REFRIGERATION

SYSTEMS
Energy Efficiency
Reference Guide
DISCLAIMER: Neither CEATI International, the authors, nor any
of the organizations providing funding support for this work
(including any persons acting on the behalf of the
aforementioned) assume any liability or responsibility for any
damages arising or resulting from the use of any information,
equipment, product, method or any other process whatsoever
disclosed or contained in this guide.

The use of certified practitioners for the application of the

information contained herein is strongly recommended.

This guide was prepared by Ivor da Cunha [Link]., LeapFrog

Energy Technologies Inc. for the CEATI International Customer
Energy Solutions Interest Group (CESIG) with the sponsorship of
the following utility consortium participants:

© 2010 CEATI International. All rights reserved.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Section Page
1 Purpose of this Guide 7
2 How this Guide is Organized 9
a. Quick Start Chapters for Specific Job
Functions 9
b. Guide Organization 11
c. Related CEATI Publications 13
3 Introduction 15
a. Common Refrigeration Applications in
Business 15
4 Theory Behind Refrigeration 17
a. Heat and Heat Transfer 17
b. Boiling Points and Pressure 18
c. Heat Transfer 18
d. Enthalpy 19
e. Refrigeration System and Pulley Analogy 20
f. Basic Rules to Reduce Energy Wastage 22
5 The Refrigeration Cycle 25
a. Refrigeration Thermodynamics 25
b. The Vapour Compression Cycle 26
c. Key Steps of Vapour Compression
Refrigeration 28
 d. Component Performance 29
e. Coefficient of System Performance 30
f. Measurement of Efficiency 30
g. Factors Impacting Efficiency 31
6 Compressors 33
a. Positive Displacement Compressors 33
b. Compressor Efficiency 36
7 Evaporators, Condensers and Expansion
Valves 39
a. Evaporator Efficiency 39
b. Defrosting Evaporators 39
c. Energy Efficiency and Defrosting 40
d. Condenser Efficiency 40
e. Expansion Devices 41
f. Capacity Control 42
g. Enclosed Motors 42
h. Compressor Lubricating Oil 43
8 Refrigerants 45
a. Refrigerant Characteristics 45
b. Ozone Depletion Potential 46
c. Refrigerant Applications 47
d. Safety and Health Issues 48
9 Purchasing a New Refrigeration System 51
10 Industry Specific Refrigeration Efficiency
Tips 53
a. Supermarkets and Food Retail 53
b. Manufacturing and Distribution 53
11 Instrumentation 55
12 Low-Cost No-Cost Refrigeration
Improvements 57
a. System Energy Optimization Tips 58
13 Checklist for Operational and Maintenance
Improvements 61
a. Day-to-Day Operation 61
b. Routine Maintenance Tips 61
c. Minimizing Parasitic Loads 62
14 Diagnosis Methodology for System
Optimization 65
a. Troubleshooting and Fault Tracing 65
b. Refrigeration Logs and Records 66
15 Commissioning and Maintenance 67
a. Baseline Specification 67
b. Commissioning 68
16 Refrigeration Performance Measurements 71
a. Cause and Effect - Symptoms to Look For 74
17 Refrigeration Audit Assessment
Worksheet 77
a. Housekeeping Measures 78
 b. Low-Cost Measures 80
Appendix A. System Assessment Memory Jogger 83
Appendix B. Refrigeration Codes and Standards 85
Appendix C. Conversion Factors 89
Appendix D. Glossary of Common Refrigeration
Terms 91
Appendix E. Key Sector System Efficiency
Opportunities 95
a. Ice Rinks 95
b. Supermarkets and Food & Beverage Sectors 97
Appendix F. Bibliography and Web Links 101
a. Print References 101
b. Web Links 102
 1. Purpose of This Guide

1 PURPOSE OF THIS GUIDE

This guide is aimed at helping you implement energy
efficiency methods and practices involving refrigeration
systems at your location. The main emphasis is on small to
medium systems that operate with refrigerants other than
ammonia.

It is common for small- and medium-sized businesses to have

piecemeal refrigeration components installed and operating.
The guide will also help you to make informed decisions about
operating, maintaining or modifying your existing refrigeration
system or configuration. It can provide you with some
guidance on high-level factors and questions to ask while in
the process of designing, constructing or commissioning a new
system. This guide does the following:

 Characterizes various systems 7

 Provides a quick reference on performance
optimization techniques
 Reviews field performance testing procedures

Caution: As with any electrical or rotating equipment, always

use proper safety procedures, ventilation and lockout
procedures before operating, testing or servicing refrigeration
system equipment.
 1. Purpose of This Guide

8
 2. How This Guide Is Organized

2 HOW THIS GUIDE IS

ORGANIZED
This guidebook is intended to provide the fundamental
information essential to making informed and educated
decisions about the use of energy efficient operation of
refrigeration systems.

As with most other process equipment, over the lifetime of a

typical refrigeration system, the value of electricity used can
exceed the initial cost many times over. Performance
optimization of refrigeration offers tremendous potential for
energy savings in the industrial, commercial and institutional
sectors. By understanding the relationship between energy and
functionality, readers can make informed decisions about the
procurement, installation, maintenance and operations of
refrigeration equipment and systems. 9

a. Quick Start Chapters for Specific Job

Functions
Table 1 outlines the key chapters that a typical specialist would
find to be most beneficial.
 2. How This Guide Is Organized

Table 1 Quick Start Chapters for Specialists

System Designer

Service Provider
Facility Manager
Plant Operator
Refrigeration

Maintenance
Purchasing
Chapter
Introduction X X X X X X
Theory Behind Refrigeration X X X X
The Refrigeration Cycle X X X X X
Compressors X X X
Evaporators, Condensers and X X X X
Expansion Valves
Refrigerants X X X X X X
Purchasing a New Refrigeration X X X X
System
10
Industry Specific Refrigeration X X X
Efficiency Tips
Instrumentation X X X
Low-Cost No-Cost Refrigeration X X
Improvements
Checklist for Operational and X X X
Maintenance Improvements
Diagnosis Methodology for X X X
System Optimization
Commissioning and Maintenance X X X
Refrigeration Performance X X
Measurements
Refrigeration Audit Assessment X X
Worksheet
 2. How This Guide Is Organized

b. Guide Organization
The guide is organized into standalone and related modules. It
is expected and recognized that individual readers of this guide
have different levels of knowledge and experience with
refrigeration systems and associated components.

The main themes of the guide are:

 Refrigeration System Fundamentals,

 Performance Optimization of Refrigeration Equipment
and Opportunity Strategies,
 Resources and References, and
 Getting the Most from this Guide.

Refrigeration System Fundamentals

For readers who may not be familiar with the essentials of the 11
refrigeration cycle and how vapour compression cycles work,
the first section provides a brief discussion of terms,
relationships, and important system design considerations, as
follows:

 The main factors for equipment selection and system

design are provided, while giving an overview of
different types of equipment and their general
applications.
 Theory of the refrigeration cycle.
 Energy efficiency concepts are introduced.
 Relationships between cause and effect when it comes
to refrigeration system optimization.
 2. How This Guide Is Organized

Performance Optimization of Refrigeration

Equipment and Opportunity Strategies
Optimizing the energy performance of refrigeration equipment,
in most cases, requires that a “systems approach” be taken.
The guide considers factors on the refrigeration production
side, as well as the end-use side that can be adjusted or
changed in order to optimize energy efficiency and
performance.

The guide addresses the main components of a refrigeration

system and opportunities to improve the overall system
performance.

 Refrigeration control methods and energy implications

of each are discussed.
 Short modules address some of the most common
12 design and operations parameters.

The guide also addresses the key factors and issues in

determining the overall lifetime cost of procuring and
operating refrigeration equipment.

 Adjustable speed drives and how they can save energy

and money.
 What to look for when identifying inefficient systems.
 A refrigeration troubleshooting checklist, worksheets
and memory joggers.

Resources and References

The guide also has publication and internet references with
hyperlinks for many useful sources of assistance that can help
readers learn more about refrigeration systems.
 2. How This Guide Is Organized

Getting the Most from this Guide

There are many excellent textbooks and reference manuals
regarding refrigeration systems. This guide is not intended to
replace the reference books, but rather to supplement the
discussion regarding energy efficiency.

This guide has been written with you in mind. We have

adapted the material to accommodate the following:

 Learning styles that require short bursts of relevant

information to assimilate knowledge
 Need for practical knowledge in addition to the
theoretical knowledge the reader may or may not
already have
 Use of the Internet or online tools for learning new
skills or acquiring knowledge
 Reinforcement of key messages and “takeaway” 13
points

c. Related CEATI Publications

CEATI has published other research reports related to
refrigeration technology and utilization, including publications
shown in Table 2.
 2. How This Guide Is Organized

Table 2 CEATI Refrigeration Publications

CEATI CEATI Report Title

Report
Number
9129 U 858 Potential Electricity Savings in Ice Arenas and
Curling Rinks Through Improved Refrigeration
Plant (Volumes I & II)
9208 U 966 B A Food Industry Guide to CFC and HcFC
Refrigeration Phase-Out (Volume II)
9208 U 966 Capitalizing on the Energy Saving Opportunities
Presented by CFC and HCFC Phase-Out in Non-
Domestic Refrigeration (Volume I)
T011700 Advanced Supermarket Refrigeration/Heat
7005 Recovery Systems
T021700 Best Available and Emerging Refrigeration
7009 Technologies

14
 3. Introduction

3 INTRODUCTION
Refrigeration is the process of removing heat from a lower-
temperature zone and discarding it to a higher-temperature
zone. Heat naturally flows from hot to cold. Refrigeration is
therefore the opposite of the natural flow of heat. It has many
applications in everyday life including chilling, freezing, and
air-conditioning.

Refrigeration systems range in size from sub-horsepower to

tens of thousands of horsepower in capacity. This guide will
focus on small- to medium-sized systems, which, for the most
part, excludes ammonia-driven refrigeration equipment.

a. Common Refrigeration Applications in

Business
15
Cold Storerooms
Cold storerooms generally have the compressors and
condensers situated outside the room itself. A key factor is to
ensure adequate ventilation for air-cooled units to allow the
heat to dissipate.

Process Cooling
Refrigeration is commonly used in food and beverage and
plastics industries. Precise temperature control is necessary for
the health and safety of products, as well as the quality of parts
produced.
 3. Introduction

Standalone Units
In standalone refrigerators, display cabinets, or freezers, the
compressor and condenser are typically situated at the rear of
the cabinet. While the evaporator is generally located inside
the cooled volume, the condenser takes advantage of a large
side panel to maximize heat exchange.

Recreational
Refrigeration is used to supplement or to replace applications
for ice and snow-making in skating and curling rinks, and ice-
making operations. The vast majority of these systems are
ammonia-based.

16
 4. Theory Behind Refrigeration

4 THEORY BEHIND
REFRIGERATION
Modern refrigeration systems operate using a vapour
compression cycle. This cycle takes advantage of the following
five fundamental physical principles:

 The natural flow of heat is from a hot to a cold zone.

 In order to change the state of a substance from liquid
to gas through boiling or evaporation, heat energy is
required.
 In order to liquefy or condense a gas into a liquid, heat
must be removed.
 As the pressure increases, the boiling point or
condensing point generally increases.
 As the pressure decreases, the boiling point or
condensing point generally decreases. 17

a. Heat and Heat Transfer

Heat is a common form of energy produced from chemical or
physical sources. The heat contained in a substance is its
thermal or internal energy. Changes to this internal energy may
show up as a phase change between the solid, liquid or gaseous
state.

The substance may also have other forms of potential or

kinetic energy, depending on pressure, position and movement.
Enthalpy is the sum of these substances’ internal energy and
flow work. In most processes where there are steady-state or
no flow, enthalpy will be the quantity of heat gained or lost.
 4. Theory Behind Refrigeration

b. Boiling Points and Pressure

The temperature at which a liquid boils varies with the
pressure. As the pressure decreases in a system, so does the
boiling point. For example, at standard atmospheric pressure
(1.013 bar), water boils at 100°C. If the pressure is reduced to
0.2 atmospheres, the boiling point of water will be
approximately 60°C.

For a given substance, the boiling point is limited by the

critical temperature at the upper end, above which it cannot
exist as a liquid, and by the triple point at the lower end, which
is at the freezing temperature. At any point between these two
limits, if the liquid is at a pressure lower than its boiling
pressure, it will remain as liquid and will be sub-cooled below
the saturation condition. When the temperature is higher than
saturation, the substance will be a gas and superheated. If both
18 liquid and vapour are at rest in the same enclosure, and no
other volatile substance is present, the condition must lie on
the saturation line.

In order to operate the refrigerant at a lower temperature than

the product or process that needs to be cooled, the refrigerant’s
boiling temperature is controlled by varying the pressure. Most
commercial refrigerants are selected to operate within
specified temperature and pressure bands. Typically they have
boiling temperatures in the -10°C to -45°C range and
saturation pressures in the 1 to 5 atmosphere range.

c. Heat Transfer
Heat will naturally move from a hot body to a colder one
through one of the following three methods:
 4. Theory Behind Refrigeration

 Conduction, which occurs with direct contact

between the two bodies. Conduction through a
homogeneous material is directly proportional to the
area, thickness and conduction coefficient.

 Convection, which is indirect heat transfer through a

heat-carrying fluid. It requires liquid or gaseous fluid
to move between the hot and cold bodies.

 Radiation, which occurs mainly by infrared waves,

independent of direct or indirect contact. Radiation of
heat is proportional to the fourth power of the absolute
temperature and depends on the material, colour and
roughness of the surface.

d. Enthalpy
Enthalpy is commonly expressed as a total above absolute 19
zero, or any other base temperature which is convenient.

If a change of enthalpy can be detected as a change of

temperature, it is called sensible heat. Sensible heat is
expressed as specific heat capacity (kJ/kg K), or the change in
enthalpy per degree of temperature change.

When there is a change of state (solid to liquid, liquid to gas,

or vice versa) with no change of temperature, it is called latent
heat. This is expressed as kJ/kg but it varies with the boiling
temperature. Figure 1 shows the temperature enthalpy
relationship for water.
 4. Theory Behind Refrigeration

Temperature
Latent Heat of Sensible Heat of Latent Heat of
Melting – 334 KJ Liquid – 419 KJ Boiling – 2257 KJ

Enthalpy
Figure 1 Temperature Enthalpy Diagram for Water
20
Example

The specific enthalpy of water at 80°C, measured from a 0°C

base, is 334.91 kJ/kg. Find the average specific heat capacity
through the range of 0 to 80°C.

Average specific heat capacity = 334.91 / (80 – 0)

= 4.19 kJ/ (kg K)

e. Refrigeration System and Pulley

Analogy
The refrigeration process and pulley systems (see Figure 2)
have many similarities. In both cases, the objective is to move
 4. Theory Behind Refrigeration

an object—a physical object in the case of the pulley and a

heat differential in the case of refrigeration.

Double pulley - load

moves half as much as
Single pulley - load rope is pulled, but effort
moves as much as rope is halved.
is pulled.

Figure 2 Pulley Analogy

Table 3 illustrates the analogy between a pulley and a 21

refrigeration process.

Table 3 Analogy between Pulley and Refrigeration

Pulley Refrigeration System

Objective is to lift a weight from Objective is to transport heat
a lower level to a higher level. from a lower state to a higher
state.
As the weight to be moved As the amount of heat needing
increases, so too is the energy to be transferred increases, so
required. too is the amount of energy
required.
As the height through which the As the temperature differential
weight is lifted increases, more to be overcome increases, the
energy is required. more energy is required.
Mechanical design factors like Mechanical and system design
friction affect efficiency and features of a refrigeration
energy required by a pulley. system affect overall efficiency.
 4. Theory Behind Refrigeration

f. Basic Rules to Reduce Energy

Wastage
As with pulleys, there are three fundamental ways to minimize
the amount of energy required for a refrigeration process.

Avoid Removing More Heat than is Necessary

For example to refrigerate a hot soup, it is more effective to let
the soup cool to room temperature before putting it into the
refrigerator, assuming there are no health concerns. In this
way, about three quarters of the heat load could be reduced
compared to the alternative of putting boiling soup into the
refrigerator.

Minimize the Temperature Lift of the Refrigeration

System
22
In many industrial and commercial situations, varying loads
are situated together for ease of operation. Consequently the
refrigeration system is operated at the temperature necessary
for the coolest process requirement. As an example, if a
process is operated at say -5°C and the product only needs to
be cooled to 0°C, the “temperature lift” is 5°C higher than it
needs to be.

As a rule of thumb, a 1°C adjustment to refrigeration

temperature affects system energy consumption by 2 to 4%.

Optimize the Mechanical Design of the

Refrigeration Plant
Many components are incorporated into a refrigeration system.
By optimizing heat exchanger size and type, control systems,
 4. Theory Behind Refrigeration

and compressor, energy consumption can be reduced.

Adequate controls, appropriate set points and proper
equipment maintenance also play a key role for refrigeration
plants to achieve peak efficiency.

23
 4. Theory Behind Refrigeration

24
 5. The Refrigeration Cycle

5 THE REFRIGERATION CYCLE

Mechanical refrigeration is achieved in a closed system by
continuously circulating, evaporating, and condensing a set
supply of refrigerant. The evaporation happens at a low
temperature and low pressure. On the other hand, condensation
occurs at a high temperature and high pressure. This makes it
possible to transport heat from a low temperature to a high
temperature zone.

a. Refrigeration Thermodynamics
A simplified vapour compression refrigeration cycle pressure
enthalpy chart is illustrated in Figure 3.

25

Saturated
Pressure (bar)

liquid line

Saturated
vapour line

Enthalpy (kj/kg)
Figure 3 Pressure Enthalpy Chart
 5. The Refrigeration Cycle

The enthalpy (energy content) of a refrigerant changes with

changes to the pressure, temperature and physical state. At the
left section of the curve, the refrigerant is a saturated liquid,
while at the right section of the curve it is a saturated vapour.
Within the curve, the refrigerant exists as a saturated mixture
of liquid and vapour. Just left of the curve, the refrigerant is a
sub-cooled liquid, and to the right of the curve it is a
superheated vapour.

b. The Vapour Compression Cycle

The vast majority of refrigeration systems use the vapour
compression cycle, which has the following four main steps:

 Evaporation
 Compression
 Condensation
26  Expansion

Evaporation
Point 1 to 2: As a low-pressure liquid, the refrigerant absorbs
heat from its surrounding area, causing it to change state from
almost a saturated liquid to a saturated vapour. For many
systems, the refrigerant temperature is slightly superheated at
point 2.

Point 2 to 3: In almost every system, additional heat energy is

picked up from the surroundings between the evaporator and
compressor. This additional heat negatively impacts system
efficiency. Hence, superheating should be minimized during
the evaporation cycle in order to maximize efficiency.
 5. The Refrigeration Cycle

Compression
Point 3 to 4: The compressor takes the superheated vapour and
raises its pressure. This results in a large temperature increase
as some of the compression energy is transferred into the
refrigerant causing additional superheating.

Condensation
Point 4 to 5: The hot refrigerant vapour emits a small amount
of heat to the surroundings between the compressor and
condenser, which is good for system efficiency.

Point 5 to 6: High-pressure superheated refrigerant flows into

the condenser where it is first de-superheated (Point 5 to 5a)
and then converted into a saturated liquid (Point 5a to 6).
Cooling for the condenser is normally accomplished by using
water-cooled or air-cooled heat exchangers.
27
Point 6 to 7: Additional reductions in temperature results in
sub-cooling, and this is generally good for energy efficiency.

Expansion
Point 7 to 1: The high-pressure sub-cooled liquid refrigerant
passes through an expansion device. Consequently the pressure
is reduced, which results in the refrigerant temperature also
decreasing.
 5. The Refrigeration Cycle

c. Key Steps of Vapour Compression

Refrigeration
The primary refrigeration system components are illustrated in
Figure 4, and a short explanation of the process between points
follows.

Figure 4 Simplified Refrigeration System Components

(Graphic Courtesy UK Carbon Trust)
28

1 to 2: The refrigerant absorbs heat in the evaporator. The

source of heat can be anything or everything that surrounds the
evaporator.

2 to 3: A small amount of additional heat is absorbed by the

refrigerant in the suction line. This additional superheating
should be minimized by adding insulation to the refrigerant
line.

3 to 4: The compressor compresses the refrigerant vapour from

low to high pressure. In doing so, the refrigerant vapour heats
up.
 5. The Refrigeration Cycle

4 to 5: A small amount of heat is lost to the ambient air at the

discharge line. This heat loss should be maximized for optimal
efficiency.

5 to 6: Heat is released in the condenser as the refrigerant

changes state from a superheated vapour into a liquid at high
pressure. The heat energy that is released is picked up by
ambient air or by cooling water.

6 to 7: Liquid refrigerant flowing from the condenser to the

expansion device usually discharges heat to ambient air. As
this does not consume additional power, it benefits system
capacity and efficiency.

7 to 1: The pressure drop between the condenser and

evaporator is maintained using an expansion device. During
this process, the saturation temperature of the refrigerant also
reduces as the pressure drops.
29
d. Component Performance
Evaporator
The cooling ability for an evaporator is dependent on the
temperature difference between the medium being cooled and
the evaporating refrigerant. As the temperature difference
increases between the two, the rate of heat transfer also
increases. The design and size of the evaporator also influence
its efficiency.

Compressor
Compressor performance is influenced by the compressor
displacement, which is the volume of refrigerant moved over a
period of time (m3/s). It also depends on the temperature lift,
 5. The Refrigeration Cycle

which is the difference between the condensation and

evaporation temperatures. Compressor performance is also
influenced by refrigerant properties, as well as the temperature
of the superheated suction vapour.

e. Coefficient of System Performance

It stands to reason that the smaller the refrigeration load, the
lower the power consumption. Refrigeration load can be
lowered by minimizing or eliminating heat gains through the
following means:

 Walls, ceilings and floors of enclosed rooms or

cabinets
 Air changes through doors or open cabinets
 Heat produced from interior lights, fans, motors or
other devices
30  Heat from people or motive equipment used within the
refrigerated space

f. Measurement of Efficiency
Coefficient of Performance (COP) and Coefficient of System
Performance (COSP) are two measures used for refrigeration
efficiency. COSP is more commonly used as it takes into
account all ancillary loads (e.g. fan motors and pumps), as well
as the controls that are associated with the system. COP does
not take these loads into consideration and considers only the
performance of the core refrigeration system.

COSP is the refrigeration capacity (kW) divided by the

operating input power (kW).
 5. The Refrigeration Cycle

Theoretical efficiency for the refrigeration cycle is defined as

the heat extracted divided by the work input, or Coefficient of
Performance (COP). The mathematical calculation normally
involves using the Kelvin scale. Absolute zero temperature is
0°K or -273.15°C.

Example

Calculate the theoretical COP for when heat is removed at a

temperature of -10°C and discharged at a temperature of 30°C.

-10°C converts to 263 K, and 30°C converts to 303 K.

Ideal COP = 263 / (303 – 263)

= 8.8

This ideal COP implies that 8.8 times the input work can be
extracted through the refrigeration cycle.
31
g. Factors Impacting Efficiency
System efficiency varies in proportion to the temperature lift of
the refrigeration system.

 As the temperature lift is reduced, the refrigeration

compressor capacity increases.
 As the condensing temperature is lowered, the
compressor power input decreases.
 As evaporating temperature increases, so too does the
compressor power input; however, this power increase
is less than the capacity increase.

Temperature lift is reduced when one or both of the following

occur:
 5. The Refrigeration Cycle

 The condensing temperature is lowered.

 The evaporating temperature is raised.

Decreasing the temperature lift by 1°C will improve efficiency

and reduce operating costs by 2% to 4%. Temperature lift can
be reduced by increasing the evaporator temperature or by
decreasing the condenser temperature.

32
 6. Compressors

6 COMPRESSORS
The refrigeration compressor’s purpose is to draw low-
pressure refrigerant vapour in the evaporator and compress it
to the higher pressure required at the condenser.

The two most common types of compressors are positive

displacement and dynamic.

 Positive displacement types compress discrete

volumes of low-pressure gas by physically squeezing
the volumes, resulting in a pressure increase.
 Dynamic types increase the velocity of the low
pressure gas and then reduce it in such a manner so as
to result in an increased pressure. Dynamic
compressors are found in the very largest refrigeration
systems and are not discussed at length in this guide.
33
a. Positive Displacement Compressors
The three most common types of positive displacement
compressors used for refrigeration systems are the following:

 Reciprocating
 Screw
 Scroll

Reciprocating Compressors
Reciprocating compressors are the most widespread type used.
Refrigerant vapour from the suction is compressed by pistons
moving in a bore. Reciprocating compressors are commonly
available in a range of sizes, from a small, single-cylinder type
 6. Compressors

used in domestic refrigerators, to eight-cylinder models used in

industrial applications.

There are many types of capacity control with reciprocating

compressors, ranging from blocking the suction vapour line, to
recirculating the discharged vapour from the piston to the
suction vapour. The latter method is the least efficient, in that
the power input to the compressor is usually the same in part
load as it is in full load.

Screw Compressors
The screw compressor sweeps a volume through two rotors
that are meshed together. As the rotors turn inside the closely
fitted casing, the space becomes sealed and the gas is
compressed. Maintenance, adequate lubrication, cooling and
sealing between the working parts is very important. Screw
compressors do not have clearance volume, and there is no loss
34 of volumetric efficiency from re-expansion, as in a piston
machine. Leakage of refrigerant back to the suction via in-built
clearances is a main cause of reduced volumetric efficiency.

Capacity reduction for screw compressors can be effected by a

sliding block covering part of the barrel wall. This permits gas
to pass back to the suction, causing a variance to the working
stroke. Figure 5 shows a typical actual and ideal capacity
control curve for a screw compressor.
 6. Compressors

Full load power (%)

Actual

Ideal

Capacity (%)
Figure 5 Screw Compressor Capacity Control 35

Scroll Compressors
Scroll compressors are positive displacement machines that
compress refrigerants with two inter-fitting, spiral-shaped
scroll members. One scroll remains fixed while the other scroll
moves in orbit inside it.

The scroll has certain common features with the screw

compressor. Scroll compressors typically have a very low
leakage and heat transfer loss.

Scroll compressors also have flat volumetric curves which

enable them to deliver more cooling and heating capacity at
extreme conditions.
 6. Compressors

Capacity control using variable speed inverter drive is possible

for many scrolls.

b. Compressor Efficiency
The amount of gas pumped by the compressor is always less
than the physical displacement of the pistons in the cylinders.
Volumetric efficiency (VE) generally includes all the losses
affecting the flow rate of the compressor.

The energy efficiency of compression is defined with reference

to the ideal adiabatic compression process.

The type and size of a compressor can influence the

refrigeration system’s performance. Moreover, many
compressors need ancillary devices such as cooling fans,
which also consume power. In making a purchase selection, it
is important to factor in the energy consumption of all
36
associated equipment.

It is often advantageous to divide up the load between smaller

compressors for large loads. Operationally, this is
accomplished using control systems which match the overall
compressor capacity to the refrigeration load requirements. In
cases where the compressors are uneven in terms of size,
vintage, or manufacturer, control systems play an important
role. Keep in mind that frequent starting of compressors can
reduce both equipment life and reliability.

System optimization can benefit from the following:

 Using multiple smaller compressors rather than a

single, large compressor.
 6. Compressors

 Selecting a combination of different compressor sizes,

which allows the control system to mix and match for
the best refrigeration operation and performance.
 Using control systems and strategies to minimize part-
load operation. It is inevitably better to operate one
compressor at 100%, as opposed to running two
compressors at 50% each.

37
 6. Compressors

38
 7. Evaporators, Condensers and Expansion Valves

7 EVAPORATORS, CONDENSERS
AND EXPANSION VALVES
a. Evaporator Efficiency
For optimal evaporator efficiency, the evaporating temperature
should be as high as possible. Oil should not be allowed to
build up within the evaporator, and the tubes in a shell and
tube evaporator should be cleaned regularly so as to prevent
corrosion and fouling. Moreover, refrigerant flow through the
evaporator should be correctly controlled to make full use of
its capacity with minimum amount of superheat.

b. Defrosting Evaporators
The buildup of ice on the evaporator decreases overall system
efficiency when temperatures fall below 0°C. The three most 39
common ways to manage or remove the ice are the following:

 Electric Defrosting: This method periodically

switches on electric defrost heaters that are embedded
in the fin block. Keep in mind that this adds to system
electricity consumption.
 Natural Defrosting: If the ambient air temperature is
above 4°C, it can be circulated over the defrost block,
using fans.
 Hot Gas Defrosting: Hot discharge vapour is
circulated through the evaporator to melt the ice.
 7. Evaporators, Condensers and Expansion Valves

c. Energy Efficiency and Defrosting

Several factors are at play in regenerating energy efficiency of
the defrosting process, including:

 Applying the necessary defrost heat in the most

effective manner.
 Commencing a defrost operation following any
measurable loss of performance.
 Distributing the defrost heat evenly over the entire fin
block.
 Halting the defrost cycle as soon as the fin block is
free of ice.
 Keeping the evaporator temperature as high as
possible.
 Minimizing the fluid or refrigerated product’s ability
to absorb defrost heat.
40  Minimizing the level of humidity near the evaporator.
 Utilizing sensors and other instrumentation for
“defrost on demand”.

d. Condenser Efficiency
The three most common types of condensers employed in
refrigeration systems all have associated levels of energy
consumption:

 Air-cooled: requires fan power.

 Water-cooled: requires a circulating pump power and
usually a cooling tower.
 Evaporative: requires fan and pump power.
 7. Evaporators, Condensers and Expansion Valves

Lowering the condensing temperature generally results in

lower overall energy consumption. Condensing temperature
can be lowered by improving the heat transfer capability,
which includes the following:

 Keeping air-cooled condenser fin blocks free of

debris.
 Not using water-cooled condenser tubes that are
fouled, corroded or scaled.
 Keeping air and other non-condensables out of the
system.
 Allowing the condensing pressure to float with
ambient temperature to take advantage of the lower
ambient temperatures overnight and during winter.

e. Expansion Devices
Expansion devices are designed to reduce the pressure of the 41
liquid refrigerant to allow evaporation to occur. There are four
types of expansion device widely used in commercial and
industrial refrigeration:

 Capillary tubes and orifice plates

 Thermostatic, electronic or balanced port expansion
valves
 Float valves (high and low side)
 Hand expansion valve and level switch

For improved energy efficiency, expansion devices should be

clean and free of debris.
 7. Evaporators, Condensers and Expansion Valves

f. Capacity Control
Refrigeration systems are designed to have a maximum duty to
balance a calculated maximum load. For most of its
operational life, the system may work at some lower load
level. Capacity control can be achieved by many means.

Speed control is the most obvious method, but this requires an

inverter drive. Rotational speed can be reduced by two-speed
electric motors or by use of a variable speed drive to control
the motor speed. The lowest permitted speed is generally
dictated by the in-built lubrication system.

Multi-cylinder machines permit reduction of the working

swept volume by removing cylinders from service with
blocked suction or valve-lifting mechanisms.

42 g. Enclosed Motors
The vast majority of compressors in the market incorporate an
enclosed (hermetic) motor. This avoids or greatly reduces any
probability of slight leakage of refrigerant through the drive or
shaft gland.

The semi-hermetic or accessible-hermetic compressor has the

rotor of its drive motor integral with an extended crankshaft,
and the stator is fitted within an extension of the crankcase.

Small compressors can be fully hermetic, in that the motor and

all working parts are sealed within a shell. Because of the seal,
however, they are not very accessible for servicing. Hermetic
compressors are commonly found in domestic refrigerators,
freezers and other white goods appliances. The upper size limit
 7. Evaporators, Condensers and Expansion Valves

of the hermetic compressor is determined by production and

manufacturing methods.

DC motors are also used in some small compressors, and a

converter is required to convert the supply from the AC source.
In a global market, one advantage of this approach is that only
one DC motor is required for each model despite multiple
international AC supply voltages. Moreover, the DC motor is
universal and additionally provides variable speed capability.

h. Compressor Lubricating Oil

Lubricating oils from the compressor flow through the
refrigeration circuit with the refrigerant. It is vital that this oil
returns to the compressor, but in some cases, it can end up in
the evaporator. Oil coating the heat exchanger tubes within the
evaporator negatively impacts heat transfer and overall system
efficiency. 43
 7. Evaporators, Condensers and Expansion Valves

44
 8. Refrigerants

8 REFRIGERANTS
A refrigerant is the chemical compound or mixture that
physically transfers heat within the refrigeration circuit.

a. Refrigerant Characteristics
Although no single refrigerant possesses all of the ideal desired
properties, in selecting a refrigerant, the following
characteristics would be desirable:

 Chemically stable, compatible with construction

materials
 Critical temperature and triple point well outside the
working range
 Environmentally friendly
 High latent heat of vaporization 45
 High suction gas density
 Low cost
 Miscible with lubricants
 Non-corrosive, non-toxic and non-flammable

In response to environmental issues, there have been

significant changes in the use and selection of refrigerants
during the last 25 years. Prior to that, chlorofluorocarbon
(CFC) refrigerants had dominated the market since their
invention in the 1930s. CFC refrigerants had many desirable
properties; they were non-toxic and non-flammable, and had
good thermodynamic properties and oil miscibility
characteristics. The CFCs R12, R11, R114 and R502, together
with hydrochlorofluorocarbon (HCFC) R22, became the
dominant refrigerants for most commercial, residential and air-
conditioning sectors. Ammonia (R717) also has excellent
 8. Refrigerants

thermodynamic properties. With its lower cost compared to

CFCs, ammonia became the workhorse refrigerant for larger
industrial applications.

Environmental concerns have resulted in the development of

replacements for the chlorine-containing refrigerants.

b. Ozone Depletion Potential

The earth’s ozone layer filters most of the ultraviolet radiation
from the sun, which can be harmful to health. There were
serious concerns that the ozone layer was thinning, in large
part due to CFC emissions. The ozone depletion potential
(ODP) of a refrigerant represents its effect on atmospheric
ozone, and the CFC R11 is assigned an ODP index of 1.

The Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone

Layer was signed in 1987. The refrigeration industry rapidly
46
moved from CFCs to HCFC blends. At subsequent revisions of
the Protocol, a phase-out schedule for HCFCs was also
established. R22, an HCFC, has a far lower ODP than the
CFCs; under the Protocol, it, together with other HCFCs, will
be eliminated by 2030.

Chemical companies have since developed a range of

hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) to replace the chlorine-containing
CFCs and HCFCs. In general, HFCs have slightly worse
thermodynamic properties than R22, and do not exactly match
the performance of the refrigerants they are intended to
replace.

Although R134a, the first HFC to become commercially

available, is a close substitute to R12, other HFC refrigerants
now in use contain blends of two or three HFCs.
 8. Refrigerants

c. Refrigerant Applications
Future developments and environmental considerations could
restrict the use of HFCs. The refrigerants R134a and R407C
are primarily used for air conditioning and have replaced R22
in many applications.

 Since R134a has a relatively low pressure, the

compressor displacement needs to be about twice the
amount when compared to R22. R134a has been used
successfully in screw chillers with short tubing
lengths. R134a also has a niche application where
extra high condensing temperatures are required.
 R407C is a zeotropic mixture consisting of 23% R32,
25% R125 and 52% R134a. It has properties close to
those of R22.
 R404A is an HFC used mostly for commercial
refrigeration. It performs better than other HFCs in 47
low temperature applications and is suitable for single
stage compression, thus avoiding the requirement for
interstage cooling.
 R717, which is ammonia, has a long and proven
history as an industrial application refrigerant. It has
high toxicity and low flammability. Ammonia cannot
be used with copper or copper alloys, so refrigerant
piping and components have to be steel or aluminum.
 R290, propane and other hydrocarbons like butane are
being used in new low-charge systems where CFCs
and HCFCs have previously been employed. They
have clear flammable characteristics that must be
considered. Sealed refrigerant systems, such as
domestic refrigeration and unitary air conditioners, are
being designed with R290 in mind.
 8. Refrigerants

 R744 or carbon dioxide, which was an early

refrigerant, is once again attracting interest, especially
in the food and beverage industry. It has physical
properties that make it attractive for cooling and
refrigeration applications. However, because of its
operation at pressures of up to 130 bar, R744 systems
require highly resistant components that have already
been developed for mass production in many sectors.

Table 4 summarizes common refrigerants with respect to

environmental impacts, uses and key considerations.

d. Safety and Health Issues

This guide is not intended to be a comprehensive source of
health and safety information regarding refrigeration.
However, when dealing with any refrigerant or refrigeration
48 equipment, personal safety and the safety of others are
extremely important. Service work should only be performed
by qualified personnel. Attention should be paid to the toxicity,
flammability and asphyxiation potential of refrigerants.
Service and maintenance personnel should be familiar with
safety procedures and the necessary steps to follow during an
emergency. Procedures established by equipment and
refrigerant manufacturers should be followed.
 8. Refrigerants

Table 4 Common Refrigerants

Examples

Depletion

Warming
Potential

Potential
Global

issues
Ozone

Other
Uses
Type
CFC R12 High High Widely Phased out
R502 used in of production
R11 most
applications
until 1990
HCFC R22 Low High Widely To be
R409A used in phased out
R411B many of production
applications in 2015.
after 1999.
NH3 R717 Zero Very Used in Toxic and
Ammonia low industrial flammable,
and large reacts with 49
commercial copper.
systems
HFC R134a Zero High Started to Different
R404A be used in compressor
R407C place of oil required
R410C CFCs from Performance
R507 about 1990 of some
HFCs not as
good as
CFCs.
Hydrocarbon R600a Zero Low R290 used Flammable,
R290 in some
R1270 industrial
systems for
decades.
CO2 Carbon R744 Zero Low Widely Not in
dioxide used before widespread
the 1950s commercial
use
 8. Refrigerants

50
 9. Purchasing a New Refrigeration System

9 PURCHASING A NEW
REFRIGERATION SYSTEM
Here are some points to keep in mind when purchasing a new
refrigeration system.

Over its lifetime, a new refrigeration system will consume

electricity valued at several times more than the original
capital purchase cost. Hence, it is important to ensure that any
new equipment is as efficient as it is practical.

The following are some questions to ask when designing a new

refrigeration system:

 What type of process or product needs cooling?

 What is the required level of cooling?
 How long must the product be cooled for? 51
 Where is the best location for the refrigeration
equipment?
 Are there any foreseeable changes to product or
process refrigeration requirements?

To accompany an energy-efficient refrigeration system, also

remember to purchase energy efficient options such as the
following:

 Low-power lights
 Energy-efficient fans and motors
 Defrost-on-demand controls for evaporators
 Night blinds for food cases
 Strip curtains for storerooms
 Larger condensers that are capable of discharging
larger amounts of heat
 9. Purchasing a New Refrigeration System

It is important to also note that refrigeration requirements often

change over time; hence, a one-for-one replacement may not
be ideal for energy efficiency.

Lifetime Cost of Ownership

Refrigeration systems typically cost 8 to 10 times as much to
operate as they do to purchase. When evaluated on a life cycle
basis, there could be a significant variation between
refrigeration options from different manufacturers and
contractors.

When sourcing refrigeration systems, capital cost and

operating costs should be evaluated. Capital costs include the
initial cost for the refrigeration system and components.
Operating costs include electricity and expected operations and
maintenance (O&M) over the anticipated life of the
refrigeration equipment. Be sure to account for the power
52
consumed by ancillary equipment like auxiliary fans, pumps
and motors.

To evaluate the financial performance, financial calculations

should be done to determine the following:

 Payback period
 Net present value (NPV)
 Return on investment (ROI)
 Internal rate of return (IRR)

The NPV should always be a positive value, and when two or

more of the financial criteria are taken in context, one can
make the best decision regarding refrigeration system
selection.
 10. Industry Specific Refrigeration Efficiency Tips

10 INDUSTRY SPECIFIC
REFRIGERATION EFFICIENCY
TIPS
a. Supermarkets and Food Retail
Electricity consumption in retail supermarkets for refrigeration
requirements can cost 20 to 40% of the total electricity bill.
There are certain best practices that can be adopted:

 Avoid loading a case with product that is above its

desired storage temperature.
 Clean the appliance regularly for food and packaging
debris, especially near the air inlet and outlet.
 Consider using night lines on retail display cabinets at
nighttime. 53
 Avoid placing the appliance near a heater, oven or
other source of heat.
 Ensure adequate airflow for condensers.
 Only fill the case to the load line.
 Shield the appliance or case from direct sunlight.
 Thermostats should not be set to a temperature lower
than is required.

b. Manufacturing and Distribution

The plastics and food & beverage industries are prime
manufacturing sectors where refrigeration is used. The
following best practices should be observed:

 Use door strips and air locks to minimize heat gain.

 Maintain door seals in good operating condition.
 10. Industry Specific Refrigeration Efficiency Tips

 When loading product, avoid blocking airflow.

 Avoid loading warm product in a refrigerated zone.
 Thermostat set points should not be lower than
necessary.

Packaged Water Chillers

Packaged water chillers are generally used for space or process
cooling. These units are generally sold as complete systems
that are mounted on a single frame. They typically chill water
to approximately 5°C, and in the case of space cooling, the
chilled water passes through a fan coil unit.

For process-related requirements, the chilled water is

conditioned to approximately 0.5°C and is applied to a specific
process, such as cooling milk following pasteurization.

Additional energy savings can be realized by proper sizing of

54 compressors, appropriate control points, and variable speed
water pumping to match the required loads.
 11. Instrumentation

11 INSTRUMENTATION
Most refrigeration systems should be commissioned when first
installed or when a significant equipment overhaul is
completed.

In order to complete the commissioning, appropriate

instrumentation will be required. In some cases, refrigeration
equipment is pre-packaged with commissioning and
monitoring instrumentation.

Most refrigeration manufacturers, contractors and service

providers can advise on site-specific instrumentation
requirements.

For a refrigeration tune-up or commissioning, the following

measurements can be considered as the absolute minimum to
be taken and recorded: 55

 Ambient conditions
 Dry and wet bulb
 Refrigerant pressures and temperatures at:
o Expansion valve inlet
o Evaporator outlet
o Compressor suction
o Compressor discharge
 Secondary fluid temperatures at heat exchanger inlets
and outlets
 Pump, fan and filter pressures
 Settings of all adjustable controls
 Electric motor amps
 11. Instrumentation

56
 12. Low-Cost No-Cost Refrigeration Improvements

12 LOW-COST NO-COST
REFRIGERATION
IMPROVEMENTS
There are many operational and housekeeping practices and
procedures that can be implemented to improve energy
efficiency of a refrigeration system. Many of these practices
are “common sense”, but are often neglected. Table 5
summarizes common low-cost and no-cost measures that can
be implemented with most refrigeration systems in order to
reduce operating and energy costs.

Table 5 Low Cost No Cost System Improvements

Action Notes
Avoid  In some situations involving perishable
Overcooling goods, cold rooms are operated at lower 57
temperatures as a “safety factor” to buy
time in the event of equipment failure.
 This can put extra strain on the
refrigeration system, causing it to be less
reliable.
Avoid Overfilling  When an appliance or cold storage room
is overfilled, it can block the flow of cold
air and consume more energy.
Control Lighting  Lights add heat to the cooled space,
causing the refrigeration system to work
harder.
 Switch off lights in refrigerated spaces
when not required.
 If the lights are controlled by a switch
operating on the refrigerator door, ensure
that it is properly functional.
 12. Low-Cost No-Cost Refrigeration Improvements

Action Notes
Control the  Overcooling wastes energy and does not
Temperature to improve the longevity of a food product.
the Required  For every 1°C cooler than what is
Level necessary, electricity consumption
increases by 2 to 4%.
Ensure Door  Missing or improperly fitted seals allow
Seals are Fitting cold air to escape from the refrigerated
and Functional zone.
Install Night  Night blinds are an effective way to retain
Blinds cold air in display cabinets during store
closures.
Minimize Air  Air changes, which can amount to 30% of
Change Rate total heat load, can be minimized by
ensuring that doors are closed.
Optimize  Ice builds up on evaporators that operate
Evaporator below 0°C.
Performance  Regular defrosting helps to prevent ice
buildup
Reduce Heat  Heat gained from ancillary equipment can
58 Load be minimized by using more efficient
fans, motors and lights together with
effective control strategies.
Situate the  Avoid situating refrigeration equipment
Equipment to near heat sources like direct sunlight or
Minimize External radiators.
Heat Gains  Ensure that the condenser has adequate
ventilation.

a. System Energy Optimization Tips

Refrigeration system components and control points can be
used for overall system optimization. Elements include the
following:

 Use condensers with modestly larger capacity

readings than suggested by conventional practice.
 12. Low-Cost No-Cost Refrigeration Improvements

 Allow the condensing temperature to float down with

ambient temperature based on season of the year or
time of day.
 Ensure that condensers are not blocked so that cooling
water and or cooling air can flow effectively.
 Use a higher-rated or larger evaporator than
conventional practice suggests.
 Defrost the evaporator periodically when necessary.
 Choose the best type and size of compressor. This
depends on many factors including cooling load size,
type of refrigerant used, and temperature differentials.
 Too much or too little refrigerant has a significant
impact on temperature lift and system performance. In
some cases, systems that are overcharged with
refrigerant can consume more power than necessary
and also have the potential to lose more during leaks.
 Choice of refrigerant can also affect energy efficiency.
The most appropriate refrigerant choice is usually 59
dependent on the application and the type of
compressor.
 Aim to minimize the amount of superheat in the
suction vapour. The warmer the vapour becomes, the
less the capacity of the compressor. Optimization can
generally be achieved by insulating the suction line
and correctly controlling the expansion valve.
 Maximize the amount of liquid refrigerant sub cooling
before it enters the expansion device. This increases
system capacity without impacting power
consumption.
 Monitor control point settings, as these may have
drifted from optimum levels since system
commissioning.
 12. Low-Cost No-Cost Refrigeration Improvements

60
 13. Checklist for Operational and Maintenance
Improvements

13 CHECKLIST FOR
OPERATIONAL AND
MAINTENANCE
IMPROVEMENTS
a. Day-to-Day Operation
Here are some low-cost or no-cost measures that can be
implemented to reduce energy consumption in refrigeration
systems.

 Clean the condenser and evaporator on a regular basis.

 Defrost the evaporators as necessary.
 Ensure that correct refrigerant is in use.
61
 Ensure that the system is leak-free.
 Insulate the suction line.
 Size the condensers and evaporators to allow for the
lowest effective condensing temperature and the
highest practical evaporating temperature.
 Use high-efficiency motors for the compressor and
other fans and pumps.
 Where possible, pre-cool any material before placing
it into the refrigerated zone.

b. Routine Maintenance Tips

The following practices should be considered for
implementation in a routine maintenance program.
 13. Checklist for Operational and Maintenance
Improvements

 Carefully remove scaling and ice buildup on the

evaporator. If left to build up, it will hinder heat
extraction ability.
 Check for excessive noise or vibration from the
compressors, as this could indicate worn bearings
 Ensure that drip pipes or bleed valves are not iced up.
 Lubricate and service the compressor regularly, as per
manufacturer specifications.
 Periodically check compressor oil levels, together
with suction and discharge temperatures and
pressures.
 Repair damaged pipe insulation.
 Replace damaged fans promptly.
 Replace defective gauges.

c. Minimizing Parasitic Loads

62
Undesired strain can be put on a refrigeration system from
parasitic loads. In fact, these loads can use energy twice –
directly from consuming energy, and indirectly from
producing heat gain that must be extracted by the refrigeration
system.
 13. Checklist for Operational and Maintenance
Improvements

Table 6 Opportunities to Minimize Parasitic Loads in

Refrigeration Systems

Undesired Source Opportunities to Minimize the

of Parasitic Load Parasitic Loads
Air changes  Minimize air changes in cold
space by using good practices of
door management and
dehumidification.
Cold room fans &  Use energy efficient fans, pumps
pumps and motors
 Consider variable speed drives
 Operate only when required
Heat gains through  Check (and repair) insulation
insulation regularly
Lighting  Use energy efficient lighting
 Turn off lights when not required
Machinery in cold  Minimize the use of machinery in 63
spaces the refrigerated space
Personnel  Keep occupancy in refrigerated
space to minimum
 13. Checklist for Operational and Maintenance
Improvements

64
 14. Diagnosis Methodology for System Optimization

14 DIAGNOSIS METHODOLOGY
FOR SYSTEM OPTIMIZATION
a. Troubleshooting and Fault Tracing
Refrigeration system faults can be categorized into two general
classes:
1. Sudden catastrophe of a mechanical breakdown.
2. Slow fall-off of performance.
Slow fall-off performance can generally be detected as a
malfunction at an early stage, and can lead to a breakdown if
not corrected early enough. An experienced refrigeration
technician will often know where to look and what corrective
actions may be appropriate.

Fault tracing is a multistep process of deduction, with the end 65

goals of attaining normal operation and recording the
circumstances. Fault tracing includes the following:
 Detection of abnormal operation.
 Applying knowledge of the system to track down the
root cause.
 Observing the operating conditions.
 Identifying the fault.
 Deciding how severe the fault is, and how it can be
rectified.
 Taking action to repair the fault.
 Testing the system once repairs are implemented.
 Recording the cause and solution in the refrigeration
system log.
 14. Diagnosis Methodology for System Optimization

b. Refrigeration Logs and Records

Many refrigeration system operators do not keep adequate or
detailed equipment performance logs. Operating logs are
important in that they allow for the evaluation of equipment
performance and serve as a tool to characterize potential
system deficiencies.

The following parameters are suggested as the minimum to be

included for simple vapour compression refrigeration system
log books:
 Inlet air and water temperature of the condenser and
evaporator
 Suction and discharge pressure of the compressor
 Refrigerant temperature at the inlet of compressor and
outlet of evaporator
66  Refrigerant liquid temperature before the expansion
valve
 Power input
 Outlet temperature of the compressor

With all of these measurements, the following relevant

parameters for evaluating a compressor can be calculated:
 Coefficient of Performance (COP)
 Refrigeration system capacity
 Sub-cooling
 Superheat
 Compressor efficiency together with evaporator and
condenser temperature differences.
 15. Commissioning and Maintenance

15 COMMISSIONING AND
MAINTENANCE
Commissioning is unfortunately often overlooked, but it is an
important step to ensure that refrigeration systems operate
reliably and efficiently.

 The objective of commissioning is to ensure that the

equipment meets with a specified set of conditions for
which it was designed.
 Commissioning of a refrigeration system typically
starts from the stage of equipment placement, and
ends with the development of standard operating
procedures for startup, operation and shutdown.

Maintenance is the ongoing effort necessary to ensure that a

commissioned plant continues to deliver correct performance; 67
it includes inspections designed to indicate signs of
deterioration prior to any noticeable effects.

a. Baseline Specification
When specifying the refrigeration system requirements, the
owner and the contractor/vendor must address several
parameters, including the following:

 The process or product to be cooled

 The location where the product or process will be
located
 Total required cooling capacity during normal and
extreme conditions
 Maximum design and normal ambient cooling
temperatures
 15. Commissioning and Maintenance

 Expected power input for the compressor and

auxiliaries at the maximum and normal expected
conditions
 Part load (daily or seasonal) requirements
 Control boundaries and limits
 The conditions of the refrigeration system during
normal operation, including condensing, evaporation,
superheating and sub-cooling
 Use of simplified block flow diagrams to plan for and
record refrigeration plant performance

b. Commissioning
The act of commissioning should take place under the
direction of a single competent authority—main contractor, a
consultant or the user. This authority should have copies of all
major equipment ratings and the manufacturer’s instructions or
68 startup guides.

Commissioning Report
The commissioning report should include the following:

 Equipment specification listing, including cooling

capacity, operating conditions and boundaries
 Circuit diagrams for refrigeration and electrical
equipment
 Refrigerant charge and process conditions
 Initial set points for the controls and safety devices
 Commissioning and operating instructions for all
major components
 Actual site tests performed, such as pressure, system
tightness and electrical tests
 15. Commissioning and Maintenance

Commissioning Process
The commissioning process involves several steps including
the following:

 The commissioning process begins by checking that

the installed equipment is in accordance with the
specified design. This includes a review of piping
installation, heat exchanger cleanliness, water circuits
and filters, compressor mountings, correct connection
of safety and pressure controls, and correct wiring and
control sequence.
 The next stage is to preset as many controls and
protection devices as possible with their intended set
points.
 Next, in the absence of refrigeration equipment
operating, the pump and fan flows should be evaluated
using flow meters and pressure differentials. 69
 The refrigerant charge should have been added
according to the weight specified for the system.
 At this point, the entire system is turned on and left to
operate for a shakedown period, which may last from
a few hours to several days depending on the nature
and complexity of the system.
 During the shakedown period, components should be
checked for vibrations, leaks or other malfunction.
 In the concluding commissioning stage, readings
should be recorded and compared with the
specification and design figures.
o Ambient conditions, including wet and dry bulb
temperatures.
o Refrigerant pressures and temperatures at
expansion valve inlet, evaporator outlet, and
compressor suction and discharge.
 15. Commissioning and Maintenance

o All secondary fluid temperatures at heat

exchanger inlets and outlets.
o The pressures for pumps, fans and filters.
o Electric motor amperage.

Preventative Maintenance
The purpose of preventative or planned maintenance is to
ensure that the refrigeration system operates reliably and
efficiently. The refrigeration system should remain leak-tight
in order to maintain efficient operation and to reduce the
incidence of outages.

Preventative maintenance programs have determined that the

following points can be the principal causes for system
performance deterioration:

 Accumulated dirt on air filters increases the resistance

70 and leads to reduced air flow.
 Fouling of air or water-cooled condenser raises the
condensing temperature and increases compressor
power consumption.
 Incorrect refrigerant charge can lead to prolonged
operation at below-optimal conditions. Refrigerant
loss causes a reduction in the wet surface in the
evaporator and a reduction in evaporating
temperature.
 Excessive pressure and temperature fluctuations can
be caused by a regular expansion valve operation or
adjustment.
 16. Refrigeration Performance Measurements

16 REFRIGERATION
PERFORMANCE
MEASUREMENTS
Depending on the resources available in the complexity of the
refrigeration system, there can be two strategies implemented
to measure the performance of a refrigeration system.

Strategy One – Indirect Diagnostic

This is the simpler of the two strategies. It involves close
examination of specific components (e.g. evaporators) and
inference of a specific fault or incorrect operating strategy.
Using this method, one would take an instantaneous
measurement or observation of the specific parameter and
compare it to an expected value or consequence at some point
in the refrigeration system. By understanding the relationship 71
between cause and effect, one can diagnose or zero in on a
specific equipment or set point efficiency in the system.
Corrective action may be then taken accordingly to eliminate
the energy inefficient equipment or operating practice.
Figure 6 illustrates the common placement points for
temperature and pressure measurement instrumentation.
 16. Refrigeration Performance Measurements

72 Symbol Parameter Comments

TEin and Cooling load Process stream temperatures
TEout temperatures at inlet and exit of the
evaporator.
TCin and Heat rejection Fluid temperatures at inlet
TCout temperatures and exit of the condenser (air
or cooling water).
Tamb Ambient Dry bulb for air-cooled
temperature condensers, wet bulb for
evaporative or water cooled
condensers.
Ps and Pd Compressor Gauge pressures at
Ts and Td suction and compressor suction and
discharge discharge. Actual refrigerant
pressures and vapour temperature at same
temperatures locations.
 16. Refrigeration Performance Measurements

Tliq Liquid Temperature of liquid in liquid

temperature of line, after the condenser and
refrigerant receiver but before the
leaving expansion valve.
condenser
L% Plant load Measured in terms of
compressor loading.
PowC and Power or Amps The power being absorbed by
PowA compressor/s and main
auxiliaries.
Figure 6 – Suggested Points for Indirect Performance
Measurement

By far, the most critical measurements for isolating and

diagnosing potential faults are the pressure gauges.

In order for this method to be successful, it is important to

have access to plant commissioning data or recently audited
performance data, as this will serve for the reference case. This
strategy can be completed on an as-required basis, and it 73
provides a snapshot of actual conditions.

Strategy Two – Direct Diagnostic

The second approach builds upon strategy one and is
performed over a longer period of time. In addition, this
strategy requires more investment in instrumentation, and time
to record and analyze data. This method requires that
electricity sub-metering equipment be installed, and that it
tracks refrigeration performance over a longer period of time.
The strategy calls for more time commitment and is often part
of an ongoing energy management and performance
optimization program. It allows for positive proof that the
performance deviation is occurring in the refrigeration system,
and it also helps to quantify and justify corrective actions.
Moreover, once the corrective actions have been implemented,
 16. Refrigeration Performance Measurements

this strategy can be used to measure the effectiveness of such

changes.

In order for the direct diagnostic method to be effectively used,

the refrigeration system should be operating in a steady state
mode. With a direct diagnostic method, kWh meters are
normally used. Energy consumption for the compressor is
measured, and a separate measurement is taken for auxiliary
equipment. In some cases, the auxiliary equipment operates at
a constant level regardless of the refrigeration system output.
Some practitioners prefer to add the energy consumption for
the refrigeration equipment itself with the auxiliaries.

The direct diagnostic method uses long-term measurements

and can typically be done on a weekly basis for most food and
beverage, plastics and other small commercial operations.

For longer-term trends, one can identify approximately a point

74 at which an increase or decrease in system performance
occurred. Through further investigation, one can uncover
planned or unplanned changes that were made and the
consequential impact on COP.

a. Cause and Effect - Symptoms to Look

For
Condensers
Is the compressor discharge pressure too high? This may
indicate that the condenser or heat exchanger might not be
functioning or controlled correctly.
 16. Refrigeration Performance Measurements

Evaporator
Is the compressor suction pressure too low? The lower the
suction pressure, the lower the system efficiency. Moreover, as
suction pressure is lowered, the amount of available cooling
also decreases.

Compressor
Compressor faults are generally more challenging to detect. In
some cases, compressor problems are related to mechanical
issues within the compressor that cause undesired blockages
that lead to pressure drops.

Expansion Valve
When the expansion valve is open too much, it can lead to an
undesired bypass of high-pressure vapour through the valve.
The opposite is true in that, when the valve is closed too much, 75
the evaporator is starved of liquid refrigerant.

Control Systems
There can be multiple faults associated with control systems,
and it is important to always check settings and control points.
 16. Refrigeration Performance Measurements

76
 17. Refrigeration Audit Assessment Worksheet

17 REFRIGERATION AUDIT
ASSESSMENT WORKSHEET
The refrigeration inspection measures and checklists in this
chapter were adapted from the CIPEC Energy Efficiency
Planning and Management Guide. The checklists are divided
into Housekeeping Measures and Low Cost Measures. The
checklists can be adapted to a variety of refrigeration plant
situations.

77
 17. Refrigeration Audit Assessment Worksheet

a. Housekeeping Measures
Action What to Action if Action if No
Look For Yes
Check heat- Are tubes and Check Clean
transfer surfaces periodically to surfaces;
surfaces clean? maintain schedule
(e.g. standard, regular
evaporators more cleaning.
and frequently if
condensers) the operating
. environment is
not clean.
Check Is insulation Check every Repair or
insulation on adequate, dry six months to replace
refrigerant and intact? maintain damaged
piping and standard. insulation; if
exterior of necessary, add
evaporators. more insulation
78 to reduce heat
gain.
Check Are settings Calibrate Set the
thermostat correct? thermostats thermostat to
settings. every six the highest
months. acceptable
operating
temperature.
Calibrate every
six months.
Check Is refrigerant Check Add or remove
refrigerant charge regularly to refrigerant.
charge. correct? maintain Recheck
standard. periodically.
 17. Refrigeration Audit Assessment Worksheet

Action What to Action if Action if No

Look For Yes
Check air Is airflow Remove No action
movement around the restriction or required.
around condenser relocate
condensing restricted? condenser.
units and Follow
cooling manufacturer’s
towers. recommendati
ons.
Check Do heating Relocate No action
operation of and cooling thermostat, required.
heating and systems isolate
cooling operate process.
systems. simultaneousl
y in the same
area?

79
 17. Refrigeration Audit Assessment Worksheet

b. Low-Cost Measures
Action What to Action if Action if No
Look For Yes
Investigate Can de- Implement the No action
possibility of superheating most cost- required.
de- be used to effective
superheating. reduce method.
condensing
pressures?
Investigate Can head Determine the Investigate
possibility of pressure be lowest limiting factors.
using floating reduced pressure that Consider using
head without can be used, refrigerant
pressure. adversely and reset liquid pressure
affecting the accordingly. booster pumps
system? to overcome
line pressure
losses and
80 thermal
expansion
valve pressure
drop.
Examine Is there a cool Consider No action
location of air exhaust moving required.
outdoor opening? condenser coil
condenser into cool air
coil. stream.
Review Can Reset No action
evaporator evaporator evaporator required.
temperature. temperature be temperature
increased as high as
without possible.
adversely
affecting the
process?
 17. Refrigeration Audit Assessment Worksheet

Action What to Action if Action if

Look For Yes No
Review Does system Install No action
cooling operate at part automatic required.
loads. load for part of controls to
the day? provide
flexibility and
to use higher
evaporator
temperatures
during part-
load
conditions.
Review Can the Change No action
production production schedule to required.
cycle. cycle be run the system
rescheduled to during off-
off-peak peak hours.
hours? 81
 17. Refrigeration Audit Assessment Worksheet

82
 Appendix A – System Assessment Memory Jogger

APPENDIX A –SYSTEM
ASSESSMENT MEMORY JOGGER
 Calibrate and adjust controls for actual load and
ambient conditions.
 Commission system, and keep operating records.
 Consider thermal storage.
 Install heat recovery equipment.
 Match the size of principal refrigerant components.
 Maximize system effectiveness for operating load and
ambient conditions.
 Minimize cooling loads.
 Monitor system operations periodically.
 Optimize running conditions.
 Source and install components based on lifetime
operating costs. 83
 Use the correct refrigerant.
 Appendix A – System Assessment Memory Jogger

84
 Appendix B – Refrigeration Codes and Standards

APPENDIX B – REFRIGERATION
CODES AND STANDARDS
Depending on the type of refrigeration equipment and the
location involved, several national and international standards
may apply. For reference, listed below are some of the more
pervasive standards.

Canadian Standards Association (CSA)

[Link]

 B52-05, Mechanical Refrigeration Code

 CAN/CSA-C22.2 NO. 120-M91 (R2008)
Refrigeration Equipment
 CAN/CSA-C827-98 (R2008) Energy Performance
Standard for Food Service Refrigerators and Freezers
 C22.2 NO. 140.3-M1987 (R2004) Refrigerant- 85
Containing Components for Use in Electrical
Equipment
 CAN/CSA-C657-04 Energy Performance Standard for
Refrigerated Display Cabinets (Merchandisers)

International Organization for Standardization

(ISO)
[Link]

 TC 86/SC 1 Safety and environmental requirements

for refrigerating systems
 TC 86/SC 2 Terms and definitions
 TC 86/SC 3 Testing and rating of factory-made
refrigeration systems (excluding systems covered by
ISO/TC 86/ SC 5, SC 6 and SC 7)
 Appendix B – Refrigeration Codes and Standards

 TC 86/SC 4 Testing and rating of refrigerant

compressors
 TC 86/SC 6 Factory-made air-cooled air-conditioning
and air-to-air heat pump units
 TC 86/SC 7 Testing and rating of commercial
refrigerated display cabinets
 TC 86/SC 8 Refrigerants and refrigeration lubricants

Air-Conditioning, Heating, and Refrigeration

Institute (AHRI)
[Link]

 AHRI 420-2008: Performance Rating of Forced-

Circulation Free-Delivery Unit Coolers for
Refrigeration
 AHRI 1110-2006: Performance Rating of Mechanical
Transport Refrigeration Units
86  AHRI 1120-2007: Acoustical Test Methods and
Sound Power Rating Procedures for Transport
Refrigeration Equipment
 ANSI/AHRI 1140-2006: Sound Quality Evaluation
Procedures For Air-Conditioning and Refrigeration
Equipment
 ARI 130-1988: Graphic Electrical/Electronic Symbols
for Air-Conditioning and Refrigeration Equipment

American Society for Testing and Materials

(ASTM)
[Link]

 E479-91(2006) Standard Guide for Preparation of a

Leak Testing Specification
 Appendix B – Refrigeration Codes and Standards

 F2520-05 Standard Specification for Reach-in

Refrigerators, Freezers, Combination
Refrigerator/Freezers, and Thaw Cabinets
 F2143-04 Standard Test Method for Performance of
Refrigerated Buffet and Preparation Tables
 F2432-04 Standard Specification for Ice-Making
Machines, Icemaker-Dispensers, and Ice Dispensing
Equipment
 F2442-07 Standard Guide for Layout of Ice Arena

87
 Appendix B – Refrigeration Codes and Standards

88
 Appendix C – Conversion Factors

APPENDIX C – CONVERSION
FACTORS
Area 1 in2 = 645.2mm2
1 ft2 = 0.0929 m2
Density 1 lb/ft3 = 16.02 kg/m3
Gravitational 32.2 feet per second per second
Constant 9.81 meters per second per second
Length 1 in = 25.4 mm
1 ft = 0.3048 m
Mass 1 oz. = 28.35 g
1 lb = 0.4536 kg
Power 1 hp = 0.7457 kW
Pressure 1 in W.G. = 0.2484 kPa W.G. @ 68°F
1 in Hg = 3.386 kPa, Hg @ 32°F
1 psi = 6.895 kPa
1 kPa = 1000 N/m2
1 atm = 14.696 psi
1 bar = 14.504 psi
89
1 in Hg = 13.63 in W.G.
Temperature 1 °F = 0.556 °C
0 °C Corresponds to 32 °F, 273.15 K
and 491.7 R
For °F to °C : TC = (TF - 32) × .556
For °F to °R : TR = TF + 459.7
For °C to °K : TK = TC + 273.2
 Appendix C – Conversion Factors

Velocity 1 fpm = 5.08 × 10-3 m/s

1 ft/s = 0.3048 m/s
Volume Flow 1 CFM = 0.4719 × 10-3 m3/s
1 Imperial GPM = 0.2728 m3/hr = 4.546
L/min
1 US GPM = 0.2271 m3/hr = 3.785
L/min
Volume 1 ft3 = 0.02832 m3
1 Imperial Gallon = 4.546 L
1 US Gallon = 3.785 L
1 L = 1 × 10-3 m3
1 US Gallon = 0.13368 ft3
1 Imperial Gallon = 1.20095 US Gallon

90
 Appendix D –Glossary of Common Refrigeration Terms

APPENDIX D – GLOSSARY OF
COMMON REFRIGERATION
TERMS
Term Definition
Air curtain A steady stream of air (generated by a fan)
that acts as a barrier to separate environments
at different temperatures, without blocking the
movement of people or objects. Air curtains
are used in open-fronted refrigerated display
cabinets to retain chilled air within the
cabinet’s volume while still allowing ready
access to the stored products.
Ambient The temperature of the outside air.
temperature
Ancillary load Load created by secondary equipment. In the
case of refrigeration, this may be the
additional heat created by lighting or 91
evaporator fan motors in refrigerated space.
Automated System that continually monitors for the
leak detection presence of airborne refrigerant gases and
generates an alarm when excessive levels are
detected, indicating leakage of refrigerants
from the refrigeration system.
Auxiliary Energy used by devices in a refrigeration
energy system other than the main compressors;
usually, this refers to pumps and fans.
CFC Chlorofluorocarbon. This is a type of
refrigerant consisting of chlorine, fluorine and
carbon.
 Appendix D –Glossary of Common Refrigeration Terms

Coefficient of A way of expressing the efficiency of a

Performance refrigeration plant. Defined as cooling carried
(COP) out divided by energy input. Compressor
suction and discharge pressures. The
pressure at the inlet and outlet of a
refrigeration compressor.
Compressor A machine which raises the pressure of a gas,
such as a refrigerant vapour. This will usually
raise the temperature and energy level of the
gas.
Condenser A heat exchanger in which a gas, such as a
refrigerant vapour, cools and then condenses
to liquid form.
Cooling load The total amount of cooling carried out by a
refrigeration plant – usually made up of
several individual heat loads.
Defrost-on- A control system that automatically initiates a
demand defrost sequence when an appropriate amount
control of ice has built up on the evaporator surface.
92 Discharge The high pressure exit from a compressor..
Evaporator A heat exchanger in which a liquid refrigerant
absorbs energy from its surroundings and
vapourizes, producing a cooling effect.
Expansion A valve through which liquid refrigerant passes
valve and is reduced in pressure and temperature.
Flash The process of liquid refrigerant being
vaporized by a sudden reduction of pressure.
Halocarbons A family of primary refrigerants based on
hydrocarbon molecules in which some or all of
the hydrogen has been replaced by either
fluorine or chlorine. Halocarbons include
CFCs, HCFCs and HFCs
HCFC Hydrochlorofluorocarbon. A primary refrigerant
of the halocarbon family.
Heat A device for transferring heat between two
exchanger physically separate streams.
 Appendix D –Glossary of Common Refrigeration Terms

Heat of The amount of heat added to the refrigerant

compression vapour by the compressor during the process
of raising the pressure of the refrigerant to
condenser conditions.
Heat rejection The temperature at which a refrigeration plant
temperatures rejects heat from the condenser, usually into
ambient air or cooling water.
Helical-rotary A type of compressor that uses two mated
compressor rotors to trap the refrigerant vapour and
compress it by gradually shrinking the volume
of the refrigerant.
Hermetic A type of compressor that has the motor
compressor sealed within the compressor housing. The
motor is cooled by refrigerant.
Hot gas A method used to prevent evaporator freeze-
bypass up by diverting hot, high-pressure refrigerant
vapour from the discharge line to the low-
pressure side of the refrigeration system.
Liquid line A pipe that transports refrigerant vapour from
the condenser to the evaporator in a 93
mechanical refrigeration system.
Positive- A class of compressors that works on the
displacement principle of trapping the refrigerant vapour and
compressing it by gradually shrinking the
volume of the refrigerant.
Pressure– A graphical representation of the properties of
enthalpy chart a refrigerant, plotting refrigerant pressure
versus enthalpy.
Receiver A vessel used to store a fluid (liquid or gas)
usually at pressure. In a refrigeration system,
the most common are high-pressure receivers,
located after the condenser. Some systems
also utilize a low-pressure receiver located
before the compressor suction.
Reciprocating A type of refrigeration compressor using a
compressor piston to compress vapour trapped in a
cylinder.
 Appendix D –Glossary of Common Refrigeration Terms

Refrigerant The working fluid of the refrigeration system

which absorbs heat in the evaporator and
rejects it in the condenser.
Refrigerant Most types of refrigeration system are prone to
leakage some degree of refrigerant leakage. This can
cause a loss of cooling performance,
excessive energy consumption and damage to
the environment.
Screw A type of refrigeration compressor using a
compressor rotating screw to trap a volume of vapour and
compress it.
Suction The entry point for vapour into a compressor.
Suction A strainer at the inlet of a compressor
strainer designed to prevent damage caused by small
objects entering the compressor.
Superheat A thermodynamic term referring to a vapour at
a temperature above the boiling point at the
prevailing pressure.
Vapour A type of refrigeration cycle using a
94 compression compressor to remove low-pressure vapour
cycle from an evaporator, where it has absorbed
heat, and deliver it to a condenser at a higher
pressure.
Water cooled A heat exchanger used to condense
condenser refrigerant vapour using cooling water.
 Appendix E – Key Sector System Efficiency Opportunities

APPENDIX E – KEY SECTOR

SYSTEM EFFICIENCY
OPPORTUNITIES
a. Ice Rinks
Note: Although the primary focus of this guide is on non-
ammonia-based refrigeration systems, the following energy
efficiency opportunities are presented for ice rinks, which use
ammonia-based refrigeration predominately. The opportunities
were adapted from documents published by Manitoba Hydro.
 Reductions in radiated heat loads, convective heat
loads (rink temperature and humidity), brine pump
work, and ice resurfacing have the greatest impact as
they constitute the largest energy components for the
refrigeration plant. Proper control of ice and ice 95
thickness are key elements.
 For most heated rinks, the radiant loads combined
with rink temperature and humidity account for almost
two-thirds of the total heat gain load on the
refrigeration system.
 Water purity is critical for the quality of ice produced.
Ions and dissolved salts lower the natural freezing
point and require more refrigeration to freeze.
 From an energy efficiency perspective, keep the
temperature of the ice surface as high as possible.
Hockey rinks run with 16°F (-9°C) brine returning at
18°F (-8°C). Curling and figure skating ice runs with
22°F (-6°C) brine returning at 24°F (-4°C). Each
degree Fahrenheit that the ice temperature can be
raised reduces the load on the ice plant by up to 2%.
 Appendix E – Key Sector System Efficiency Opportunities

 Brine at a specific gravity of 1.20 to 1.22 usually

results in optimum energy use.
 When the compressor is bringing the temperature of
the ice down again, from 25°F to 18°F (-4°C to -8°C),
keep the number of lights on and other pieces of
equipment operating to an absolute minimum to avoid
setting a new peak demand.

Other energy efficiency measures include:

 Desiccant Dehumidification: Humidity causes the
compressors to run longer. Desiccant dehumidification
generally uses less energy than compressors, which
are not required to overcome the refrigeration load
caused by humidity.
 Low E Ceiling: A proven method of saving energy is
to use Low E (emissivity) ceilings. The ceiling
material reduces heat radiation on the ice surface.
96  Heat Recovery Systems: Heat is a “waste” product
for all compressors. Hot gas from the compressor
discharge can be diverted to a heat exchanger for
functions like space heating, melting the snow pit, ice
resurfacing water tank, and domestic water supply.
 Caulking and weather-stripping the building shell.
 Consideration of brine pump cycling or 2-speed
pumping.
 Installation of timers on ventilation equipment.
 Keeping the ice thin, ideally 1 in. (25 mm) thick.
 Matching lighting levels to facility use.
 Reducing flood water temperatures to 130°F (54°C).
 Use low emissivity (low E) ceilings.
 Appendix E – Key Sector System Efficiency Opportunities

b. Supermarkets and Food & Beverage

Sectors
Supermarkets are very energy intensive and may have an
average specific energy consumption of 1,000 kWh/m2/yr.
Conventional refrigeration equipment can account for about
half of this energy consumption and often requires large
refrigerant charges: 1000 to 2500 kg of HCFC or HFC per
store. Secondary loop refrigeration technology systems for
supermarkets have been developed and are supported by
Natural Resources Canada. Secondary fluid loops are used on
freezing and refrigeration (evaporators) zones, as well as on
the heat rejection (condensers) sides. Primary refrigerant losses
can be minimized, as it is only circulated in a small section of
the supermarket and not the entire supermarket.

Many supermarket refrigerated display cases are open-fronted.

This also increases the heat load on the refrigeration 97
equipment. Components are available to reduce the load,
including strip curtains, sliding doors, covers and night blinds.
Use properly fitted curtains, sliding doors and covers to reduce
the heat load on the refrigerant. This lowers the variation in the
refrigerated product’s temperature.

 Check door seals. Faulty or improperly fitting seals

can result in cool air leakage from the conditioned
space, resulting in the refrigeration system working
harder.
 Use night blinds. Locate the case unit to minimize
heat gains from sunlight and other heat sources.
Ensure that the condenser has ample ventilation, and
install night blinds where practical. Night blinds can
be an effective tool to retain cooled air in open display
cabinets when the store is closed.
 Appendix E – Key Sector System Efficiency Opportunities

 Control lighting. Ensure that internal lights in

refrigerated spaces are turned off when not required.
In addition to saving energy for the lights, this also
saves the refrigeration energy used to remove the
excess heat.
 Avoid overfilling cabinets and conditioned spaces.
Overfilling the appliance reduces the cold airflow
around the products, and reducing the performance
and efficiency of the refrigeration system.
 Reduce heat loads by cooling foodstuff at the
appropriate temperature. For example, pre-cool a
product before using a refrigeration system. It takes
less energy to cool a product that is at ambient
temperature than when it comes out of a cooking
process at say 100°C.
 Reduce the head pressure for the condenser
system. Practical steps include the following:
98 o Increasing the condenser surface area, which
lowers the condensing temperature.
o Ensuring the condenser is not blocked or
corroded.
o Keeping a steady stream of airflow through the
condenser.
o Removing non-condensable gases from the
refrigerant.

 Improve system part-load performance. Use the

capacity control system to reduce the level of cooling
when a refrigeration plant needs to run at part-load.
 Reduce the power consumed by auxiliary fans and
pumps. The operation of refrigeration systems also
depends on auxiliary pumps and fans that are used to
remove heat from heat exchangers, evaporators and
condensers. During periods of low cooling demand,
Appendix E – Key Sector System Efficiency Opportunities

the auxiliary electrical load can become significant.

Auxiliary fans and pumps can be designed to be
modular and turned on depending on the overall
refrigeration demand.

99
 Appendix E – Key Sector System Efficiency Opportunities

100
 Appendix F – Bibliography and Web Links

APPENDIX F – BIBLIOGRAPHY
AND WEB LINKS
a. Print References
Gosling CT, Applied Air Conditioning and Refrigeration ,
Elsevier , 1980.

Gosney WB, Principles of Refrigeration , Cambridge

University Press , 1982.

Manitoba Hydro. Energy Efficiency Guide for Municipal

Recreation Facilities, 2009.

Masanet E et al., Energy Efficiency Improvement and Cost

Saving Opportunities for the Fruit and Vegetable Processing
Industry, LBL Laboratory, 2008. 101
Minea V, Supermarket Refrigeration System With Completely
Secondary Loops, ASHRAE Journal, September 2007.

Natural Resources Canada, CIPEC Energy Efficiency Planning

and Management Guide, 2002.

Stosic N, Smith IK, and Kovacevic A, Improving refrigeration

screw compressor performance with optimized rotors,
International Conference on Compressors and their Systems ,
IMechE , 2003.

Sulc V, Characteristics of refrigerating systems – extension of

the graphical analytical method, International Conference on
Compressors and their Systems , IMechE , 2007.
 Appendix F – Bibliography and Web Links

Trott AR and Welch T, Refrigeration and Air Conditioning, 3rd

Edition, Butterworth-Heinemann, 2000.

b. Web Links
Links verified April 2010

Utilities and Government Agencies

Organization Web link
BC Hydro [Link]
[Link]
Hydro Quebec [Link]
/[Link]
Manitoba Hydro [Link]
Natural Resources [Link]
Canada
Standards and Professional Societies
Organization Web link
ARI (Air-Conditioning [Link]
102 and Refrigeration
Institute)
ASHRAE (American [Link]
Society of Heating,
Refrigerating, and Air-
Conditioning
Engineers)
ASHRAE Refrigeration [Link]
Committee Operations ding/category/1518#1524
ASHRAE Refrigeration [Link]
Systems Technical d/23319
Committees - Section
10
IARW (International [Link]
Association of
Refrigerated
Warehouses)
 Appendix F – Bibliography and Web Links

IIAR (International [Link]

Institute of Ammonia
Refrigeration)
IIR (International [Link]
Institute of
Refrigeration)
RETA (Refrigerating [Link]
Engineers and
Technicians
Association)
WFLO (World Food [Link]
Logistics Organization)

103
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Please provide suggestions to:
info@[Link]
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