UNIT 2

INCOMPRESSIBLE FLOW OVER A WING

Finite wings are 3 dimensional bodies and the flow over a 3 dimensional finite wing is 3 dimensional. This is
mainly because; as the flow moves over the wing body, there is a component of flow in the spanwise direction,
i.e., all three components of the flow in X, Y and Z directions are present. This is the reason why the flow over
an airfoil is 2D and wing is 3D. The spanwise bending action makes the flow to become truly 3d in nature.

To see this more clearly, examine the figure which gives the top and front views of a finite wing. From
aerodynamics knowledge, we know that the physical mechanism for generating lift on the wing is the existence
of a high pressure on the bottom surface and a low pressure on the top surface. The net imbalance of the
pressure distribution creates the lift. However, as a by-product of this pressure imbalance, the flow near the
wing tips tends to curl around the tips, being forced from the high-pressure region just underneath the tips to the
low-pressure region on top. This flow around the wing tips is shown in the front view of the wing in Figure 5.3.
As a result, on the top surface of the wing, there is generally a spanwise component of flow from the tip toward
the wing root, causing the streamlines over the top surface to bend toward the root, as sketched on the top view
shown in Figure 5.3.

Similarly, on the bottom surface of the wing, there is generally a spanwise component of flow from the root
toward the tip, causing the streamlines over the bottom surface to bend toward the tip. Clearly, the flow over the
finite wing is three-dimensional, and therefore you would expect the overall aerodynamic properties of such a
wing to differ from those of its airfoil sections.

The tendency for the flow to ―leak‖ around the wing tips has another important effect on the aerodynamics of
the wing. This flow establishes a circulatory motion that trails downstream of the wing; that is, a trailing vortex
is created at each wing tip. These wing-tip vortices are sketched in Figure 5.4. The tip vortices are essentially
weak ―tornadoes‖ that trail downstream of the finite wing. (For large airplanes such as a Boeing 747, these tip
vortices can be powerful enough to cause light airplanes following too closely to go out of control. Such
accidents have occurred, and this is one reason for large spacing between aircraft landing or taking off
consecutively at airports.) These wing-tip vortices downstream of the wing induce a small downward
component of air velocity in the neighbourhood of the wing itself. The two vortices tend to drag the surrounding
air around with them, and this secondary movement induces a small velocity component in the downward
direction at the wing. This downward component is called Downwash, denoted by the symbol w. In turn, the
downwash combines with the freestream velocity V∞ to produce a local relative wind which is canted
downward in the vicinity of each airfoil section of the wing, as sketched in Figure 5.6.

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Examine Figure 5.6 closely. The angle between the chord line and the direction of V∞ is the angle of attack α.
We now more precisely define α as the geometric angle of attack. In Figure 5.6, the local relative wind is
inclined below the direction of V∞ by the angle αi , called the induced angle of attack. The presence of
downwash, and its effect on inclining the local relative wind in the downward direction, has two important
effects on the local airfoil section, as follows:

1. The angle of attack actually seen by the local airfoil section is the angle between the chord line and the local
relative wind. This angle is given by αeff in Figure 5.4 and is defined as the effective angle of attack. Hence,
although the wing is at a geometric angle of attack α, the local airfoil section is seeing a smaller angle, namely,
the effective angle of attack αeff. From Figure 5.6,

2. The local lift vector is aligned perpendicular to the local relative wind, and hence is inclined behind the
vertical by the angle αi , as shown in Figure 5.6. Consequently, there is a component of the local lift vector in
the direction of V∞; that is, there is a drag created by the presence of downwash. This drag is defined as
induced drag, denoted by Di in Figure 5.6.

Hence, we see that the presence of downwash over a finite wing reduces the angle of attack that each section
effectively sees, and moreover, it creates a component of drag—the induced drag Di.

The tilting backward of the lift vector shown in Figure 5.6 is one way of visualizing the physical generation of
induced drag. Two alternate ways are as follows:

1. The three-dimensional flow induced by the wing-tip vortices shown in Figures 5.4 and 5.5 simply alters the
pressure distribution on the finite wing in such a fashion that a net pressure imbalance exists in the direction of
V∞ (i.e., drag is created). In this sense, induced drag is a type of ―pressure drag.‖

2. The wing-tip vortices contain a large amount of translational and rotational kinetic energy. This energy has to
come from somewhere; indeed, it is ultimately provided by the aircraft engine, which is the only source of
power associated with the airplane. Since the energy of the vortices serves no useful purpose, this power is
essentially lost. In effect, the extra power provided by the engine that goes into the vortices is the extra power
required from the engine to overcome the induced drag.

All these are interesting wing effects that are created only on the wing. They make the coefficients of an airfoil
to be different than the wings. Now after the induced drag is generated, what would be its effect on the total
aerodynamics of the airplane? How is the induced drag going to affect the aerodynamics of the wing at least if
not the entire plane? So the presence of induced drag, will affect the lift of the wing. Since lift is directly
proportional to circulation, circulation will get affected. Since circulation is affected, it will affect the lift
distribution across the wing due to wing tip vortices.

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So, our next goal would be to quantify the amount of induced drag generated on an airplane wing and also
determine how much lift the wing would be generating in the presence of the induced drag. In order to
determine the lift and the drag, we need to derive the expressions and the next section would be looking at the
derivation of some equations that will help us in quantifying the lift, drag, and many more.

As mentioned all these effects are primarily due to the tip vortex. In fluid dynamics, a vortex can be modelled
using an elementary potential flows which is the vortex flow. This vortex can be considered as a point vortex.
We know that the flow that rolls up at the wing tips, will eventually move downstream of the wing as the
airplane travels forward. When visualized from the side or top, these tip vortices will be similar to infinite
number of point vortices along a line (Refer to figure 4.12). If we join the center of all these point vortices
traveling downstream, we will get a line that passes through the centers of all the point vortices. This infinite
number of point vortices can be modelled as a line vortex consisting of infinite number of point vortices of same
strength. Since we know the starting point of these vortices, which is nothing but the wing tip, we can treat the
line vortex as semi-infinite vortex line. By treating the wing tip and its vortices as a semi-infinite vortex, we can
build some useful theoretical tools to analyse the vortices and determine the velocity, lift, drag etc. across the
wing.

To start building some aerodynamic tools, we shall first call up on a famous law known as Biot-Savarts Law.
This law is popular in electromagnetism. First let us see what this Biot-Savarts law in electromagnetism is
about.

Let us consider an electrical wire of length l that has some current I passing through it. As everyone knows, the
current in the wire will induce a magnetic field which is perpendicular to the direction of the current. Let us
assume the strength of the magnetic field be B. This magnetic field can be experienced around the wire. If we
are interested to determine the magnetic field B generated by the whole wire, then we shall first consider a small
infinitesimal segment of the wire dl. Let this small segment carry a magnetic field dB which will have an
infinitesimal effect on some point P at a distance r from dl. The magnetic field will be felt downward at the
point P as shown in figure. Then the differential magnetic force induced by this small segment of wire dl at a
point P can be given by the expression

 I dl * r
dB 
4 r 3
This is Biot Savarts Law. We do not deal with the derivation of the expression of Biot Savarts Law, but we just
take it as a reference for the starting point.

In aerodynamics, we too have a very similar situation. We have a vortex filament which will consist of infinite
number of vortices with some vorticity of strength Γ along its length. These vortices induce a downward
velocity component at some distance from the vortex line. Here, the vortex line or filament carrying vortices is
analogous to the wire carrying current. The vortices induce a downward component of velocity at some point
surrounding the vortex filament which is similar to the magnetic field induced by the wire carrying current. If
we consider a small infinitesimal length of the vortex filament dl, then it will induce a small velocity dv at a
point P away from the vortex filament. Using Biot Savarts Law, we get a similar expression,

Page | 3
 
  dl * r
dV 
4 r 3
This is the velocity induced by the small element dl. This is just one part of the velocity at point P due to the
vortex strength across the small filament dl. Now let us consider the vortex filament to be made up of infinite
number of point vortices on the vortex filament extending from – ∞ to +∞, then the velocity induced by the
entire length of the filament is given by

    dl * r 
V   


4 r 
3


    dl * r 
 
4  r 3 
V
 
This is the equation for the total velocity V induced by the entire vortex filament at point P.
 
In Anderson book, only the magnitude of the velocity is considered V  V . Now take mod for the velocity V
and bring the RHS of induced velocity within the mod. If mod is taken for velocity V, then we don’t get the
velocity vector.

 
  dl * r 
V 
4  r 3 

 

 
  dl * r 
V
4  3 
 r 

 
  dl * r 
V
4  3 
 r 
In the above equation, the cross product for dl*r can be applied. Because here, dl and r are vectors and r has a
direction defined by the unit vector

The cross product is given as

   
A * B  A B Sin

  
dl * r  dl r Sin
This can be written as
 
dl * r  rSin * dl
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This shows that the magnitude of the cross product depends on the perpendicular distance between vector r and
direction dl, which is rsinθ.

The term rsinθdl represents the effective component of the length element perpendicular to the position vector.
 
Substitute for dl * r as rSin * dl in the velocity equation.

  dl * r 

V
4  r 3 

 

  r sin * dl 
V
4  

r3


Cancel radius r on both numerator and denominator

  sin * dl 
V
4  

r2


In this equation, we need to find the values of dl and r. The best way to do is to represent dl and r in terms of θ
which can be a constant. To get this, let us draw a perpendicular line from point P to the vortex filament and
name this distance as h. Also, let the distance from the infinitesimal segment dl to h be l as shown in figure. This
forms a right angle triangle and from figure, we get represent

Figure 5.9 Velocity induced at point P by an infinite, straight vortex filament.

From figure,

h
Sin 
r
h
r
Sin

h
Tan 
l
h
l
Tan
Substitute in the above equation, We get
sin * dl sin * d
2

r h
When θ→- ∞, θ will be 180 degree or π
When θ→+ ∞, θ will be 0 degree or 0
Hence, now the limits from -∞ to +∞ will change from π to 0. Lower limit is π and upper limit is 0 for an
infinite vortex filament.
  sin * d 
0

4  
V  
h 

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 
0

4h 
V  sin * d

Integrate the equation,

V

4h
 ( 
Cos  )
0



V

4h
 Cos 
0



V

4h

Cos0  cos  
V

4h

1 (1) 

V 2
4h

V
2h
This is the expression for the induced velocity V for an infinite vortex filament. This is the velocity V that a
point P along the airfoil span which is at a distance h from the tip will feel due to the vortex presence. From the
equation we see that, the induced velocity V increases linearly with the vortex strength and decreases linearly
with the distance.

This equation is precisely the result given by Equation (3.105) for a point vortex in two-dimensional flow. [Note
that the minus sign in Equation (3.105) does not appear in Equation (5.10); this is because V in Equation (5.10)
is simply the absolute magnitude of V, and hence it is positive by definition.]

In reality, we know the exact location of the wing and where the wing tip vortices will start. Hence the infinite
vortex filament can be treated as a semi-infinite vortex filament as shown in the figure 5.10.

Consider the semi-infinite vortex filament shown in Figure 5.10. The filament extends from point A to ∞. Point
A can be considered a boundary of the flow. Let P be a point in the plane through A perpendicular to the
filament. Then, the velocity induced at P by the semi-infinite vortex filament is

This equation will be very critical moving forward as we will be using this equation for finding the downwash,
circulation, lift and finally the induced drag across the wing. This equation is mainly due to the presence of
vortices at the wing tips and these vortices have some important conditions for occurrence.
1. First, the vortex filament strength is constant along the vortex filament. This is mainly for a given
upstream velocity; the strength of the vortex filament will remain constant. This also means that or
interpreted as the vortex filament strength is not changing in time without external forcing.

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 2. Second, a vortex cannot end at any point in a fluid. A vortex can either terminate at some sort of solid
boundary, like our wing tip, or it can connect to itself and form a closed loop. This is called a vortex
ring when it closes. It cannot be generated without any solid 3d body like a wing.
3. Lastly, if there is nothing to externally cause rotation and irrotational flow stays irrotational. This is
something we've talked about in the past when we discussed rotational flows at length.
These three rules are theorems, and they're called the Helmholtz vortex theorems, although they're technically
not laws, just theorems, they have been largely shown to be true through measurement and observation.
Moving forward, we're going to take our knowledge of vortex filaments to predict and describe the effect of
downwash. The effect of downwash is 3 pronged:
 Induced drag Di
 Lift
 Lift Distribution

CRITICAL MACH NUMBER M,cr

When it comes to basic fluid flows, the fluid flows can be can be categorised based on the speed regimes of the
flow. According to the fluid flow regimes, we have
 Subsonic
 Transonic
 Supersonic
 Hypersonic

Every fluid regime will have its own challenges. Looking at the transonic flow, we know a transonic flow
regime occurs from 0.8 ≤M∞ ≤1.2. From this we can notice that, the fluid in the transonic range has subsonic
flow, sonic flow and supersonic flow also. It blends the fluid flow behaviour of all three regimes and hence they
are highly nonlinear in nature and one of the most complicated too.

Let us see what happens in a transonic flow. One of the important features of transonic flow is the critical Mach
number.

Consider an airfoil in a low-speed flow, say, with M∞ = 0.3, as sketched in Figure 11.5a. In the expansion over
the top surface of the airfoil, the local flow Mach number M increases. Let point A represent the location on the
airfoil surface where the pressure is a minimum, hence where M is a maximum. In Figure 11.5a, let us say this
maximum is MA = 0.435. Now assume that we gradually increase the freestream Mach number. As M∞
increases, MA also increases. For example, if M∞ is increased to M = 0.5, the maximum local value of M will be
0.772, as shown in Figure 11.5b. Let us continue to increase M∞ until we achieve just the right value such that
the local Mach number at the minimum pressure point equals 1, that is, such that MA = 1.0, as shown in Figure
11.5c. When this happens, the freestream Mach number M is called the critical Mach number, denoted by Mcr.
By definition, the critical Mach number is that freestream Mach number at which sonic flow is first achieved on
the airfoil surface. In Figure 11.5c, Mcr = 0.61.

Figure 11.5 Definition of critical Mach number. Point A is the location of minimum pressure on the top
surface of the airfoil. (See end-of-chapter Problem 11.7 for the calculation of the numbers in this figure.)

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When the Mach number changes, we know that the coefficient of pressure changes. That is when the flow
velocity changes, the pressure also changes. So What is the value of the local Cp when the local Mach number is
unity? By definition, this value of the pressure coefficient is called the critical pressure coefficient, denoted by
Cp,cr. For a given freestream Mach number M∞, the value of Cp,cr can be obtained by inserting MA = 1 into
Equation (11.58)

Equation (11.59) allows us to calculate the pressure coefficient at any point in the flow where the local Mach
number is 1, for a given freestream Mach number M∞. For example, if M∞ is slightly greater than Mcr, say, M∞
= 0.65 as shown in Figure 11.5d, then a finite region of supersonic flow will exist above the airfoil;

Now, returning to Figure 11.5c, when the freestream Mach number is precisely equal to the critical Mach
number, there is only one point where M = 1, namely point A. The pressure coefficient at point A will be Cp,cr,
which is obtained from Equation (11.59). In this case, M∞ in Equation (11.59) is precisely Mcr. Hence,

Equation (11.60) shows that Cp,cr is a unique function of Mcr; this variation is plotted as curve C in Figure
11.6. Note that Equation (11.60) is simply an aerodynamic relation for isentropic flow—it has no connection
with the shape of a given airfoil. In this sense, Equation (11.60), and hence curve C in Figure 11.6, is a type of
―universal relation‖ which can be used for all airfoils. Equation (11.60), in conjunction with any one of the
compressibility corrections given by Equation (11.51), (11.54), or (11.55), allows us to estimate the critical
Mach number for a given airfoil as follows:

 By some means, either experimental or theoretical, obtain the low-speed incompressible value of the
pressure coefficient Cp,0 at the minimum pressure point on the given airfoil.
 Using any of the compressibility corrections, Equation (11.51), (11.54), or (11.55), plot the variation of
Cp with M∞. This is represented by curve B in Figure 11.6.
 Somewhere on curve B, there will be a single point where the pressure coefficient corresponds to locally
sonic flow. Indeed, this point must coincide with Equation (11.60), represented by curve C in Figure
11.6.

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  Hence, the intersection of curves B and C represents the point corresponding to sonic flow at the
minimum pressure location on the airfoil. In turn, the value of M∞ at this intersection is, by definition,
the critical Mach number, as shown in Figure 11.6.

The graphical construction in Figure 11.6 is not an exact determination of Mcr. Although curve C is exact, curve
B is approximate because it represents the approximate compressibility correction. Hence, Figure 11.6 gives
only an estimation of Mcr. However, such an estimation is quite useful for preliminary design, and the results
from Figure 11.6 are accurate enough for most applications.

Consider two airfoils, one thin and the other thick, as sketched in Figure 11.7. First consider the low-speed
incompressible flowover these airfoils. The flowover the thin airfoil is only slightly perturbed from the
freestream. Hence, the expansion over the top surface is mild, and Cp,0 at the minimum pressure point is a
negative number of only small absolute magnitude, as shown in Figure 11.7. [Recall from Equation (11.32) that
Cp ∝ ˆu; hence, the smaller the perturbation, the smaller is the absolute magnitude of Cp.] In contrast, the flow
over the thick airfoil experiences a large perturbation from the freestream. The expansion over the top surface is
strong, and Cp,0 at the minimum pressure point is a negative number of large magnitude, as shown in Figure
11.7. If we now perform for each airfoil the same construction as given in Figure 11.6, we see that the thick
airfoil will have a lower critical Mach number than the thin airfoil. This is clearly illustrated in Figure 11.7. For
high-speed airplanes, it is desirable to have Mcr as high as possible. Hence, modern high-speed subsonic
airplanes are usually designed with relatively thin airfoils. (The development of the supercritical
airfoil has somewhat loosened this criterion, as discussed in Section 11.8.) For example, the Gates Lear jet high-
speed jet executive transport utilizes a 9 percent thick airfoil; contrast this with the low-speed Piper Aztec, a
twin engine propeller-driven general aviation aircraft designed with a 14 percent thick airfoil.

One of the most important problems in high-speed aerodynamics is the determination of the critical Mach
number of a given airfoil, because at values of M∞ slightly above Mcr, the airfoil experiences a dramatic
increase in drag coefficient.

DRAG-DIVERGENCE MACH NUMBER: THE SOUND BARRIER

Imagine that we have a given airfoil at a fixed angle of attack in a wind tunnel, and we wish to measure its drag
coefficient cd as a function of M∞. To begin with, we measure the drag coefficient at low subsonic speed to be cd,0,
shown in Figure 11.11. Now, as we gradually increase the freestream Mach number, we observe that cd remains
relatively constant all theway to the critical Mach number, as illustrated in Figure 11.11. The flow fields associated
with points a, b, and c in Figure 11.11 are represented by Figure 11.5a, b, and c, respectively. As we very carefully
increase M∞ slightly above Mcr, say, to point d in Figure 11.11, a finite region of supersonic flow appears on the
airfoil, as shown in Figure 11.5d. The Mach number in this bubble of supersonic flow is only slightly above Mach 1,
typically 1.02 to 1.05. However, as we continue to nudge M∞ higher, we encounter a point where the drag coefficient
suddenly starts to increase. This is given as point e in Figure 11.11. The value of M∞ at which this sudden increase in
drag starts is defined as the drag-divergence Mach number. Beyond the drag-divergence Mach number, the drag
coefficient can become very large, typically increasing by a factor of 10 or more. This large increase in drag is
associated with an extensive region of supersonic flowover the airfoil, terminating in a shockwave, as sketched in the
insert in Figure 11.11. Corresponding to point f on the drag curve, this insert shows that as M∞ approaches unity, the
flow on both the top and bottom surfaces can be supersonic, both terminated by shock waves. For example, consider
the case of a reasonably thick airfoil, designed originally for low-speed applications,
when M∞ is beyond drag-divergence; in such a case, the local Mach number can reach 1.2 or higher. As a result, the
terminating shock waves can be relatively strong. These shocks generally cause severe flow separation downstream
of the shocks, with an attendant large increase in drag.

Now, put yourself in the place of an aeronautical engineer in 1936. You are familiar with the Prandtl-Glauert rule,
given by Equation (11.51). You recognize that as M∞ → 1, this equation shows the absolute magnitude of Cp
approaching infinity. This hints at some real problems near Mach 1. Furthermore, you know of some initial high-
speed subsonic wind-tunnel tests that have generated drag curves that resemble the portion of Figure 11.11 from
points a to f . How far will the drag coefficient increase as we get closer to M∞ = 1? Will cd go to infinity? At this
stage, you might be pessimistic. You might visualize the drag increase to be so large that no airplane with the power
plants existing in 1936, or even envisaged for the future, could ever overcome this ―barrier.‖ It was this type of
thought that led to the popular concept of a sound barrier and that prompted many people to claim that humans would
never fly faster than the speed of sound. Of course, today we know the sound barrier was a myth. We cannot use the
Prandtl-Glauert rule to argue that cd will become infinite at M∞ = 1, because the Prandtl-Glauert rule is invalid at M∞

Page | 9
= 1 (see Sections 11.3 and 11.4). Moreover, early transonic wind-tunnel tests carried out in the late 1940s clearly
indicated that cd peaks at or around Mach 1 and then actually decreases as we enter the supersonic regime, as shown
by points g and h in Figure 11.11. All we need is an aircraft with an engine powerful enough to overcome the large
drag rise at Mach 1. The myth of the sound barrier was finally put to rest on October 14, 1947, when Captain Charles
(Chuck) Yeager became the first human being to fly faster than sound in the sleek, bullet-shaped Bell XS-1. This
rocket-propelled research aircraft is shown in Figure 11.12. Of course, today supersonic flight is a common reality;
we have jet engines powerful enough to accelerate military fighters through Mach 1 flying straight up! Such airplanes
can fly at Mach 3 and beyond. Indeed, we are limited only by aerodynamic heating at high speeds (and the
consequent structural problems). Right now, NASA is conducting research on supersonic combustion ramjet engines
for flight at Mach 5 and higher (see the Design Box at the end of Section 9.6). Keep in mind, however, that because
of the large power requirements for very high-speed flight, the fuel consumption becomes large. In today’s energy-
conscious world, this constraint can be as much a barrier to high-speed flight as the sound barrier was once
envisaged. Since 1945, research in transonic aerodynamics has focused on reducing the large drag rise shown in
Figure 11.11. Instead of living with a factor of 10 increase in drag at Mach 1, can we reduce it to a factor of 2 or 3?
This is the subject of the remaining sections of this chapter.

THE AREA RULE

As stated before, the first practical jet-powered aircraft appeared at the end of WorldWar II in the form of the
German Me 262. This was a subsonic fighter plane with a top speed near 550 mi/h. The next decade saw the
design and production of many types of jet aircraft—all limited to subsonic flight by the large drag near Mach 1.
Even the ―century‖ series of fighter aircraft designed to give the U.S.
Air Force supersonic capability in the early 1950s, such as the Convair F-102 delta-wing airplane, ran into
difficulty and could not at first readily penetrate the sound barrier in level flight. The thrust of jet engines at that
time simply could not overcome the large peak drag near Mach 1.

In order to overcome the large drag rise near Mach 1, different revolutionary aerodynamic concepts were
proposed. One was the thin airfoils, second was the swept wing concept. Besides these two concepts, 2 more
revolutionary concepts were proposed they were The Area-Rule and Supercritical Airfoils. All these concepts
were truly ground-breaking as they were very much instrumental in overcoming the sound barrier near and
beyond the speed of sound.

Let look at what exactly is the AREA RULE in Aerodynamics?

Let us consider a plan view of a typical aircraft that was designed during the world war. From the planview we
can notice the cross section and the area distribution of the aircraft. The distribution of the cross section of the
aircraft at different distance from the nose is provided in the graph. Here we notice that as we move from the
nose and move towards the tail, the cross sectional area of the aircraft is increasing. Additionally, we notice that
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there is some abrupt changes in the cross sectional area and with discontinuities in both A and dA/dx in the
regions of the wing.

In contrast, for almost a century, it was well known by ballisticians that the speed of a supersonic bullet or
artillery shell with a smooth variation of cross-sectional area was higher than projectiles with abrupt or
discontinuous area distributions.

In the mid-1950s, an aeronautical engineer at the NACA Langley Aeronautical Laboratory, Richard T.
Whitcomb, put this knowledge to work on the problem of transonic flight of airplanes. Whitcomb reasoned that
the variation of cross-sectional area for an airplane should be smooth, with no discontinuities. This meant that,
in the region of the wings and tail, the fuselage cross-sectional area should decrease to compensate for the
addition of the wing and tail crosssectional area. This led to a ―coke bottle‖ fuselage shape, as shownin Figure
11.17. Here, the planview and area distribution are shown for an aircraft with a relatively smooth variation of
A(x). This design philosophy is called the area rule, and it successfully reduced the peak drag near Mach 1 such
that practical airplanes could fly supersonically by the mid-1950s. The variations of drag coefficient with M∞
for an area-ruled and non-area-ruled airplane are schematically compared in Figure 11.18; typically, the area
rule leads to a factor-of-2 reduction in the peak drag near Mach 1.

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