MET413 ADVANCED METHODS IN NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING

MODULE 5

Acoustic Emission Inspection (AE)

What is Acoustic Emission (AE)?

Acoustic Emission (AE) refers to the release of elastic (sound) waves from within a material
when energy is released from a specific point due to internal changes. This energy release often
results from activities such as crack formation, crack growth, or internal structural changes
within the material.

Why does AE Occur?

AE is triggered by various internal processes. These include crack initiation and growth, where
energy is released as cracks develop or propagate within the material. Additionally, AE can
occur during structural changes within the material, such as phase changes or composite
material failures, which happen when fibers in composites break or separate from their matrix.

How Does AE Work?

The release of energy generates waves that travel through the material in all directions. When
these waves reach the material’s surface, they are detected by piezoelectric transducers. These
sensors measure the acoustic energy emitted from within, enabling inspectors to understand
the nature of the defect.

Types of Acoustic Emission

1. Continuous AE: Continuous AE signals are characterized by low-energy waves that

persist as long as the material deforms. This type of AE is common in metals and alloys,
especially during processes such as plastic deformation, where the material bends
without fracturing, or during fluid leakage.
2. Burst AE: Burst AE consists of sudden, short, high-energy pulses that result from a
rapid release of strain. This type of AE commonly occurs during crack initiation and
growth or due to stress corrosion, where materials weaken due to a combination of
stress and corrosive elements.
AE Wave Propagation

The waves produced by AE events spread from the energy source in all directions, with their
patterns varying based on the event causing the emission. As these waves travel through the
material, they can change shape depending on the properties of the material. When they reach
the sensor, they have merged into a distinct signal. AE events release energy in a very brief
time, typically within millionths of a second. The waves travel outward in a spherical pattern
and reflect off the boundaries of the material. When waves meet in sync at the sensor, they
create a stronger signal, producing a detectable peak that helps identify the location and
intensity of the AE event.

AE Inspection Setup

1. Transducer Placement:
o A piezoelectric transducer is attached to the test object using a coupling
medium (like gel or adhesive) to ensure good contact. It's secured in place with
tape to prevent movement.
2. Signal Amplification:
o The voltage signal produced by the transducer is sent to a preamplifier, located
close to the transducer. The preamplifier removes unwanted noise from
mechanical vibrations, background sounds, or other acoustic interferences.
3. Filtering and Analysis:
o After preamplification, the signal goes through a variable band-pass filter (to
refine the signal) and then to the main amplifier.
o The signal is then analyzed by a signal analysis system, which detects the AE
activity when the signal strength exceeds a specific threshold.
AE Testing During Grinding

1. Grinding Process and Wheel Dressing:

o Grinding is an abrasive process where material is removed from a workpiece
using a grinding wheel.
o Over time, the grains of the grinding wheel wear down, which reduces its
effectiveness.
o To keep the wheel working well, it needs dressing, which is the process of
reshaping the wheel.
o However, dressing the wheel too much can be wasteful and expensive, as
grinding wheels are costly.
o Manual dressing might also miss internal problems in the wheel, and improper
positioning could damage either the wheel or remove too much material from
the workpiece.
2. How AE Sensing Helps:
o AE sensing works because even a tiny contact between the grinding wheel and
the workpiece or dressing wheel produces a sound.
o AE sensors detect this sound and are placed on the machine’s frame or the
nozzle of the coolant (since the sound can travel through the coolant as well).
o The AE signals can help:
▪ Identify the state of the wheel: Monitoring how the wheel wears down
over time.
▪ Predict dressing needs: Letting operators know when the wheel should
be dressed.
3. Using AE for Dressing:
o During a successful dressing cycle, the acoustic signature is recorded as
reference data.
o This reference can be used for future comparisons to ensure subsequent
dressings are performed correctly, improving consistency and avoiding over-
dressing.

AE Testing of Pipelines

1. Why AE Testing is Used in Pipelines:

o Pipelines and pressure vessels often operate under high pressure, which can
sometimes lead to leakage.
o AE testing helps detect these leaks by monitoring the sound or vibration signals
generated from the leakage point.
2. How AE Senses a Leak:
o The sound of a leak comes from the turbulence in the fluid as it escapes under
pressure. This creates a fluctuating pressure field that produces detectable sound
waves.
o The strength of the leak signal depends on the flow rate of the leaking fluid—
the higher the flow rate, the stronger the signal.
3. Key Factors for AE Leak Detection:
o Nature of the AE signal: The type of sound waves produced by the leak.
o Attenuation: The loss of signal strength as it travels from the leak to the sensor.
If the signal gets too weak, the sensor may not detect it.
o Background noise: Other noises in the environment (like machinery sounds)
can interfere with detecting the leak signal.
AE Testing of Steam Turbines

1. Why AE Testing is Used in Steam Turbines:

o In steam turbines, it's common for the rotating shafts to rub against their
protective seals. This rubbing can cause damage over time if not addressed.
o AE testing helps identify when and where this rubbing happens by detecting
the sound or vibration signals it produces.
2. Limitation of AE Testing in Steam Turbines:
o One challenge is the excessive noise in steam turbines. The loud operating
environment can interfere with detecting the specific AE signals from rubbing,
making it harder to pinpoint the problem.

AE Testing of Power Transformers

1. Why AE Testing is Used in Power Transformers:

o AE testing has multiple useful functions in power transformers, allowing
operators to monitor and diagnose issues while the transformer remains
online. This prevents costly shutdowns.
o It can also monitor transformers during special conditions like overloads, solar
storms, or commissioning.
2. Detecting Partial Discharge:
o One key use of AE testing is to detect partial discharge, which is a small
electrical breakdown within the transformer’s insulation.
o Partial discharge can quickly degrade the insulation and lead to significant
damage if not addressed.
3. Sensing Defects in Wiring:
o AE testing can also detect defects in the wiring of transformers that may cause
a sudden surge in voltage, helping to identify potential problems before they
cause serious failures.

Acoustic Emission (AE) – Advantages, Limitations, and Applications

Advantages

• AE inspection is relatively fast, enabling efficient detection of damage locations and

providing early warnings of potential failures.
• As a global monitoring technique, AE does not require complete access to the entire
area being monitored, making it versatile for complex structures.

Limitations

• AE signals are only generated when damage is actively occurring, limiting it to

detecting active defects.
• The technique is often qualitative, providing limited information on defect size or
severity.
• AE signals are typically weak, making it challenging to distinguish relevant signals
from background noise.

Applications
 • Pressure vessel testing
• Structural integrity assessments
• Production quality control
• Material testing and evaluation
• Pipeline and structural (railroad and bridge) monitoring
• Leak detection in various systems
• Aircraft component life assessment
• Inspection of nuclear components
• Testing of composites, ceramics, and rocket motors

Leak Testing – Overview and Key Terminologies

Leakage and Leak Testing

• Leakage is the escape of liquid or gas from a pressurized or evacuated system due to
pressure differences or permeation through a barrier.
• Leak testing ensures system safety, performance, and environmental protection by
detecting and measuring leaks of gas or liquid through discontinuities.

Key Terminologies

• Leak: A hole or void in a system wall that allows fluid passage between areas.
• Leakage: The fluid flow through a leak, measured in mass flow units.
• Leakage Rate: The flow rate of liquid or gas through a leak under specific temperature
conditions, often expressed in Pascal-liters per second.
• Leak Standard: A calibrated device allowing tracer gas to be introduced at a known
rate to calibrate leak detectors.
• Leak Detector Sensitivity: The minimum concentration or flow rate of tracer gas
detectable by the leak detector, based on the smallest number of gas molecules
measurable.
• Leak Test Sensitivity: The smallest detectable leakage amount within a specific period
and under specified test conditions.

Measurement of Leakage

• Leakage is quantified by the volume of fluid passing through a leak under certain
conditions.
• Common units for leakage rate include:
o Torr-liters per second
o Liter-microns per second
o Atmospheric cubic centimeters per second

Types of Leaks

1. Real Leaks:
o Local leaks where fluid flows through a discrete hole or crack.
2. Virtual Leaks:
o Gases that desorb gradually from surfaces within a vacuum system.
3. Permeation:
 o The movement of fluid through a material, with no visible holes, but tiny
molecules still manage to pass through.

1. Leak Testing Without Tracer Gas

1. Hydrostatic Test:
o What it is: This test checks for leaks in pressure vessels like tanks or pipes by
filling them with water.
o How it works: The vessel is completely filled with water and then pressurized
to a level higher than its normal operating pressure.
o What to look for: If there's a leak, water will seep out from the damaged area.
o Advantages: Simple, safe (since water doesn’t compress like air), and effective
for large leaks.
o Disadvantages: It can take time, and small leaks might be hard to detect
because the pressure might not cause noticeable seepage.

2. Immersion Test:
o What it is: A simple test for small pressure vessels.
o How it works: The vessel is filled with gas and submerged in water.
o What to look for: Leaks are detected by watching for bubbles that rise to the
surface, coming from the points where gas escapes.
o Advantages: Very easy to spot leaks, even small ones.
o Disadvantages: It’s only practical for small vessels and might miss very tiny
leaks.
 3. Liquid Film Test:
o What it is: Also known as the "soap bubble test."
o How it works: The vessel is pressurized with gas, and a soap solution or similar
liquid is applied to its surface, especially around suspected leak areas.
o What to look for: If there’s a leak, the gas escapes and forms bubbles in the
liquid.
o Advantages: Easy to perform, inexpensive, and useful for small leaks.
o Disadvantages: Only works for accessible surfaces and can't detect hidden
leaks inside complex systems.

4. Pressure Change Test:

o What it is: This test measures the change in pressure in a sealed system over
time.
o How it works: The system is pressurized and then sealed. After a specific time
(usually a few hours), the pressure is checked.
o What to look for: If the pressure decreases, there’s a leak somewhere in the
system.
o Advantages: Simple and useful for determining if there is a leak.
o Disadvantages: It doesn’t pinpoint the exact location of the leak and can be
time-consuming.

2. Leak Testing with Tracer Gas

1. Halogen Diode Test:

o What it is: A method that uses halogen-based gases like Freon to detect leaks.
o How it works: The system is pressurized with a mixture of air and a halogen
gas. After some time, a halogen "sniffer" (a device that detects halogen gases)
is used to check around the system for escaping gas.
o What to look for: The sniffer will indicate the presence of halogen gas, which
means there’s a leak.
 o Advantages: Good for detecting small leaks that may be missed by other
methods.
o Disadvantages: It requires special equipment (the halogen sniffer) and might
not be effective for larger systems.

2. Helium Mass Spectroscopy:

o What it is: This is a very sensitive method that uses helium, a light and inert
gas, to detect even the smallest leaks.
o How it works: The system is pressurized with helium, and the helium leaking
out is detected using a helium mass spectrometer.
o Advantages: Helium is ideal because it is a small molecule that can pass
through even the tiniest cracks, and it doesn't react with anything.
o Disadvantages: This test requires expensive equipment and technical expertise.
o Types of Helium Mass Spectrometry Leak Tests:
1. Probe Technique:
▪ How it works: A small amount of helium is sprayed around the
surface of the object. If helium enters the object through a leak,
it will be detected.
▪ What to look for: The mass spectrometer will detect any helium
that has passed through leaks in the object.
▪ Advantages: Useful for finding the exact location of leaks.
▪ Disadvantages: Only works on small sections at a time and
requires precise control.
2. Envelop Vacuum Technique:
▪ How it works: The object (which is filled with helium) is placed
in a vacuum chamber. Any helium that leaks out will be detected
in the vacuum.
▪ What to look for: The mass spectrometer detects helium that
escapes from the object.
▪ Advantages: Good for detecting the total amount of leakage.
▪ Disadvantages: Requires large and complex equipment (a
vacuum chamber).
3. Sniffer Technique:
▪ How it works: The object is pressurized with helium, and a
"sniffer" device checks the surface of the object for leaks.
▪ What to look for: The sniffer detects helium that escapes from
leaks.
 ▪ Advantages: Easy to use for scanning large surfaces.
▪ Disadvantages: It might miss very small leaks if they don’t
release enough helium.
4. Envelop Pressure Technique:
▪ How it works: The object is surrounded by helium gas and is
then evacuated. Helium that leaks into the object is detected.
▪ What to look for: The mass spectrometer detects helium leaking
into the system.
▪ Advantages: Useful for determining the overall leak rate of the
system.
▪ Disadvantages: Similar to the vacuum technique, it requires
specialized equipment.
5. Pressurization Technique:
▪ How it works: The object is first placed in a chamber filled with
helium. After some time, the object is removed and placed in
another chamber where a vacuum is created. Any helium that
leaks from the object will be detected.
▪ What to look for: The mass spectrometer detects helium leaking
from the object.
▪ Advantages: Highly sensitive and accurate.
▪ Disadvantages: Requires two separate chambers and is a bit
more complicated than other methods.

Thermographic Non-destructive Evaluation (NDE)

Basic Principles

• Infrared Radiation (IR): All objects at temperatures above absolute zero emit infrared
radiation. This radiation increases with temperature.
• Thermal Image: Variations in temperature can be captured in a thermal image, which
helps in detecting faults or irregularities in materials.
• IR Spectral Band: Thermography uses the infrared spectral band of electromagnetic
radiation to detect temperature changes in objects.
• Factors Affecting Heat Flow: The flow of heat within an object depends on various
factors such as density, thermal conductivity, and surface properties (e.g., voids,
inclusions, surface finish).
Detection Techniques

• Infrared Scanning System: A thermography system includes an infrared scanner,

monitor, control unit, and computer for image processing.
o Infrared Scanner: The scanner has an optical system, scanning mechanism,
and an infrared detector. Materials like germanium and silicon are used for
mirrors and lenses.
o Scanning Mechanism: Rotating prisms scan the object's surface, detecting
variations in emitted infrared radiation.
o Detector Types:
1. Image Converters: Convert the thermal image into an electron image,
then into a visible optical image.
2. Pyricon-Based Devices: Use normal vidicon tubes with infrared-
sensitive plates.
3. Mechanical Scanning Devices: Use moving mirrors to scan the surface
and detect changes in infrared radiation using cooled detectors.

Active and Passive Techniques

• Passive Thermography: Measures natural heat distribution in an object, typically used

for temperature monitoring.
• Active Thermography: External heat is applied to the object, and the movement of
heat through the material is monitored for anomalies. Heat sources include lasers,
lamps, or air jets.

Lock-in Thermography

• This is a non-contact technique used to pinpoint short circuits and leakages in electronic
components, circuit boards, and systems.
• It operates by synchronizing an infrared (IR) camera to the same frequency as the
activation signal of a suspected defect. This synchronization allows the camera to
capture two types of images:
o Amplitude Image: Shows the magnitude of heat emission at the defect site.
o Phase Image: Illustrates both the location and type of defect based on time
delay or phase shift.
• Together, these images help localize defects precisely and distinguish between different
types, enhancing inspection accuracy.

Pulse Thermography

• In pulse thermography, an object’s surface is briefly heated in a controlled manner by

fast-acting flash lamps or radiators. The temperature increase is subtle (a few degrees,
typically less than 5 °C), but sufficient to highlight flaws.
• Heat flows uniformly through materials, but flaws like cracks or inhomogeneities create
thermal resistance, impeding heat flow below the surface.
• The affected area thus becomes warmer, resulting in localized temperature variations.
A thermographic camera captures these variations, which appear as distinct “hot spots,”
helping to reveal underlying issues.

Heat-Sensitive Paints (Thermochromic Paints)

 • These paints contain pigments that respond to temperature changes, shifting color
accordingly.
• They provide thermal insulation by reflecting or blocking heat from sources like
fireplaces, heaters, and radiators indoors, as well as sunlight outdoors.
• By reducing the heat absorbed by conventional insulation (e.g., fiberglass or foam),
these paints decrease the load on buildings’ thermal barriers, making them useful for
energy-saving applications in building materials and insulation.

Infrared Radiation and Infrared Detectors

• Thermography relies on infrared radiation, a part of the electromagnetic spectrum with

wavelengths longer than visible light. Infrared radiation is categorized into:
o Near Infrared (0.75–3 μm)
o Middle Infrared (3–6 μm)
o Far Infrared (6–15 μm)
o Extreme Infrared (15–100 μm)
• Thermal Detectors: Respond to temperature changes caused by infrared radiation.
Common types include:
o Bolometers and Microbolometers: Change their resistance with temperature
shifts.
o Thermocouples and Thermopiles: Utilize the thermoelectric effect,
generating voltage based on temperature differences.
o Golay Cells: Detect thermal expansion due to heating.
• Photonic Detectors: Known for faster response and higher sensitivity but typically
require cooling to reduce thermal noise. These include:
o Photoconductive Detectors: Monitor resistivity changes caused by infrared
radiation.
o Photovoltaic Detectors: Use a p-n junction that generates a photoelectric
current upon infrared illumination.

Thermomechanical behavior of materials

Thermal Expansion: Most materials expand with heat, leading to thermal strain if
restricted. This expansion depends on the coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE).

Creep: Materials can deform over time under constant load at high temperatures, which is
critical in components like turbine blades.

Thermal Fatigue: Repeated heating and cooling cycles cause stress that leads to
microcracks and eventual failure, common in engine exhausts and reactor vessels.

Thermoelasticity: Materials expand or contract elastically with small temperature changes,

proportional to the temperature difference.

Thermal Shock Resistance: Ability to withstand sudden temperature changes without

cracking, important for ceramics and spacecraft materials.

Stress Relaxation: At high temperatures, materials under constant strain lose stress,
impacting seals and bolts.
 Phase Changes: Temperature shifts can cause phase transformations, altering strength,
hardness, and ductility, as seen in steel.

Thermographic Non-Destructive Evaluation (NDE)

Advantages:

• Monitoring Large Areas: Thermography can scan extensive regions in a short time,
useful for surveying large structures.
• Monitoring Moving Objects: It allows for the inspection of objects in motion, such as
rotating machinery, without interruption.
• Early Fault Detection: Thermographic NDE detects anomalies, often before visible
failure occurs, supporting preventive maintenance.
• Operational Feasibility: Testing can be conducted during regular operation,
minimizing downtime.
• Accessibility: It is effective for inspecting hard-to-reach, hazardous, or dimly lit areas
where other methods may be limited.

Limitations:

• High Equipment Costs: Infrared cameras and associated equipment can be costly,
impacting budget allocation.
• Interpretation Challenges: Interpreting thermal images requires expertise, as results
can vary due to material properties and environmental factors.
• Lower Accuracy Compared to Contact Methods: While efficient, thermography
may not be as precise as methods that make direct contact with the inspected material.
• Limited Detection Capabilities: It may struggle to detect deep subsurface flaws in
dense materials, as it primarily detects surface or near-surface temperature variations.

Applications:

• Building Inspection: Identifies insulation issues, moisture, and structural weaknesses

in construction.
• Plant Maintenance: Monitors machinery, pipelines, and electrical systems to
preemptively identify faults.
• Electrical Wiring Maintenance: Detects overheating in circuits and connections,
reducing fire risk.
• Energy Loss Detection: Useful for locating energy inefficiencies in HVAC systems
and insulation.
• Bridge and Paved Surface Inspection: Identifies cracks, voids, and other structural
concerns in infrastructure.

Digital Radiography and Computed Tomography (CT)

Principles of Digital Radiography (DR):

• Digital Radiography is an advanced imaging technique using X-rays to capture

detailed images of internal structures in various objects. Unlike traditional film
radiography, DR captures these images in a digital format. The digital approach
 eliminates the need for film processing and enables rapid, high-quality image
acquisition, storage, and processing.

Methods of Digital Radiography:

1. Digitization of X-ray Films:

o Traditional X-ray films can be scanned or digitized using specialized scanners.
This conversion allows storage, manipulation, and analysis of images in digital
format, making it easier to archive, share, and analyze.
2. Computed Radiography (CR):
o CR uses a photostimulable phosphor (PSP) plate to capture and store
images. The PSP plate is sensitive to X-rays, and once exposed, it holds a
latent image that can be read by a laser scanner. When scanned, the energy
stored in the plate is released as light, which is then detected and digitized,
producing a high-resolution image. The PSP plates are reusable, providing
flexibility and reduced costs compared to traditional film.
3. Direct Radiography (DR):
o DR directly captures X-ray images using flat-panel detectors or CCD (charge-
coupled device) sensors. In DR, X-rays are converted directly into electronic
signals, which are then processed into digital images without an intermediate
storage plate. This method allows for immediate image viewing, making it
highly efficient for high-throughput applications such as medical imaging,
automotive, and aerospace inspections.

Process of Image Formation in Computed Radiography (CR):

• CR involves exposing a PSP plate to X-rays, which stores the image as a latent energy
pattern.
• The PSP plate is then scanned by a high-energy laser beam, causing it to emit light
proportional to the stored energy pattern.
• A photomultiplier detects the light, converting it into an electrical signal that is
processed into a digital image. The plate is then cleared of residual energy for reuse.

Comparison of Film, CR, and DR Methods:

1. Film Radiography:
o Produces high-resolution images and is widely used but involves physical film
handling and chemical processing.
o Limited flexibility, as images are difficult to enhance, store, or share digitally.
o Requires substantial storage space and involves higher costs due to materials
and chemical processing.
2. Computed Radiography (CR):
o More flexible than film as the PSP plates are reusable.
o Allows digital manipulation of images, including enhancements,
measurements, and storage.
o Slower than DR due to the intermediate plate scanning step, but more adaptable
and cost-effective than film.
3. Direct Radiography (DR):
o Provides immediate image capture and display, ideal for fast-paced inspections.
o High sensitivity and resolution with enhanced image clarity.
 o Eliminates intermediate steps and is the most efficient option among digital
radiography methods.
o Generally, higher initial costs due to advanced detector technology.

Computed Tomography (CT):

• Industrial CT involves taking multiple X-ray images from various angles around the
object. The images are processed using algorithms to construct cross-sectional views or
even 3D reconstructions.
• CT is invaluable for internal defect detection, providing detailed 3D images of an
object's interior without physical disassembly. It is widely used in industries such as
aerospace, automotive, and electronics for precise internal inspection.
• Industrial CT scans are effective for defect identification, material characterization,
and structural analysis, allowing detailed examination of components like welded
joints, composite materials, castings, and other critical parts.