECE

▪ Choose the axis Xi along the common
normal to axes Zi−1 and Zi with the
direction from the former to the later.
▪ Choose the axis Yi so as to complete a
right-handed frame.

Denavit and Hartenberg (DH) Parameters

▪ Note that the conventions given do not give a unique definition of the link frames in the
following cases:
▪ For Frame 1 that is attached to the fixed base, i.e., link 0, only the direction of axes Z1 is
specified. Then O1 and X1 can be chosen arbitrarily.
▪ For the last frame n + 1, the foregoing conventions do not apply since there is no link n + 1.
Thus, the frame n + 1 can be arbitrarily chosen.
▪ When two consecutive axes are parallel, the common normal between them is not uniquely
Dr. Sreeja Kochuvila, Dept. of ECE

defined.
▪ When two consecutive axes intersect, the direction of Xi is arbitrary.
▪ When the joint i is prismatic, only the direction of the axis Zi is determined, whereas the
location of Oi is arbitrary.
▪ In all such cases, the indeterminacy can be exploited to simplify the procedure.
▪ For instance, the axes of the frame n + 1 can be made parallel to those of the frame n. 6

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Denavit and Hartenberg (DH) Parameters

▪ Once the link frames have been established, the position and orientation of the frame i with
respect to the frame i − 1 are completely specified by four parameters known as the Denavit
and Hartenberg (DH) parameters.
▪ These frames are also referred as DH frames.
▪ The four DH parameters are defined as follows:
• bi (Joint Offset)
• θi (Joint Angle)

Dr. Sreeja Kochuvila, Dept. of ECE

• ai (Link Length)
• αi (Twist Angle)

Denavit and Hartenberg (DH) Parameters

▪ bi (Joint Offset): Length of

the intersections of the
common normals on the joint
axis Zi, i.e., Oi and 𝑂෠𝑖 .
Dr. Sreeja Kochuvila, Dept. of ECE

▪ It is the relative position of

links i − 1 and i.
▪ This is measured as the
distance between Xi and Xi+1
along Zi.

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Denavit and Hartenberg (DH) Parameters

▪ θi (Joint Angle): Angle
between the orthogonal
projections of the common
normals, Xi and Xi+1, to a
plane normal to the joint axis
Zi.
▪ Rotation is positive when it is
made counter-clockwise.

Dr. Sreeja Kochuvila, Dept. of ECE

▪ It is the relative angle between
links i − 1 and i.
▪ This is measured as the angle
between Xi and Xi + 1 about Zi.

Denavit and Hartenberg (DH) Parameters

▪ ai (Link Length): Length between
𝑂෠𝑖 and Oi+1.
▪ This is measured as the distance
along the common normal Xi+1 to
axes Zi and Zi+1.
▪ αi (Twist Angle) Angle between the
orthogonal projections of joint axes
Dr. Sreeja Kochuvila, Dept. of ECE

Zi and Zi+1 onto a plane normal to

the common normal Xi+1.
▪ This is measured as the angle
between the axes Zi and Zi+1 about
the axis Xi+1 to be taken positive
when rotation is made counter-
clockwise.
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Denavit and Hartenberg (DH) Parameters

▪ Note that the above four parameters
are defined sequentially as one moves
from link i − 1 to link i + 1 through
link i.
▪ The first two parameters, namely, bi
and θi, define the relative position of
links i−1 and i, whereas the last two, ai
and αi, describe the size and shape of

Dr. Sreeja Kochuvila, Dept. of ECE

link i that are always constant.
▪ Parameters bi and θi are, however,
variable depending on the type of
joints in use.
▪ θi is variable if the joint i is revolute;
and bi is variable if the joint i is
prismatic. 11

Denavit and Hartenberg (DH) Parameters

▪ Parameters bi and θi are, however,

variable depending on the type of
joints in use.
▪ θi is variable if the joint i is revolute;
and bi is variable if the joint i is
prismatic.
▪ So, for a given type of joint, i.e.,
Dr. Sreeja Kochuvila, Dept. of ECE

revolute or prismatic, one of the DH

parameters is variable, which is
called joint variable, whereas the
other three remaining parameters are
constant, called link parameters.

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Denavit and Hartenberg (DH) Parameters

▪ bi - distance between Xi and
▪ Three link planar arm Xi+1 along Zi.
▪ θi - angle between Xi and Xi+1
about Zi.
▪ ai - distance along the common
normal Xi+1 to axes Zi and Zi+1
▪ αi - angle between the axes Zi
and Zi+1 about the axis Xi+1. To

Dr. Sreeja Kochuvila, Dept. of ECE

be taken positive when
rotation is made CCW

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Denavit and Hartenberg (DH) Parameters

▪ Revolute-Prismatic (RP) planar arms ▪ b - distance between X and X along Z .
i i i+1 i

▪ θi - angle between Xi and Xi+1 about Zi.

▪ ai - distance along the common normal Xi+1
to axes Zi and Zi+1
▪ αi - angle between the axes Zi and Zi+1 about
the axis Xi+1. To be taken positive when
Dr. Sreeja Kochuvila, Dept. of ECE

rotation is made CCW

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Denavit and Hartenberg (DH) Parameters

▪ Revolute-Prismatic (RP) planar arms

Dr. Sreeja Kochuvila, Dept. of ECE

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Denavit and Hartenberg (DH) Parameters

▪ Revolute-Prismatic (RP) planar arms

Dr. Sreeja Kochuvila, Dept. of ECE

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Denavit and Hartenberg (DH) Parameters

▪ Revolute-Prismatic (RP) planar arms

Dr. Sreeja Kochuvila, Dept. of ECE

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Transformation between DH Frames

▪ Translate frame i by bi along axes Zi.

▪ The displaced frame, is rotated by an

angle θi about the axis Zi, which
Dr. Sreeja Kochuvila, Dept. of ECE

brings the axis Xi’ (parallel to Xi) to an

alignment with the axis, Xi+1

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Transformation between DH Frames

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Transformation between DH Frames

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Forward Kinematics
▪ The transformation matrix for the end effector with respect to Frame 1 is

Dr. Sreeja Kochuvila, Dept. of ECE

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Forward Kinematics

Dr. Sreeja Kochuvila, Dept. of ECE

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 Forward Kinematics
Forward Kinematics

Dr. Sreeja Kochuvila, Dept. of ECE Dr. Sreeja Kochuvila, Dept. of ECE

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Inverse Kinematics
▪ The inverse kinematics problem consists of the determination of the joint variables
corresponding to a given end-effector’s orientation and position.
▪ The solution to this problem is of fundamental importance in order to transform the
motion specifications assigned to the end-effector in the operational space into the
corresponding joint space motions.
▪ The inverse kinematics problem is much more complex for the following reasons:
▪ The algebraic equations to be solved are, in general, nonlinear in the joint variables, and
Dr. Sreeja Kochuvila, Dept. of ECE

thus it is not always possible to find a closed-form solution.

▪ Multiple solutions may exist.
▪ Infinite solutions may also exist, e.g., in the case of kinematically redundant robot
manipulators.
▪ There might be no admissible solution in view of the manipulator architecture.

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Inverse Kinematics
▪ One approach to the inverse kinematics problem is to find a closed-form solution using
algebra or geometry.
▪ Another approach is to fi nd a numerical solution by some successive-approximation
algorithm.
▪ Although the former approach is generally more desirable in applying the solution to real-
time control of robots, it is not always possible to obtain the closed-form solutions for the
manipulators with arbitrary architectures.

Dr. Sreeja Kochuvila, Dept. of ECE

▪ Rather, the class of manipulators for which the closed-form solutions are guaranteed is very
limited. Most of the manipulators in industrial use belong to this class.
▪ The algebraic approach to closed-form solution means to find the joint angles through
algebraic transformations
▪ The geometric approach means to find the joint angles using geometrical heuristics to take
advantage of the special structure of the manipulators.
▪ It is sometimes advantageous to use both approaches together to solve a problem. 27

Inverse Kinematics
▪ Three link Planar Arm – Algebraic Solution

Dr. Sreeja Kochuvila, Dept. of ECE

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Inverse Kinematics
▪ Three link Planar Arm – Algebraic Solution

Dr. Sreeja Kochuvila, Dept. of ECE

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Inverse Kinematics
▪ Three link Planar Arm – Geometric Solution

Dr. Sreeja Kochuvila, Dept. of ECE

The elbow-up posture is obtained when θ2 is in between

−π and 0, and the elbow-down posture is obtained for θ2
between 0 and π

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Inverse Kinematics
▪ Three link Planar Arm – Geometric Solution

Dr. Sreeja Kochuvila, Dept. of ECE

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Inverse Kinematics
▪ For a two-link planar arm with unit link lengths, i.e., a1 = a2 = 1 unit, find the joint angles
if the input configuration of the end-effector given by the homogeneous transformation
matrix (HTM) as follows:

Dr. Sreeja Kochuvila, Dept. of ECE

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Inverse Kinematics
▪ For a three-link planar arm has link lengths a1 = a2 = 2 units, a3 = 1 unit and φ = 60o.
Find the joint angles if the configuration of the end-effector given by the homogeneous
transformation matrix (HTM) as follows:

Dr. Sreeja Kochuvila, Dept. of ECE

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Velocity Analysis: The Jacobian Matrix

▪ The matrix that represents the relationships between the joint rates and the corresponding
end effector’s angular and linear velocities is called Jacobian, which depends on the robot’s
configuration.
▪ The Jacobian constitutes one of the most important tools for robot characterization.
▪ It is useful for
▪ finding singular configurations,
▪ analyzing redundancy,
Dr. Sreeja Kochuvila, Dept. of ECE

▪ determining inverse kinematics algorithms for velocity analysis,

▪ describing the relationship between the forces applied at the end-effector and the
resulting torques at the joints
▪ deriving dynamics algorithms.

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Velocity Analysis: The Jacobian Matrix

▪ Both the end-effector’s orientation and position vary as θ varies.

▪ The goal here is to express the end-effector’s angular velocity, ωe, and linear velocity ve (𝑝)ሶ

Dr. Sreeja Kochuvila, Dept. of ECE

as a function of the joint velocities 𝜃ሶ as

▪ where Jω and Jv are the 3 × n matrices relating the contribution of the joint velocities or rates
𝜃ሶ to the end-effector angular velocity ωe and velocity ve respectively.
▪ Matrices Jω and Jv are also the functions of the joint variables θ.
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Velocity Analysis: The Jacobian Matrix

▪ teis the 6-dimensional vector, which is referred here as the “twist” of the end-effector,
where the 6 × n Jacobin matrix J is a function of the joint variables θ only. Dr. Sreeja Kochuvila, Dept. of ECE

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Velocity Analysis: The Jacobian Matrix

▪ te is the 6-dimensional vector, which is referred here as the “twist” of the end-effector,
where the 6 × n Jacobin matrix J is a function of the joint variables θ only.
▪ Consider a time-varying rotation matrix Q. Since the matrix Q is orthogonal,

Dr. Sreeja Kochuvila, Dept. of ECE

▪ Let
▪ Ω is skew symmetric

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Velocity Analysis: The Jacobian Matrix

▪ Now consider an arbitrary vector x fixed to a moving body. Representations of the vector x
in the fixed frame F, and the moving frame attached to the body M, are [x]F and [x]M,
respectively.
▪ If Q represents the orientation of frame M with respect to frame F then,

▪ Since vector [x]M is the representation of vector x which is fixed in the moving frame M,
its expression in frame M does not change as the body moves.
Dr. Sreeja Kochuvila, Dept. of ECE

▪ Hence, [x]ሶ M = 0.

▪ If ω denotes the angular velocity of the rigid body with which the frame M is attached then
it is known from the fundamentals of mechanics that

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Velocity Analysis: The Jacobian Matrix

The matrix Ω is so that its symmetric elements with respect to the zero diagonal elements
represent the components of the vector ω

Dr. Sreeja Kochuvila, Dept. of ECE

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Velocity Analysis: The Jacobian Matrix

▪ Consider the elementary rotation matrix about the axis Z.
▪ Find the angular velocity of the frame about Z axis.

Dr. Sreeja Kochuvila, Dept. of ECE

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Velocity Analysis: The Jacobian Matrix

▪ Geometric Interpretation of Angular Velocity
▪ Find the angular velocity of the frame about Z axis.
▪ Let Q(t) and Q(t + Δt) denote the orientation of the coordinate frame M with respect to the
frame F at times t and (t + Δt), respectively
▪ Q(t) and Q(t + Δt) can be thought of as composition of two successive rotations.

Dr. Sreeja Kochuvila, Dept. of ECE

▪ If Q(e, Δθ) denotes the small rotation about the axis e by a small angle Δθ and noting that
both the rotations are denoted with respect to the fixed frame, the resulting expression can
be obtained by pre-multiplication of Q(t) as,

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Velocity Analysis: The Jacobian Matrix

𝐶 ′ 𝛼 = 1 − 𝐶𝛼 Dr. Sreeja Kochuvila, Dept. of ECE

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Velocity Analysis: The Jacobian Matrix

Dr. Sreeja Kochuvila, Dept. of ECE

The angular speed about the
unit vector e parallel to the
axis of rotation

The angular velocity of the frame M with respect to F is given by

ex, ey, and ez are the components of the unit vector e, which is parallel to the axis of
rotation or the instantaneous axis of rotation
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Velocity Analysis: The Jacobian Matrix

▪ Angular Velocity vs. Euler Angles
▪ The rotation matrix

Dr. Sreeja Kochuvila, Dept. of ECE

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Velocity Analysis: The Jacobian Matrix

▪ Angular Velocity vs. Euler Angles
▪ The rotation matrix

Dr. Sreeja Kochuvila, Dept. of ECE

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Velocity Analysis: The Jacobian Matrix

▪ Link Velocities
▪ From the figure,

▪ Differentiating
Dr. Sreeja Kochuvila, Dept. of ECE

▪ The angular velocity of link i is

ωi, i−1 is the relative angular velocity

of link i with respect to link i − 1

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Velocity Analysis: The Jacobian Matrix

▪ Link Velocities – Revolute Joint
▪ If ei denotes the unit vector parallel to the
axis of the revolute joint then,

▪ Hence

Dr. Sreeja Kochuvila, Dept. of ECE

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Velocity Analysis: The Jacobian Matrix

▪ Link Velocities – Prismatic Joint
▪ A prismatic joint allows only relative
translational motion, i.e., joint length bi is
variable, and there is no relative angular
motion between the links i − 1 and i.
▪ Hence
Dr. Sreeja Kochuvila, Dept. of ECE

▪ ei is the unit vector parallel to the

translational direction of link i with
respect to link i − 1, and 𝒃ሶ 𝒊 𝒆𝒊 is the

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relative linear velocity.

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Jacobian Computation
▪ The Jacobian is given by

▪ Since the end-effector is the nth body of the serial-chain, the angular velocity and velocity of
the end-effector, ωe and ve, respectively, are obtained from the velocities of the nth link,
namely, ωn and 𝒐ሶ n, as

Dr. Sreeja Kochuvila, Dept. of ECE

ane is the three-dimensional position vector of the end-effector with respect to the origin of
the nth link, On.
▪ The velocities of the links are now computed starting from the fixed body, i.e., link 0, and
following the recursively depending on the type of joints used.

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Jacobian Computation
▪ If all joints are revolute,

where is the vector joining the origin of link i to the origin of link n
Dr. Sreeja Kochuvila, Dept. of ECE

▪ The Jacobian is extracted as

where

if joint i is prismatic
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if joint i is revolute

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Jacobian
▪ Two link revolute joint arm (Planar)

▪ The two revolute joints which can be used only for the
positioning of the end-effector, row that corresponds to
the orientation of the end-effector is not relevant.

Dr. Sreeja Kochuvila, Dept. of ECE

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Jacobian - Three link planar arm

Dr. Sreeja Kochuvila, Dept. of ECE

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Dr. Sreeja Kochuvila, Dept. of ECE

for the case that joint i + 1 is prismatic

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Calculate the
velocity of the tip of the
arm as a function of joint
rates.

Dr. Sreeja Kochuvila, Dept. of ECE

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 Jacobian

Dr. Sreeja Kochuvila, Dept. of ECE Dr. Sreeja Kochuvila, Dept. of ECE

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Jacobian - Singularities
▪ Workspace-boundary singularities occur when the manipulator is fully stretched out or
folded back on itself in such a way that the end-effector is at or very near the boundary of
the workspace.
▪ Workspace-interior singularities occur away from the workspace boundary; they generally
are caused by a lining up of two or more joint axes.
▪ When a manipulator is in a singular configuration, it has lost one or more degrees of
freedom (as viewed from Cartesian space).

Dr. Sreeja Kochuvila, Dept. of ECE

▪ This means that there is some direction (or subspace) in Cartesian space along which it is
impossible to move the hand of the robot, no matter what joint rates are selected.
▪ It is obvious that this happens at the workspace boundary of robots.

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Forward and Inverse Velocity Analysis

▪ In forward velocity analysis, given a set of joint rates 𝜃ሶ denoted with and, the kinematic
parameters of the robots (DH parameters), one can easily compute the end-effector’s
velocities using the recursive relations
▪ Or find the Jacobian matrix J of the robot, and multiply it with the joint rate vector 𝜃ሶ
▪ In inverse velocity analysis, however, one has to compute the Jacobian matrix, J explicitly
before it is used for the solution of the joint rates 𝜃ሶ using the set of linear algebraic equations
▪ The joint-rates 𝜃ሶ can be solved as
Dr. Sreeja Kochuvila, Dept. of ECE

▪ Explicit inversion of matrix J is never recommended as it is numerically expensive

▪ Instead, LU decomposition of J, followed by forward and backward substitutions should be
performed to solve for the joint rates

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Forward and Inverse Velocity Analysis

Dr. Sreeja Kochuvila, Dept. of ECE

▪ Solve for the unknown vector of joint rates from the two triangular systems of linear
equations

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Acceleration Analysis

Dr. Sreeja Kochuvila, Dept. of ECE

for revolute joint for prismatic joint

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Static Forces
▪ In considering static forces in a manipulator, we first lock all the joints so that the
manipulator becomes a structure.
▪ We then consider each link in this structure and write a force-moment balance relationship in
terms of the link frames.
▪ Finally, we compute what static torque must be acting about the joint axis in order for the
manipulator to be in static equilibrium.
▪ In this way, we solve for the set of joint torques needed to support a static load acting at the

Dr. Sreeja Kochuvila, Dept. of ECE

end-effector.
▪ The static forces and torques we are considering at the joints are those caused by a static
force or torque (or both) acting on the last link
▪ For example, as when the manipulator has its end-effector in contact with the environment.
▪ Gravity is not considered.
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Static Forces
▪ fi = force exerted on link i by link i - 1,
▪ ni = torque exerted on link i by link i - 1.
▪ Summing the forces and setting them equal to zero,

▪ Summing torques about the origin of frame {i }, we have

Dr. Sreeja Kochuvila, Dept. of ECE

▪ If we start with a description of the force and moment applied, we can calculate the force
and moment applied by each link, working from the last link down to the base (link 0).

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Static Forces

▪ In order to write these equations in terms of only forces and moments defined within their
own link frames, we transform with the rotation matrix describing frame {i + 1} relative to

Dr. Sreeja Kochuvila, Dept. of ECE

frame {i}.
▪ This leads to our most important result for static force "propagation" from link to link:

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Static Forces
▪ All components of the force and moment vectors are resisted by the structure of the
mechanism itself, except for the torque about the joint axis.
▪ Therefore, to find the joint torque required to maintain the static equilibrium, the dot product
of the joint-axis vector with the moment vector acting on the link is computed:

▪ In the case that joint i is prismatic, we compute the joint actuator force as
Dr. Sreeja Kochuvila, Dept. of ECE

▪ As a matter of convention, we generally define the positive direction of joint torque as the
direction which would tend to move the joint in the direction of increasing joint angle.
▪ The above equations give us a means to compute the joint torques needed to apply any force
or moment with the end-effector of a manipulator in the static case.

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Static Forces

Dr. Sreeja Kochuvila, Dept. of ECE

Transpose of the Jacobian 67

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